The Skeptic's Dictionary - Robert Todd Carroll A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions
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ffirs.qxd 5/20/03 4:14 PM Page i
The Skeptic’s Dictionary
A Collection of Strange Beliefs,
Amusing Deceptions, and
Dangerous Delusions
Robert Todd Carroll
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.ffirs.qxd 5/20/03 4:14 PM Page iv
ffirs.qxd 5/20/03 4:14 PM Page i
The Skeptic’s Dictionary
A Collection of Strange Beliefs,
Amusing Deceptions, and
Dangerous Delusions
Robert Todd Carroll
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.ffirs.qxd 5/20/03 4:14 PM Page ii
This book is printed on acid-free paper. 嘷
∞
Copyright © 2003 by Robert Todd Carroll. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
Permission for “Angelina” by Bob Dylan © 1981, Special Rider Music. All rights reserved. Interna-
tional copyright secured. Reprinted by permission.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Carroll, Robert Todd, date.
The skeptic’s dictionary : a collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous delu-
sions / Robert Todd Carroll.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-27242-6 (cloth : acid-free paper)
1. Pseudoscience—Encyclopedias. I. Title.
Q172.5.P77C37 2003
001.9—dc21
2003007878
Printed in the United States of America
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To Olivia and Flynn
my candles in the darkffirs.qxd 5/20/03 4:14 PM Page iv
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Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction 1
Entries A to Z 5
Bibliography 415
Picture Credits 435
Name Index 436
Subject Index 443
vfpref.qxd 5/21/03 3:38 PM Page vi
A non-Zoroastrian could think of Zarathustra as simply a mad-
man who led millions of naive followers to adopt a cult of ritual
fire worship. But without his “madness” Zarathustra would nec-
essarily have been only another of the millions or billions of
human individuals who have lived and then been forgotten.
—John F. Nash Jr.
The most common of all follies is to believe passionately in the
palpably not true. It is the chief occupation of mankind.
—H. L. Menckenfpref.qxd 5/21/03 3:38 PM Page vii
Preface
The Skeptic’s Dictionary began on the Inter- receive proper credit. I have tried my best
net in 1994. It is with some trepidation to put into quotes whatever I have taken
that I put forth my work in book form. I verbatim from another’s work. I have tried
am not talking about the criticism I am my best to reference works in the standard
likely to receive for being an atheist, skep- fashion of the day. If I have failed to appro-
tic, debunker, destroyer of hopes, and so priately cite anyone’s work, I apologize and
on. I am used to that. Nor am I referring to I assure you it was inadvertent. Let the
a fear that somebody will actually levitate publisher know, and should we be blessed
or prove to have the gift of prophecy or to go to a second printing, we will rectify
some other paranormal power after I have the matter.
published my skeptical musings. No, what Finally, all of the references to URLs
I fear is that one or more of the 750 sources of web sites were current at the time of
I have used to write this book will not writing.
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Acknowledgments
Many, many thanks to Tobias Budke, Leslie this mission in the late ’60s or early ’70s. At
Carroll, Ronaldo Cordeiro, Leroy Ellen- the time, I was reading philosophers like
berger, Jeff Golick, Antonio Ingles, Kim Spinoza, Leibniz, and Malebranche, but
Jeanman, Joe Littrell, Vlado Luknar, Masa- Gardner introduced me to a world of alter-
taka Okubo, Rich Ownbey, Bob Steiner, native realities that made the imaginations
Ted Weinstein, and the many others who of these philosophers pale by comparison.
have inspired me, corrected me, guided Then there was Freud. His case studies
me, and encouraged me in this mission. fascinated me, especially his essay on a
Tim Boettcher, Richard Herron, and John case of paranoia (1911), a psychological
Renish deserve special thanks for their gen- analysis of the memoir of Daniel Paul
erosity in serving as volunteer editors of Schreber (1842–1911), a respected judge
my web site, www.skepdic.com. Whatever and political figure until his psychotic
my failings as a writer, they would be breakdown. Schreber’s memoir gives an
much more evident had it not been for account of the delusions that landed him
their editorial assistance. in the asylum for several years. What
I have been motivated and encouraged struck me at the time was that I had stud-
by the writings of Stephen Barrett, Susan ied very similar musings in the writings of
Blackmore, Arthur C. Clarke, Kenneth various mystics such as Plotinus and had
Feder, Thomas Gilovich, Terence Hines, even believed notions similar to Schreber’s
Ray Hyman, Ivan Kelly, Janja Lalich, Eliza- for many years—Virgin birth and impreg-
beth Loftus, Joe Nickell, Robert Park, Oliver nation of a human by a divinity, for exam-
Sacks, Daniel Schacter, Al Seckel, Michael ple. Had Schreber lived in the 2nd century
Shermer, Margaret Thaler Singer, Nicholas instead of the 19th, would he have taken
Spanos, Victor Stenger, Carol Tavris, and his place at the same table with Zarathustra
others of like mettle. instead of with the other patients in the
But I probably would not have begun asylum? Had he put forth his fantasies and
this work had it not been for the inspi- delusions as metaphysical speculations or
ration I got from reading the books of scientific insights, would a cult have arisen
Stephen Jay Gould, Richard H. Popkin, around his ideas that would have led to an
James Randi, Carl Sagan, and especially the entry in The Skeptic’s Dictionary? When I
many books of Martin Gardner, whose Fads consider the list of subjects I still have in
and Fallacies in the Name of Science—I have my “to investigate further” file, I can only
the 1957 Dover edition—got me started on say Yes, beyond a doubt.
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Introduction
The Skeptic’s Dictionary provides defini- The Skeptic’s Dictionary is aimed at four
tions, arguments, and essays on subjects distinct audiences: the open-minded
supernatural, occult, paranormal, and seeker, who makes no commitment to or
pseudoscientific. I use the term “occult” to disavowal of occult claims; the soft skeptic,
refer to any and all of these subjects. The who is more prone to doubt than to
reader is forewarned that The Skeptic’s Dic- believe; the hardened skeptic, who has
tionary does not try to present a balanced strong disbelief about all things occult; and
account of occult subjects. If anything, this the believing doubter, who is prone to
book is a Davidian counterbalance to the believe but has some doubts. The one
Goliath of occult literature. I hope that an group this book is not aimed at is the “true
occasional missile hits its mark. Unlike believer” in the occult. If you have no
David, however, I have little faith, and do skepticism in you, this book is not for you.
not believe Goliath can be slain. Skeptics The open-minded seeker has not had
can give him a few bumps and bruises, but much experience with occult phenomena
our words will never be lethal. Goliath can- beyond some religious training but does
not be taken down by evidence and argu- not dismiss out of hand reports of aura
ments. However, many of the spectators readings, alien abductions, ESP, channel-
may be swayed by our performance and ing, ghosts, miracle cures, and so on. The
recognize Goliath for what he often is: a soft skeptic suspends judgment on occult
false messiah. It is especially for the issues and appeals to inexperience, as well
younger spectators that this book is writ- as to epistemological skepticism, as reasons
ten. I hope to expose Goliath’s weaknesses for deferring judgment. The hardened
so that the reader will question his skeptic is a disbeliever in all or most occult
strength and doubt his promises. claims. The believing doubter is attracted
Another purpose of The Skeptic’s Dictio- to the occult and is a strong believer in one
nary is to provide references to the best skep- or more (usually more) occult areas but is
tical materials on whatever topic is covered. having some doubts about the validity of
So, for example, if that pesky psychology occult claims.
teacher won’t let up about “auras” or “chi” My beliefs are clearly that of a hard-
being inexplicable occult phenomena, you ened skeptic. I don’t pretend that I have no
can consult your Skeptic’s Dictionary and experience or knowledge of these matters.
become pesky yourself with more than a For me, the evidence is overwhelming that
general skepticism. You may not change it is highly probable that any given occult
your teacher’s mind, but you may take away claim is erroneous or fraudulent. Earlier in
some of his or her power over you. my life I was a seeker. Looking back, I wish
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2 Introduction
I had had a book like The Skeptic’s Dictio- question as one requiring thought to
nary, a book that provides the seeker with answer demonstrates the futility of claim-
arguments and references to the best skep- ing that everything can be reduced to faith.
tical literature on occult claims. Though One must use reason to argue for faith. While
clearly it is my hope that the seeker will I do not deny that the consequences of
become skeptical, I also hope the seeker believing in the occult are often beneficial,
will investigate these matters before com- I do deny that such consequences have
ing to a decision. anything to do with establishing the reality
The Skeptic’s Dictionary will provide the of occult phenomena. A soft skeptic would
soft skeptic with evidence and arguments, have to agree that there is a monumental
as well as references to more evidence and difference between a believed entity and a
arguments, on occult issues. In my view, real entity. I would agree with the soft skep-
there is sufficient evidence available to tic that it is impossible to know anything
convince most reasonable soft skeptics empirical with absolute certainty. How-
that most occult claims are more probably ever, I think it is obvious that probabilities
false than true. However, the soft skeptic serve us well in this life. We have plenty of
recognizes that it does not follow from that ways in many, many cases to distinguish
fact (if it is a fact) that one should commit among empirical claims that are of differ-
oneself to what seems most probable to the ing degrees of probability.
rational mind. The soft skeptic often holds The hardened skeptic doesn’t need
that rationality is a value and that the idea much more in the way of evidence or argu-
that the rational life is the best one for ment to be convinced that any given
human beings cannot be proven logically, occult claim is probably based on error or
scientifically, or any other way. By way of fraud. Still, The Skeptic’s Dictionary has
argument, all one can do is appeal to the something for the hardened skeptic, too: it
consequences of choosing the rational will provide ammunition against the
over the irrational life. Also, it seems to be incessant arguments of true believers.
true that belief in the irrational is as Most hardened skeptics don’t feel it is
appealing to the true believer as belief in worth their time to investigate every
the rational is to the hardened skeptic. bizarre idea that comes their way. They
According to many soft skeptics, whether dismiss them out of hand. Under most
one chooses a life devoted to rationality or conditions, simply rejecting quackery is
irrationality is a matter of faith. For a good intelligent and justified. Often, however, it
period of my adult life, I was a soft skeptic is better to provide a seeker, soft skeptic, or
who believed that my commitment to doubting believer with arguments, both
rationality was as much an act of faith as specific and general. But if one’s antago-
my earlier commitment to Catholicism nists are true believers, it is probably a
had been. For years I remained open to the waste of time to provide evidence and
possibility of all sorts of occult phenom- arguments in response.
ena. My studies and reflections in recent Finally, The Skeptic’s Dictionary will
years have led me to the conclusion that provide the doubting believer with infor-
there is a preponderance of evidence mation and sources to consult that will
against the reasonableness of belief in any provide, if not a balanced picture, at least a
occult phenomena. I have also concluded multifaceted one, of a concern about the
that choosing rationality over irrationality power of crystals or color therapy or levita-
is not an act of faith at all. To even pose the tion, or other phenomena. It will help thecintro.qxd 5/20/03 4:13 PM Page 3
Introduction 3
doubter resolve his or her doubts. There beliefs are always considered by true be-
may be a few skeptics who can go through lievers to be insignificant, irrelevant, ma-
all this literature and come out doubting nipulative, deceptive, not authoritative,
everything, including the skeptical claims, unscientific, unfair, biased, closed-minded,
but I think the vast majority will emerge as irrational, and/or diabolical. (It is perhaps
hardened skeptics. They will not think worth noting that except for the term “dia-
they must suspend judgment on every- bolical,” these are the same terms some
thing, but will realize that some claims are hardened skeptics use to describe the studies
more probable than others. and evidence presented by true believers.)
As already stated, the one group that Hence, I believe it is highly probable that
this book is not designed for is that of the the only interest a true believer would have
true believers. My studies have convinced in The Skeptic’s Dictionary would be to con-
me that arguments or data critical of their demn and burn it without having read it.cintro.qxd 5/20/03 4:13 PM Page 4
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A
notions about a part of the body being an
organ map are held by those who practice
iridology [the iris is the map of the body]
and reflexology [the foot is the map of the
acupuncture
body].) Staplepuncture, a variation of
A traditional Chinese medical technique auriculotherapy, puts staples at key points
for unblocking chi by inserting needles at on the ear hoping to do such things as help
particular points on the body to balance people stop smoking.
the opposing forces of yin and yang. Chi Traditional Chinese medicine is not
is an energy that allegedly permeates all based on knowledge of modern physiol-
things. It is believed to flow through the ogy, biochemistry, nutrition, anatomy, or
body along 14 main pathways called any of the known mechanisms of healing.
meridians. When yin and yang are in har- Nor is it based on knowledge of cell chem-
mony, chi flows freely within the body and istry, blood circulation, nerve function, or
a person is healthy. When a person is sick, the existence of hormones or other bio-
diseased, or injured, there is an obstruction chemical substances. There is no correla-
of chi along one of the meridians. Tradi- tion between the meridians used in
tional Chinese medicine has identified traditional Chinese medicine and the
some 500 specific points where needles are actual layout of the organs and nerves in
to be inserted for specific effects. the human body. Nevertheless, between 10
Acupuncture has been practiced in and 15 million Americans spend approxi-
China for more than 4,000 years. Today, mately $500 million a year on acupuncture
the needles are twirled, heated, or even for treatment of depression, AIDS, aller-
stimulated with weak electrical current, gies, asthma, arthritis, bladder and kidney
ultrasound, or certain wavelengths of light. problems, constipation, diarrhea, drug
But no matter how it is done, scientific addiction, colds, flu, bronchitis, dizziness,
research can never demonstrate that smoking, fatigue, gynecologic disorders,
unblocking chi by acupuncture or any headaches, migraines, paralysis, high
other means is effective against any dis- blood pressure, PMS, sciatica, sexual dys-
ease. Chi is defined as being undetectable function, stress, stroke, tendinitis, and
by the methods of empirical science. vision problems.
A variation of traditional acupuncture Empirical studies on acupuncture are
is called auriculotherapy, or ear acupunc- in their infancy. Such studies ignore
ture. It is a method of diagnosis and treat- notions based on metaphysics such as
ment based on the unsubstantiated belief unblocking chi along meridians and seek
that the ear is the map of the bodily to find causal connections between stick-
organs. For example, a problem with an ing needles into traditional acupuncture
organ such as the liver is to be treated by points and physical effects. Even so, many
sticking a needle into a certain point on traditional doctors and hospitals are offer-
the ear that is supposed to be the corre- ing acupuncture as a “complementary”
sponding point for that organ. (Similar therapy. The University of California at Los
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6 acupuncture
Angeles medical school has one of the Council Against Health Fraud issued a
largest acupuncture training courses in the position paper on acupuncture (1990,
United States for licensed physicians. The www.ncahf.org/pp/acu.html) that asserts,
200-hour program teaches nearly 600 “Research during the past twenty years has
physicians a year. According to the Ameri- failed to demonstrate that acupuncture is
can Academy of Medical Acupuncture, effective against any disease” and that “the
about 4,000 U.S. physicians have training perceived effects of acupuncture are proba-
in acupuncture. bly due to a combination of expectation,
In March 1996, the Federal Drug suggestion, counter-irritation, operant
Administration (FDA) classified acupunc- conditioning, and other psychological
ture needles as medical devices for general mechanisms.” In short, most of the per-
use by trained professionals. Until then, ceived beneficial effects of acupuncture are
acupuncture needles had been classified as probably due to mood change, the placebo
Class III medical devices, meaning their effect, and the regressive fallacy. Just
safety and usefulness was so uncertain that because the pain went away after the
they could be used only in approved acupuncture doesn’t mean the treatment
research projects. Because of that “experi- was the cause. Much chronic pain comes
mental” status, many insurance compa- and goes. An alternative treatment such as
nies, as well as Medicare and Medicaid, had acupuncture is sought only when the pain
refused to cover acupuncture. This new is near its most severe level. Natural regres-
designation has meant both more practice sion will lead to the pain becoming less
of acupuncture and more research being once it has reached its maximum level of
done using needles. It also means that severity. Also, much of the support for
insurance companies may not be able to acupuncture is anecdotal in the form of
avoid covering useless or highly question- testimonial evidence from satisfied cus-
able acupuncture treatments for a variety tomers. Unfortunately, for every anecdote
of ailments. Nevertheless, Wayne B. Jonas, of someone whose pain was relieved by
director of the Office of Alternative Medi- acupuncture there may well be another
cine at the National Institutes of Health in anecdote of someone whose pain was not
Bethesda, MD, has said that the reclassifi- relieved by acupuncture. But nobody is
cation of acupuncture needles is “a very keeping track of the failures (confirmation
wise and logical decision.” The Office of bias).
Alternative Medicine is very supportive Nevertheless, it is possible that stick-
(i.e., willing to spend good amounts of tax ing needles into the body may have some
dollars) on new studies of the effectiveness beneficial effects. The most common claim
of acupuncture. of success by acupuncture advocates is in
The most frequently offered defense of the area of pain control. Studies have
acupuncture by its defenders commits the shown that many acupuncture points are
pragmatic fallacy. It is argued that more richly supplied with nerve endings
acupuncture works! What does this mean? It than are the surrounding skin areas. There
certainly does not mean that sticking nee- is some research that indicates sticking
dles into one’s body opens up blocked chi. needles into certain points affects the ner-
At most, it means that it relieves some vous system and stimulates the body’s pro-
medical burden. Most often it simply duction of natural pain-killing chemicals
means that some customer is satisfied, that such as endorphins and enkephalins, and
is, feels better at the moment. The National triggers the release of certain neural hor-01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 7
ad hoc hypothesis 7
mones including serotonin. Another the- to confirming its validity. If hostile
ory suggests that acupuncture blocks the thoughts can ruin the psi researcher’s day,
transmission of pain impulses from parts then no experiment on ESP can ever fail.
of the body to the central nervous system. Whatever the results, one can always say
There are difficulties that face any they were caused by paranormal forces,
study of pain. Not only is pain measure- either the ones being tested or others not
ment entirely subjective, but traditional being tested.
acupuncturists evaluate success of treat- One key element of the ad hoc
ment almost entirely subjectively, relying hypothesis is that it cannot be indepen-
on their own observations and reports dently tested. In the example above, there
from patients rather than objective labora- is no independent way to test for the effect
tory tests. Furthermore, many individuals of hostile vibes. Thus, if a hypothesis
who swear by acupuncture or other alter- appears to be ad hoc, one should always
native health practices often make several ask: Can this be tested independently of
changes in their lives at once, thereby the theory it is trying to save? For example,
making it difficult to isolate significant when William Herschel discovered the
causal factors in a control group study. planet Uranus in 1781 by telescopic obser-
Finally, acupuncture is not without vation and its orbit did not fit with predic-
risks. There have been some reports of lung tions made using Newton’s laws of
and bladder punctures, some broken nee- planetary motion, it was proposed that
dles, and some allergic reactions to needles another planet must exist further out from
containing substances other than surgical the sun than Uranus. This hypothesis
steel. Acupuncture may be harmful to the could be independently tested. Its size and
fetus in early pregnancy since it may stimu- orbit could be calculated based on how
late the production of adrenocorticotropic much it perturbed the motion of Uranus.
hormone and oxytocin, which affect labor. When the math didn’t work in accordance
There is the possibility of infection from with Newton’s laws, it was proposed that
unsterilized needles. And some patients will still another planet awaited discovery.
suffer simply because they avoided a known Both of these hypotheses could be inde-
effective treatment of modern medicine. pendently tested, albeit with some diffi-
Further reading: Barrett and Butler culty given the state of knowledge and
1992; Barrett and Jarvis 1993; Huston technology at the time.
1995; Raso 1994. The believers in biorhythms provide
another example of using ad hoc hypothe-
ses. Not only are people who do not fit the
predicted patterns of biorhythm theory
ad hoc hypothesis
designated as arrhythmic, but advocates of
A hypothesis created to explain away facts biorhythm theory claimed that the theory
that seem to refute a theory. For example, can be used to accurately predict the sex of
psi researchers have been known to blame unborn children. However, W. S. Bain-
the hostile thoughts of onlookers for un- bridge, a professor of sociology at the Uni-
consciously influencing pointer readings versity of Washington, demonstrated that
on sensitive instruments. The hostile vibes, the chance of predicting the sex of an
they say, made it impossible for them to unborn child using biorhythms was 50:50,
duplicate a positive ESP experiment. Being the same as flipping a coin. An expert in
able to duplicate an experiment is essential biorhythms tried unsuccessfully to predict01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 8
8 Afrocentrism
accurately the sexes of the children in The leading proponents of Afrocen-
Bainbridge’s study based on Bainbridge’s trism are Professor Molefi Kete Asante of
data. The expert’s spouse suggested to Temple University, Professor Leonard Jef-
Bainbridge an interesting ad hoc hypothe- fries of the City University of New York,
sis, namely, that the cases where the theory and Martin Bernal, the author of Black
was wrong probably included many homo- Athena. One of the more important Afro-
sexuals with indeterminate sex identities. centric texts is the pseudohistorical Stolen
Legacy (1954), by George G. M. James, who
claims that Greek philosophy and the mys-
Afrocentrism
tery religions of Greece and Rome were
A pseudohistorical political movement stolen from Egyptian black Africans. Many
that claims that ancient Egypt was domi- of James’s ideas were taken from Marcus
nated by a race of black Africans and that Garvey (1887–1940), who thought that
African Americans can trace their roots white accomplishment is due to teaching
back to the great civilizations of Egypt. children they are superior. If blacks teach
Leading Afrocentrists claim that the their children that they are superior, rea-
ancient Greeks stole their main cultural soned Garvey, then they will also accom-
achievements from black Egyptians and plish great things.
that Jesus, Socrates, and Cleopatra, among James’s principal sources were Ma-
others, were black. According to the tenets sonic, especially The Ancient Mysteries and
of Afrocentrism, the Jews created the black Modern Masonry (1909), by the Rev. Charles
African slave trade. None of these claims is H. Vail. The Masons in turn derived their
supported by the work of traditional histo- misconceptions about Egyptian mystery
rians. The main purpose of Afrocentrism is and initiation rites from the 18th-century
not so much to achieve historical accuracy work of fiction Sethos, a History or Biogra-
as it is to encourage Black Nationalism and phy, based on Unpublished Memoirs of
ethnic pride as a psychological weapon Ancient Egypt (1731), by the Abbé Jean Ter-
against the destructive and debilitating rasson, a professor of Greek. Terrasson had
effects of universal racism. no access to Egyptian sources and he
Clarence E. Walker (2001), a professor would be long dead before Egyptian hiero-
of Black American History at the University glyphics would be deciphered, but he knew
of California at Davis, calls Afrocentrism the Greek and Latin writers well. He con-
structed an imaginary Egyptian religion
a mythology that is racist, reactionary, and
based on sources that describe Greek and
essentially therapeutic. It suggests that
Latin rites as if they were Egyptian
nothing important has happened in black
(Lefkowitz 1996). Hence, one of the main
history since the time of the pharaohs and
sources for Afrocentric Egyptology turns
thus trivializes the history of black Ameri-
out to be Greece and Rome. The Greeks
cans. Afrocentrism places an emphasis on
would have called this irony.
Egypt that is, to put it bluntly, absurd.
James’s pseudohistory is the basis for
Walker, an African American, thinks Afro- other Afrocentric pseudohistories such as
centrism is harmful because it denies to Africa: Mother of Western Civilization, by
black Americans the dignity and power Yosef A. A. ben-Jochannan, one of James’s
that should emerge from a truthful and students, and Civilization or Barbarism, by
honest understanding of history. Cheikh Anta Diop of Senegal.01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 9
alchemy 9
agnosticism mental reasoning concerning matter of
fact and existence? No. Commit it then to
The belief that it is impossible to know the flames: for it can contain nothing but
whether God exists. It is often put forth as sophistry and illusion.
a middle ground between theism and
atheism. Understood this way, agnosti- In other words, natural theology is, more
cism is skepticism regarding all things the- or less, bunk.
ological.
The agnostic holds that human
knowledge is limited to the natural world, Akashic record
that the mind is incapable of knowledge of An imagined spiritual realm, supposedly
the supernatural. Understood this way, an holding a record of all events, actions,
agnostic could be either a theist or an athe- thoughts, and feelings that have ever
ist. The agnostic theist thinks there is some occurred or will ever occur. Theosophists
reason for believing in God. The agnostic believe that the Akasha is an “astral light”
atheist finds no compelling reason to containing occult records that spiritual
believe in God. beings can perceive by their special “astral
The term “agnostic” was created by senses” and astral bodies. Spiritual insight,
T. H. Huxley (1825–1895), who took his prophecy, clairvoyance, and many other
cue from David Hume and Immanuel occult notions are allegedly made possible
Kant. Huxley says that he invented the by tapping into the Akasha.
term to describe what he thought made Further reading: Ellwood 1996; Randi
him unique among his fellow thinkers: 1995.
They were quite sure that they had
attained a certain “gnosis”—had more or
alchemy
less successfully solved the problem of
existence; while I was quite sure I had not, An occult art whose practitioners’ main
and had a pretty strong conviction that goals have been to turn base metals such as
the problem was insoluble. lead or copper into precious metals such as
gold or silver (the transmutation motif); to
“Agnostic” came to mind, he says, because
create an elixir, potion, or metal that could
the term was “suggestively antithetic to
cure all ills (the panacea motif); and to dis-
the ‘gnostic’ of Church history, who pro-
cover an elixir that would lead to immor-
fessed to know so much about the very
tality (the transcendence motif). The
things of which I was ignorant.” Huxley
philosopher’s stone is the name given to
seems to have agreed with Hume’s conclu-
the magical substance that was to accom-
sion at the end of An Enquiry Concerning
plish these feats.
Human Understanding:
Many modern alchemists combine
When we run over libraries, persuaded of their occult art with acupuncture, astrol-
these principles, what havoc must we ogy, hypnosis, and a wide variety of New
make? If we take in our hand any volume; Age spiritual quests. Alchemists may have
of divinity or school metaphysics, for tried out their ideas by devising experi-
instance; let us ask, Does it contain any ments, but they never separated their
abstract reasoning concerning quantity or methods from the supernatural, the mag-
number? No. Does it contain any experi- ickal, and the superstitious. Perhaps that is01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 10
10 alien abductions
why alchemy is still popular, even though Gallup poll done at the end of the twenti-
it has accomplished practically nothing of eth century, about one-third of Americans
lasting value. Alchemists never transmuted believe aliens have visited us, an increase
metals, never found a panacea, and never of 5% over the previous decade. In the
discovered the fountain of youth. early 1990s, a Roper organization poll
Alchemy is based on the belief that found 3% of Americans claiming to have
there are four basic elements—fire, air, had alien abduction experiences. A 1999
earth, and water—and three essentials: salt, survey by Roper found that 80% of Ameri-
sulfur, and mercury. Great symbolic and cans think their government is concealing
occult systems have been built from these information on extraterrestrials.
seven pillars of alchemy. The foundation of According to the tenets of this cult,
European alchemy, which flourished aliens crashed at Roswell, New Mexico, in
through the Renaissance, is said to be 1947. The U.S. government recovered the
ancient Chinese and Egyptian occult litera- alien craft and its occupants, and has been
ture. The Egyptian god Thoth, known as secretly meeting with aliens ever since in a
Hermes Trismegistus, allegedly wrote one place known as Area 51. The rise in UFO
of the books considered by the alchemists sightings since is due to the increase in
to be most sacred. (Hermes, the thrice- alien activity on Earth. The aliens are
great, was the Greek god who served as a abducting people in larger numbers and
messenger and delivered the souls of the are leaving other signs of their presence in
dead to Hades.) The book in question, Cor- the form of cattle mutilations and crop
pus Hermeticum, began circulating in Flor- circles. Aliens even get credit for the occa-
ence, Italy, around 1455. The work is full of sional channeled book, such as the Uran-
magic incantations and spells and is now tia Book.
known to be of European origin. Even though the stories of alien
Some alchemists did make contribu- abduction do not seem plausible, if there
tions to the advancement of knowledge. were some physical evidence of alien pres-
For example, Paracelsus (1493–1541) intro- ence, even the most hardened skeptic
duced the concept of disease to medicine. would have to take notice. Unfortunately,
Ironically, he rejected the notion that dis- the only physical evidence that is offered is
ease is a matter of imbalance or dishar- insubstantial. For example, so-called
mony in the body, a view much favored by ground scars allegedly made by UFOs have
modern alchemists. Paracelsus maintained been offered as proof that the aliens have
that disease is caused by agents outside of landed. However, when examined, these
the body that attack it. He recommended sites prove to be quite ordinary and the
various chemicals to fight disease. scars to be little more than fungus or other
Further reading: Trimble 1996. natural phenomena.
Many abductees point to various scars
and scoop marks on their bodies as proof
alien abductions
of abduction and experimentation. These
There is a widespread belief that alien marks are not extraordinary in any way
beings have traveled to Earth from other and can be accounted for by quite ordinary
planets and are doing reproductive experi- injuries and experiences.
ments on earthlings. Despite a lack of cred- The most dramatic type of physical
ible supportive evidence, a cult has grown evidence are the implants that many
up around this belief. According to a abductees claim the aliens have put up01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 11
alien abductions 11
their noses or in various other parts of their Hills recalled most of their story under
anatomy. Budd Hopkins, a draftsman by hypnosis a few years after the alleged
training but an alien abduction researcher abduction. Barney Hill reported that the
by avocation, claims he has examined such aliens had “wraparound eyes,” a rather
an implant and has MRIs (magnetic reso- unusual feature. However, twelve days ear-
nance images) to prove numerous implant lier an episode of The Outer Limits featured
claims. When the science TV program just such an alien being (Kottemeyer
Nova (“Alien Abductions,” first shown on 1960). Usually, the aliens are described as
February 27, 1996) put out an offer to small and bald with big crania and small
abductees to have scientists analyze and chins, having white, gray, or green skin,
evaluate implants, they got no response. and large slanted eyes, pointed ears, or no
Of all the evidence for abduction, the ears at all. “We can find all the major ele-
physical evidence is the weakest. ments of contemporary UFO abductions in
The Barney and Betty Hill story shares a 1930 comic adventure, Buck Rogers in the
top billing with the Roswell story in the 25th Century” (Schaeffer 1996).
lore of cult beliefs about alien visitation The main features of the Hills’ account
and experimentation. The Hills claim to of abduction have been repeated many
have been abducted by aliens on Septem- times. There is a period of amnesia that fol-
ber 19, 1961. Barney claims the aliens took lows the alleged encounter. There is then
a sample of his sperm. Betty claims they usually a session of hypnosis, counseling,
stuck a needle in her navel. She took peo- or psychotherapy during which the subject
ple to an alien landing spot, but only she recalls the abduction and experimentation.
could see the aliens and their craft. The The only variation in the abductees’ stories
is that some claim to have had implants
put in them, and many claim to have scars
and marks on their bodies put there by
aliens.
For example, Whitley Strieber, who
has written several books about his abduc-
tions, realized aliens had abducted him
only after psychotherapy and hypnosis.
Strieber claims that he saw aliens set his
roof on fire. He says he has traveled to dis-
tant planets and back during the night. He
wants us to believe that he and his family
can see the aliens and their spacecraft,
even though others see nothing. Strieber
seems to be a very disturbed person and he
was certainly in a very agitated psycholog-
ical state prior to his alleged visitation by
aliens. A person in such a heightened state
of anxiety is prone to hysteria and espe-
cially vulnerable to radically changing
behavior or belief patterns. When Strieber
was having an anxiety attack he consulted
“Alien.” his analyst, Robert Klein, as well as Budd01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 12
12 alien abductions
Hopkins. Under hypnosis, Strieber recalled It is often thought by intelligent peo-
the horrible aliens and their visitations. ple that if a person’s motives can be
Hopkins demonstrated his investiga- trusted, then his or her testimony can be
tive incompetence on an “Alien Abduc- trusted, too. It is true we are justified in
tions” episode of Nova. The camera being skeptical of a person’s testimony if
followed him to Florida, where he cheer- she has something to gain by the testi-
fully helped a visibly unstable mother mony (such as fame or fortune), but it is
inculcate in her children the belief that not true that we should trust every testi-
they had been abducted by aliens. In mony given by a person who has nothing
between more sessions with more of Hop- to gain by giving the testimony. The fact
kins’s subjects, the viewer heard him that a person is kind, decent, and other-
repeatedly give plugs for his books and wit- wise normal except for a single bizarre
nessed a total absence of skepticism regard- belief and has nothing to gain by lying
ing the very bizarre claims he was eliciting. does not make him or her immune to error
Dr. Elizabeth Loftus, an expert on false in the interpretation of perceptions to jus-
memory, was asked by Nova to evaluate tify that bizarre belief.
Hopkins’s method of counseling the chil- People who believe they have been
dren. She noted that Hopkins did much abducted by aliens may not be insane, but
encouraging of his subjects to remember they are certainly fantasy-prone. Being fan-
more details, and gave many verbal tasy-prone is not an abnormality, if abnor-
rewards when new details were brought mality is defined in terms of minority
forth. Loftus characterized the procedure belief or behavior. The vast majority of
as risky, because we do not know what humans are fantasy-prone, otherwise they
effect this counseling will have on the chil- would not believe in God, ghosts, angels,
dren. It seems we can safely predict one or Satan. A person can function normally
effect: They will grow up thinking they’ve in a million and one ways and hold the
been abducted by aliens. This belief will be most irrational beliefs imaginable, as long
so embedded in their memory that it will as the irrational beliefs are culturally
be difficult to get them to consider that the accepted delusions.
experience was planted by their mother Alien abductees seem analogous to
and cultivated by alien enthusiasts such as medieval nuns who believed they’d been
Hopkins. seduced by devils. They also seem like the
Another enthusiast is Harvard psychi- ancient Greeks who believed they had sex
atrist Dr. John Mack, who has written with gods in the form of animals. The
books about patients who claim to have abductees’ counselors and therapists are
been abducted by aliens. Hopkins has analogous to priests who do not challenge
referred many of Mack’s patients to him. delusional beliefs, but encourage and nur-
Mack claims that his psychiatric patients ture them. The delusions of the ancients
are not mentally ill and that he can think and the medievals are not couched in
of no other explanation for their stories terms of aliens and spacecraft; these latter
than that they are true. Dr. Mack also are our century’s creations. We can laugh
appeared on the Nova “Alien Abductions” at the idea of gods taking on the form of
program. He claimed that his patients are swans to seduce beautiful women, or of
otherwise normal people who have devils impregnating nuns, because they do
nothing to gain by making up their incred- not fit with our cultural prejudices and
ible stories. delusions. The ancients and medievals01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 13
alien abductions 13
would have laughed at anyone claiming to • Finding puzzling scars on your body
have been picked up by aliens from and neither you nor anyone else re-
another planet for sex or reproductive membering how you received them or
surgery. The only reason anyone takes the where you got them.
abductees seriously today is that their delu- • Feeling that you were actually flying
sions do not blatantly conflict with our through the air although you didn’t
cultural beliefs that intergalactic space know why or how.
travel is a real possibility and that it is
highly probable that ours is not the only Saying yes to four of the five “symptoms”
inhabited planet in the universe. In other was taken as evidence of alien abduction. A
times, no one would have been able to take 62-page report, with an introduction by
these claims seriously. John Mack, was mailed to some 100,000
Dr. Mack noted that his patients gain a psychiatrists, psychologists, and other
lot of attention by being abductees. The mental health professionals. The implica-
same might be said of Dr. Mack and Mr. tion was that aliens have abducted some
Hopkins. Both have much to gain in fame 4 million Americans or some 100,000,000
and fortune by encouraging their clients to earthlings. As Carl Sagan wryly com-
come up with more details of their abduc- mented: “It’s surprising more of the neigh-
tions. Mack received a $200,000 advance bors haven’t noticed” (Sagan 1995). The
for his first book on alien abductions. He timing of the mailing was impeccable:
also benefits by publicizing and soliciting shortly before the 1992 CBS-TV miniseries
funds for his Center for Psychology and based on Strieber’s Intruders.
Social Change and his Program for Extraor- It is possible that abductees describe
dinary Experience Research. similar experiences because they’ve had
Another contributor to the mythology similar hallucinations due to similar brain
of alien abductions is Robert Bigelow, a states (Persinger 1987). These states may be
wealthy Las Vegas businessman who likes associated with sleep paralysis or other
to use his money to support paranormal forms of sleep disturbances, including mild
research (see Charles Tart) and who par- brain seizures. Sleep paralysis occurs in the
tially financed the Roper survey on alien hypnagogic or hypnopompic state. The
abductions. The survey did not directly ask description abductees give of their experi-
its 5,947 respondents whether aliens had ence—being unable to move or speak, feel-
abducted them. Instead, it asked them if ing some sort of presence, feeling fear and
they had undergone any of the following an inability to cry out—is a list of the
experiences: symptoms of sleep paralysis. Sleep paraly-
sis may account for not only many alien
• Waking up paralyzed with a sense of a abduction delusions, but also other delu-
strange person or presence or some- sions involving paranormal or supernat-
thing else in the room. ural experiences (Blackmore 1998). Using
• Experiencing a period of time of an electrodes to stimulate specific parts of the
hour or more in which you were appar- brain, Michael Persinger has duplicated
ently lost, but you could not remember key aspects associated with the alien
why, or where you had been. abduction experience, the mystical experi-
• Seeing unusual lights or balls of light in ence, and out-of-body experiences.
a room without knowing what was Of course, it is possible that aliens have
causing them or where they came from. visited us. There may well be life elsewhere01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 14
14 allopathy
in the universe, and some of that life may tracked down its source, the sending planet
be intelligent. There is a high mathematical may no longer be habitable or even exist.
probability that among the trillions of stars Thus, while it is possible that there is
in the billions of galaxies there are millions intelligent life in the universe, traveling
of planets in age and proximity to a star between solar systems in search of that life
analogous to our Sun. The chances seem poses some serious obstacles. Such travel-
very good that on some of those planets life ers would be gone for a very long time. We
has evolved. It is highly probable that nat- would need to keep people alive for hun-
ural selection governed the evolution of dreds or thousands of years. We would
that life (Dawkins 1988). However, it is not need equipment that can last for hundreds
inevitable that the results of that evolution or thousands of years and be repaired or
would yield intelligence, much less intelli- replaced in the depths of space. Or, of
gence equal or superior to ours. It is possi- course, we would need a technology and
ble we are unique (Pinker 1997: 150). materials that can far exceed the speed of
We should not forget that the closest light, and a whole new theory of reality to
star (besides our Sun) is so far away from go with them. These are not impossible
Earth that travel between the two would conditions, perhaps, but they seem to be
probably take more than a human lifetime. significant enough barriers to make inter-
The fact that it takes our Sun about 200 stellar and intergalactic space travel highly
million years to revolve once around the improbable. It is difficult to imagine beings
Milky Way gives one a glimpse of the per- capable of overcoming these barriers com-
spective we have to take of interstellar ing here to abduct our people, rape and
travel. We are 500 light-seconds from the experiment on them, mutilate our cattle,
sun. The next nearest star, Alpha Centauri, create artwork in our wheat fields, and
is about 4 light-years away. That might deliver such commonplace messages as
sound close, but it is actually something “The goal of human self-realization should
like 24 trillion miles away. Even traveling be spiritual, not material.”
at 1 million miles per hour, it would take See also flying saucers and Men in
more than 2,500 years to get there. To get Black.
there in 25 years would require traveling at Further reading: Baker 1987–88; Dud-
more than 100 million miles an hour for ley 1999; Frazier 1997; Klass 1988; Loftus
the entire trip. Our fastest spacecraft, Voy- 1994; Matheson 1998; Persinger 1983;
ager, travels at about 40,000 miles an hour Schaeffer 1986.
and would take 70,000 years to get to
Alpha Centauri.
allopathy
Furthermore, any signal from any
planet in the universe broadcast in any A term used to refer to conventional medi-
direction is very unlikely to be in the path cine by American chiropractors, home-
of another inhabited planet. It would be opaths, naturopaths, osteopaths, and
folly to explore space for intelligent life other advocates of alternative health
without knowing exactly where to go. Yet practices. The Random House Dictionary of
waiting for a signal might require a wait the English Language (unabridged edition)
longer than any life on any planet might defines allopathy as “the method of treat-
last. Finally, if we do get a signal, the waves ing disease by the use of agents that pro-
carrying that signal left hundreds or thou- duce effects different from those of the
sands of years earlier, and by the time we disease treated (opposed to homeopathy).”01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 15
altered state of consciousness (ASC) 15
The word was invented by the home- while producing alpha waves. Some think
opath Samuel Hahnemann as a term for that increasing alpha waves can enhance
those who are other than homeopaths. the immune system and can lead to self-
healing or the prevention of illness. This
belief seems to be based on the mistaken
alphabiotics
inference that since alpha waves increase
An alternative health practice based on while meditating, they are indicative of
the unverifiable notion that all disease is lack of stress, which can only be good for
the result of an imbalance and lack of Life you. Increasing alpha waves is no guaran-
Energy. Health depends on “aligning” and tee either that one is reducing stress or that
“balancing” this alleged energy. one is enhancing one’s immune system.
Alphabiotics is the brainchild of Dr. See also naturopathy and Silva Mind
V. B. Chrane, who started practicing it in Control.
the 1920s near Abilene, Texas. It was Further reading: Beyerstein 1985,
“established as a unique new profession by 1996a.
Dr. Virgil Chrane Jr. on December 28,
1971,” according to Virgil Chrane, Jr., him-
altered state of consciousness
self. The practice is still flourishing with
(ASC)
Virgil Jr. and his son, Dr. Michael Chrane.
A state of consciousness that differs signifi-
cantly from baseline or normal conscious-
alpha waves
ness often identified with a brain state that
Oscillating electrical voltages in the brain. differs significantly from the brain state at
Alpha waves oscillate in the range of baseline or normal consciousness. How-
7.5–13 cycles per second. Because alpha ever, it is not the brain state itself that con-
waves occur in relaxed states such as medi- stitutes an ASC. The brain state is an
tation and under hypnosis, they have objective matter, but it should not be
been mistakenly identified as desirable. equated with an EEG or MRI reading.
Alpha waves also occur under unpleasant Otherwise, we would end up counting
conditions and when one is not relaxed. such things as sneezing, coughing, sleep-
They are not a measure of peace and seren- ing, being in a coma, thinking of the color
ity, nor are they indicative of an altered red, and being dead as ASCs. Brain state
state of consciousness. Alpha waves are readings reveal brain activity or inactivity,
indicative of lack of visual processing and but are not a good measure of ASCs. Alpha
lack of focus: the less visual processing and waves, for example, have been identified
the more unfocused, generally the stronger with an ASC, but they usually measure lack
the alpha waves. If you close your eyes and of visual processing and lack of focus.
don’t do any deep thinking or concentrat- Alpha waves occur in athletes who reach
ing on vivid imagery, your alpha waves will what they call “the Zone” and in some
usually be quite strong. video-game players who seem to be on
There is no evidence that “when “auto-pilot.”
asleep, the brain goes into a ‘repair and The baseline brain state might be best
rebuild’ mode under alpha wave energy,” defined by the presence of two important
as an ad for Calorad, a protein supplement, subjective characteristics: the psychological
claims. Nor is there evidence that the brain sense of a self at the center of one’s percep-
is more insightful, creative, or productive tion and a sense that this self is identified01.qxd 5/20/03 4:09 PM Page 16
16 altered state of consciousness (ASC)
with one’s body. States of consciousness associated with mysticism and alien
where one loses the sense of identity with abduction (Persinger 1987). Dr. Olaf
one’s body or with one’s perceptions are Blanke of Geneva University Hospital in
definitely ASCs. Such states may be sponta- Switzerland found that electrically stimu-
neously achieved, instigated by such lating the right angular gyrus (located at
things as trauma, sleep disturbance, sen- the juncture of the temporal and parietal
sory deprivation or sensory overload, neu- lobes) triggers out-of-body experiences. (In
rochemical imbalance, epileptic seizure, or a related matter, Dr. Stuart Meloy, an anes-
fever. They may also be induced by social thesiologist and pain specialist in Winston-
behavior, such as frenzied dancing or Salem, North Carolina, was testing his
chanting. Finally, they may be induced by pain-relieving invention on a patient
electrically stimulating parts of the brain when he accidentally discovered that by
or by ingesting psychotropic drugs. electrically stimulating a woman’s spinal
Many think the hypnotic state is an column he could induce orgasm.)
ASC. It certainly often resembles one, but it Are the brain states that elicit the feel-
is doubtful that it is truly an ASC. A hypno- ings of mysticism in the religious ecstatic,
tized person closely resembles certain amne- the epileptic, the one on an “acid” trip,
siacs who can be primed by being shown and the one with electrodes attached to his
certain words. Later they have no conscious cranium caused by God? Perhaps, but if so
recollection of having been shown the there is no way of finding this out. Most
words, but they give evidence of implicit likely, however, the mechanisms that trig-
memory of the words. It is doubtful that ger these feelings are completely natural.
amnesia should be considered an ASC. They may be a pleasant side effect of some
There is little evidence that ASCs can evolutionary adaptation, but as yet we do
transport one into a transcendent realm of not know why such brain states are trig-
higher consciousness or truth, as parapsy- gered. And while it is an extremely inter-
chologists Raymond Moody and Charles esting discovery that religious experiences
Tart maintain, but there is ample evidence can be induced by disease, electrodes, and
that some ASCs bring about extremely by drugs, it hardly seems a compelling rea-
pleasant feelings and can profoundly affect son for believing in God, although it might
personality. Some religious experiences, for be a compelling reason for taking drugs,
example, are described as providing a very for not seeking treatment, or for using a
pleasant sense of divine presence and of transcranial electromagnetic stimulator
the oneness, interrelatedness, and signifi- and hoping for Orgasmatron-like results
cance of all things. Drugs such as LSD and achieved by the Woody Allen character in
mescaline can induce similar feelings. Sleeper. Most religions identify the ideal
Some patients suffering from temporal state as an ASC: losing one’s body and
lobe epilepsy think of their disease as tem- one’s self, uniting with some sort of divine
poral lobe “ecstasy,” since it leaves them being, and feeling ecstatic pleasure. In this
with a feeling of being united with God sense, to seek an ASC is to seek to kill your
(Ramachandran and Blakeslee 1998). Also, sense of self while enjoying the ultimate
by electrically stimulating the temporal orgasm.
lobes, Michael Persinger has been able to Further reading: Beyerstein 1996a;
duplicate the sense of presence, the sense Blackmore 1993; Newberg et al. 2001; Sacks
of leaving the body, and other feelings 1974, 1984, 1985, 1995; Spanos 1996.You can also read
