INSTRUMENTAL TOUCH: A FOUCAULDIAN ANALYSIS OF WOMEN'S FITNESS
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Dominika Czarnecka
INSTRUMENTAL TOUCH: A FOUCAULDIAN
ANALYSIS OF WOMEN’S FITNESS
abstract
Group Pilates classes in commercial fitness gyms are among the most
common forms of mindful fitness in Warsaw. The instructors teaching these
classes often correct the participant’s posture by touching them. While
academic publications often critique fitness as a disciplinary practice, much
fewer studies analyse touch understood as one of disciplinary techniques.
Similarly, little is known about the experiences of fitness culture participants
who encounter instrumental touch during Pilates classes. This qualitative
research project analyses how Michel Foucault’s concept of anatomo-
political power intersects with instrumental touch applied during Pilates
classes to study how touch is used to train fitness bodies and how instructors
and other participants of Pilates sessions participate in power relations. The
article considers the value of instrumental touch in the context of relations
between instructors and their clients.
Keywords: body, disciplinary technique, fitness, instrumentality, Pilates, touch
INTRODUCTION with specific meaning and initiating their own
creative uses of touch. Thus, fitness clubs appear
Multi-dimensional fitness gyms are often to be the right environment to examine the
‘promoted as social spaces where individuals can policy of touch.
transform body—self identities’ (Brighton et The present analysis focuses on touch used
al. 2021: 45). They offer their clients a range of by fitness instructors during Pilates classes. The
physical fitness practices, as well as knowledge results of the research presented below indicate
and expertise facilitating the development of that Pilates classes involve relatively frequent
various body projects. Fitness gyms are also touching. The issue of how to touch participants
frequently described as disciplinary institutions, during training is also discussed during courses
in which various disciplinary body practices for Pilates instructors, although it is only done
are embedded (e.g. Markula and Pringle 2006; as an aside when tackling other topics. This
Greif 2017). Lastly, gyms constitute important study examines how the kind of touch that will,
physical and cultural spaces where the bodies for the purposes of the analysis, be referred to
of clients are touched in a specific manner and as ‘instrumental’, operates within commercial
for specific purposes. They are also spaces where fitness gyms and through the fitness bodies
instructors use touch, imbuing touch practices that inhabit these spaces. In the context of the
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 23Dominika Czarnecka
present analysis, touch has been positioned however, it is dependent on local traditions,
as a social practice. The study also analyses which contain models of heterogenisation and
how Michel Foucault’s concept of anatomo- diversity (e.g. Spielvogel 2003; Steen-Johnsen
political power intersects with the instrumental 2007). Consequently, the relation between the
touch applied during Pilates classes to study global and the local appears to be complex,
how touch is used to train fitness bodies and changeable, and mutual, since the local is—
how instructors and other participants of to a greater or lesser degree—influenced by
Pilates classes participate in power relations. the global, and vice versa (Andreasson and
It considers the value of instrumental touch in Johansson 2014; see also Ram 2004). It may
the context of relations between instructors and therefore be assumed that a scholar considering
their clients. the global aspects of fitness culture should not
It should be noted that most of the data disregard its local characteristics, as it is the
gathered during field research and presented latter that allow one to notice details and subtle
in this study pertains to the period before differences without which the study of global
the COVID-19 pandemic (even though the phenomena would be incomplete and offer an
interviews were conducted before, during, and overly simplified view of reality. This justifies the
after the lockdown). The epidemiological need to conduct in-depth ethnographic studies
situation profoundly affected the functioning of on fitness culture in Poland, which has not yet
gyms, imposing numerous changes, including been examined in a comprehensive manner as a
some pertaining to the realm of touch, so local variation of a global cultural phenomenon.
crucial in the spread of disease. The effect that Commercial fitness practices appeared in
the pandemic had on the methods and the Poland considerably later than in the United
experience of touch in fitness culture certainly States and countries of Western Europe (e.g.
merits a separate study in the future.1 Green 1986; Hedblom 2009). While the first
aerobics club was established in Warsaw in 1983,
the expansion of the commercial service sector
PILATES IN WARSAW: (including services associated with physical
THE GLOBAL INTERTWINED culture) was only made possible by the onset
WITH THE LOCAL of the economic and political transformation
Fitness culture is a significant cultural phe that began in 1989 (Kunicki 1997). The fitness
nomenon with its global/local variations (e.g. industry truly started to develop in Poland
Andreasson and Johansson 2014; Hedblom in the 1990s and expanded gradually in the
2009; Sassatelli 2000; 2011; Smith Maguire first two decades of the 21st century. It should,
2007; Spielvogel 2003; Volkwein 1998). In the however, be noted that despite this ongoing
present analysis, the term ‘fitness culture’ is used development, only 8% of Poland’s residents were
to denote ‘the symbolic and cultural ideas that using the services provided by fitness centres
constitute a specific way of approaching the in 2019 (European Health & Fitness Market
body and physical culture’ (Andreasson and 2019). The latest estimates indicate that before
Johansson 2014: 13). As a global phenomenon, the COVID-19 pandemic there were ca. 2,700
fitness culture is currently affected by processes fitness clubs in Poland, offering membership
of standardisation and homogenisation, at to nearly three million people ( Juś 2020). At
least in some of its aspects. At the same time, present, the scale of the damage resulting from
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 24Dominika Czarnecka
the pandemic is impossible to ascertain, yet the limited to exercising using mats. The number of
fitness industry is expected to be among the participants in these sessions differs depending
most affected sectors of the economy (on the on the policy of the given fitness chain. Pilates
situation of Polish fitness instructors during the classes in fitness centres are cheaper than in
pandemic, see Czarnecka 2021). professional studios, and therefore accessible to
Fitness practices collectively defined a wider spectrum of consumers. Very few fitness
as mindful fitness have become increasingly clubs in Warsaw divide their classes into levels
popular in Poland (Markula 2004). Along with of proficiency. Usually a single group comprises
yoga, Pilates, although it is still relatively new up to around a dozen people of varying age and
in Poland has become one of the most popular practical experience with Pilates. Although the
forms of mindful fitness in Warsaw. Joseph classes are theoretically open to people of all
Pilates started to develop his method nearly genders, group classes are mostly attended by
100 years ago (during the First World War), women. The few men that arrive usually come to
yet mentions of Pilates did not appear in the classes only sporadically and do not exercise on
Polish media until ca. the year 2000. The first a regular basis. Most of them prefer individual
professional courses for Pilates instructors in workouts in fitness gyms.
Poland were organised by Iza Stasiakowska It should be remembered that the local
in 2001; before that date practical knowledge context intertwines with global processes of
about this fitness method could only be acquired standardisation and homogenisation. Many
abroad. The most popular destinations in this fitness instructors from Warsaw take part in
context were the United States of America and international conferences on fitness culture and
Great Britain (Pilates Polska 2019). Pilates courses conducted by foreign teachers.
Pilates dubbed the method he created In time, some of them acquire international
Contrology. He understood it as certificates and teach Pilates courses abroad.
Likewise, at least some of the women who
complete coordination of body, mind, attend Pilates classes in Warsaw’s clubs have
and spirit. Through Contrology you first had the opportunity to participate in similar
purposefully acquire complete control of exercises in other countries. Some of them
your own body and then through proper have trained under the supervision of foreign
repetition of its exercises you gradually and teachers during online classes. All of these
progressively acquire that natural rhythm factors indicate that qualitative ethnographic
and coordination associated with all your research in Warsaw’s fitness clubs would yield
subconscious activities. (Pilates and Miller valuable data. Such studies may provide some
1960: 9) insight into globalising fitness culture, while
the analysed processes may have broader
Professional Pilates studios offering different applicability to other parts of the world.
forms of exercise—using mats, reformers, and Before moving to the results, I will provide
other kinds of equipment—may currently be the theoretical and methodological framework
found in every major city in Poland. Meanwhile, of the research.
the classes organised in fitness centres are usually
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 25Dominika Czarnecka
THE THEORETICAL use their power than others (Foucault 1995;
FRAMEWORK: FOUCAULT, Clark and Markula 2017). In the context of
DISCIPLINARY TECHNIQUES, the social world of fitness culture, this means
AND DOCILE BODIES that instructors do not oppress the women
they are coaching, even though they remain in
Foucault perceived the body as the site of a specific power relation with them. Within it,
workings of power. He saw discipline and the instructors are able to exercise power easier
docility as ultimately associated with state than their clients, yet the power relation is not
power, yet his approach has been adopted in constant and may change in time or be broken.
many different fields, including the analysis In his earlier works, Foucault (1995)
of sport and physical culture, and also in concentrated on anatomo-political power,
commercial contexts (e.g. Chase 2006; Clark stating that the form of power that is exercised
and Markula 2017; Hanold 2010; Markula and through disciplinary techniques is applied
Pringle 2006). As regards commercial fitness to produce obedient and useful bodies of
gyms, some scholars suggest that although the individuals, which he dubbed docile bodies.
phenomenon of gym-going developed from According to Foucault, a body that constantly
the concept of individual, autonomous choice, remains within specific power relations is not
‘gyms are disciplinary institutions that remove only affected by these relations, but also affects
us from our liberty as the body endures work them. It may therefore be assumed that female
driven by contemporary discourses of health fitness bodies are not oppressed or passive, but
and fitness’ (Greif, cited after Brighton et play an active role within the power relations
al. 2021: 47; see also Sassatelli 2011). Others in which they participate. Since this study
note that commercial fitness gyms bear the examines the way in which female fitness bodies
characteristics of disciplinary spaces, and as such are controlled and shaped through specific
facilitate the evolution of various disciplinary practices used in the gym room, with particular
techniques in which docile bodies are produced. focus on instrumental touch, Foucault’s concept
‘Exercise classes can be seen as potential sites provides a useful theoretical framework. Before
for disciplining individuals into docile bodies: instrumental touch is discussed, I shall briefly
the space, the gym, is constructed to allow present several other disciplinary techniques
disciplinary control over fit bodies’ (Markula used in gym rooms, namely the managing of
and Pringle 2006: 78). bodies through the organisation of space, time,
Foucault (1995 [1975]; 2010 [1976; 1984]) and motion. All of these elements delimit the
was interested in various forms of modern power, framework of the meetings between clients and
believing that power is always productive and instructors and determine the approaches to the
relational, that it manifests itself in all relations body and—consequently—the ways in which it
and practices, and that each individual has the is touched.
ability to participate in power relations. He also
claimed that power is not a constant property STRUCTURING SPACE
that a given individual or institution uses to
oppress those who lack it. What he emphasised Foucault claimed that anatomo-political power
is that power relations are often asymmetrical operates through the proper organisation of
and that some individuals have more ability to space and that disciplinary spaces are enclosed,
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 26Dominika Czarnecka
functional, partitioned, and ranked (Foucault synchronicity of movement within the exercising
1995: 141–146). ‘In the first instance, discipline group is of less importance in Pilates than in
proceeds from the distribution of individuals in other fitness forms, e.g. the choreographic ones.
space’ (ibid.: 141). Fitness rooms are designed The time allotted to training does not involve
to ensure that group fitness activities may unnecessary breaks and is used to the maximum,
proceed without external interference. Each in order to achieve specified goals.
of the participating individuals should have
enough room to be able to exercise with MANAGING BODIES THROUGH
unimpeded motions. In the case of Pilates, the MOVEMENTS
space is additionally divided using mats. At the
beginning of the class, the instructor stands Foucault claimed that bodies and movements
away from the other participants, which defines ought to be organised into segments that allow
and emphasises his/her role—the visibility of the pre-established goals to be attained. In
rank. What is more, the space of the fitness commercial fitness gyms, each form of fitness
room should be arranged in such a way that activities involves performing different exercises.
the information provided by the instructor is Instructors should prepare a plan in which they
available to the participants through various may, for instance, focus on building up specific
modes of expression (i.e. the face, the voice, the groups of muscles. They may then increase the
position of the body, verbal communication). level of intensity and complexity of specific
The other participants choose their spots in motions with each training session, taking into
the room themselves, yet the instructor may, at account the skill of the group. They may also
least to some extent, introduce changes in the increase the level of difficulty of the class over
configuration of fitness bodies in space. a longer period of time. In practice, however,
because gyms are meant to provide leisure and
STRUCTURING TIME recreation (Sassatelli 2015), anyone who paid
the fee is allowed to participate in all classes,
According to Foucault, individual bodies are regardless of whether they have mastered the
disciplined by the organisation of not only space, required sequences of movement or not.
but also time. Fitness centres follow schedules In Foucault’s view, the aim of disciplinary
that delineate the start, finish, and duration of techniques is to produce docile bodies—bodies
each training session. Every session is divided that have internalised specific movements to
into segments during which specific motions such a degree that they are able to perform
are performed, which ought to harmonise with them automatically and without hesitation.
the rhythm of the accompanying music and However, the present article is not concerned
the movements of other participants (usually with the effectiveness of disciplinary techniques
the segments involve: the warm-up, the main in producing docile bodies. What it does
part, relaxing/stretching). It should, however, be examine is the way in which anatomo-political
noted that in Pilates the motions in exercises are power is exercised through instrumental touch
not performed to or determined by the rhythm used intentionally by fitness instructors during
of music (some instructors even conduct classes Pilates classes. Thus, it is interested in touch as
with no music involved). Likewise, the exact one of the disciplinary techniques.
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 27Dominika Czarnecka
THE METHODOLOGICAL which is also apparent in the field of sports and
FRAMEWORK mass leisure activities. Consequently, all my
participants were White women.
This study was guided by an inductive approach, The study is based on ethnographic
which provides solutions to discover relations qualitative methods, with the research process
and patterns in the data collected (Glaser and divided into two stages. The first step involved
Strauss 1967). The multi-method approach analysing the content of two training manuals
comprised four elements: (a) eleven semi-struc- which I had received during Pilates instructor
tured in-depth interviews with female fitness courses. Since I had participated in these
culture participants (recorded and transcribed), myself, I also chose to analyse the notes I had
(b) observant participation (Wacquant 2004), made at the time, focusing on all descriptions
(c) informal conversations (Hammersley and that in any way referred to touch in Pilates. The
Atkinson 1995), and (d) content analysis of two present article is mainly based on the findings
training manuals. To ensure the credibility of made during the second stage of research. The
my qualitative data, triangulation of data was eight semi-structured in-depth interviews
applied (Creswell 2007). with female fitness instructors and exercisers
The field research was conducted between were face-to-face. Three interviews (two
March 2019 and October 2020 in three differ- with instructors and one with a client) were
ent clubs belonging to one of Warsaw’s conducted online via the Skype platform. All
fitness chains and is grounded in multi-sited the interviewees (five fitness instructors and
ethnography (Falzon 2016). The present analysis six participants of Pilates classes) were White
only presents experiences reported by female women between 35 and 89 years of age. For
Pilates instructors and female participants of the sake of anonymity, the names appearing
fitness classes. The focus on women’s experiences in the article have been changed. Due to the
may be a limiting factor, yet the choice was asymmetrical power relations during Pilates
not accidental. Firstly, group fitness activities classes in the commercial fitness gym (Foucault
in Warsaw are attended predominantly by 1995; Markula 2004), the study focused mainly
women. Secondly, since the experiencing body on instructors. Principally, it is they who
is socialised, there are socially and culturally initiate instrumental touch. They can be also
determined differences in the experience of key creators of change. As a fitness instructor
corporeality by women and men (Young 2005). familiar with social world of fitness culture
Thirdly, the data and conclusions presented participants, I was able to personally participate
in this article are a part of a broader research in touch practices in fitness gyms, both as
project, in which fitness culture in Poland is a coach and as a participant of Pilates classes
analysed as a gendered phenomenon (see also taught by other instructors. My participation in
e.g. Aoki 1996; Markula 1995, 2001; McKay Pilates classes in both these capacities resulted
1994). Finally, I myself have been working for in the collection of video recordings and notes
years as a fitness instructor and have therefore which I typed after every class and saved on my
shared the experiences of the female members personal computer. All my respondents were
of this social world (at least to some degree). given prior information about the objectives of
The present study is further limited by the fact my research and participated in it willingly.
that Polish society is relatively homogeneous,
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 28Dominika Czarnecka
THE SPECIFICITY OF of touch. Not all of it is intentional; in many
INSTRUMENTAL TOUCH cases touch is accidental and simply results
from momentary lack of attention. Similarly,
One of the first scholars to explore the sensory not all of it is authoritative or disciplinary; for
aspect of experience in sports practices was instance, some of it may be a part of ordinary
Loïc Wacquant (2004). It should also be noted social relations. Lastly, not all tactile experiences
that significant contributions to the study in fitness pertain to the touch between human
of sensory dimensions of sport and physical individuals. The most common example are
activity were made by works in the field of the physical contacts between fitness bodies
cultural history of the senses, including the and objects (e.g. the floor, the walls, mats,
gendering of (Classen 1993, 2005; Classen et exercise balls). Although all of the mentioned
al. 1994) and the anthropology of the senses types of tactile experiences merit a detailed
(Howes 2003, 2005; Pink 2009; Vannini et al. analysis, the present work focuses solely on
2012), even if they did not refer to sporting instrumental touch, since it is the form that
experiences expressly. Recent years have brought allows us to examine how the anatomo-political
the publication of numerous works whose power operates within the space of a gym and
authors focused on the role of specific senses in how docile bodies are produced in the context
sports and physical culture (e.g. Downey 2005; of recreational fitness. It must be noted that,
Hockey and Allen-Collinson 2007), with some although correcting by touch is a very popular
concentrating on touch (e.g. Channon 2013; method of teaching, it is not employed by all
Hamilton 2017; Lewis 2000; Slavin 2003). fitness coaches during Pilates classes. For
This is hardly surprising, given that ‘sports various reasons, some of them only use verbal
participants hear, smell, see, touch, and move instruction and demonstration.
within their particular sporting environments, The field research indicates that there
whether hockey pitch, mountain face, ice-rink, are instructors (albeit not many) who pay
or squashcourt’ (Hockey and Allen-Collinson no attention to the accuracy of their clients’
2007: 123). Although this is beyond the scope movements, and thus do not use any methods
of the present analysis, it might be added that of correcting mistakes. One possibility that
an increasingly large number of studies focusing cannot be ruled out is that instructors adopt
on the senses in sports practices make use this approach to corrective techniques because
of the auto-ethnographic method, in which they regard all fitness forms as recreational in
the researcher’s body is regarded as the main function (Rojek 2000; Sassatelli 2015; Stebbins
‘instrument’ of sensual data collection (Sparkes 2009).
2016; Czarnecka 2020). The scarce mentions
of touch that may be found in publications on One thing may be that someone totally
fitness culture are, at best, added as an aside to ignores people and never corrects them at
the main line of argument (e.g. Andreasson and all. Pays no attention, just exercises for him
Johansson 2014). Thus, conducting in-depth or herself, looks at the mirror and exercises.
ethnographic studies on the matter seems all Perhaps I wouldn’t even be aware of this,
the more justified. although I’ve taken part in classes, even
In practice, the environment of a fitness Pilates ones, where [the instructor] simply
gym is conducive to many different types did not correct anyone, not once. And
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 29Dominika Czarnecka
I think that, okay, if such a person now As a disciplinary technique which helps
comes to my classes, where I do correct, control and correct the operations of the fitness
and earlier only attended classes where body, instrumental touch is based on several
no-one was correcting anyone, they can be principles, whose application and definition
really shocked, won’t they? They may think is determined by the given situational context.
that it’s something strange. But for me, this Instructors in commercial fitness gyms touch
is, well, you don’t go to classes to (…) so their clients in specific ways during physical
this is this one thing, that you go to classes exercises. It is in this context that the meanings
precisely for someone to be looking at you of instrumental touch are circulated and the
and correcting your mistakes. And this related physical experiences appear. Since
is also the feedback I get, when someone instrumental touch is used as a ‘tool’ that
who had never once been corrected during facilitates attaining pre-determined goals
classes in the past comes to my class and effectively, it is fully functional and instrumental
says ‘gee, how grateful I am that you did in nature. At the same time, it must be both
correct me. You know, I was never corrected. intentional and authoritative—in the case of
I never even knew I was doing something fitness culture, instrumental touch is, as a rule,
wrong.’ So I know that this is needed.2 initiated by the instructor, who consciously
employs it on the individuals participating in
Regardless of the nature of the touch, one key her classes. As mentioned above, instructors and
factor is the duration of the physical distance their clients remain in specific power relations,
between the body that touches and the one in which the former exercise power more
being touched. Touch belongs to contact senses, easily than the latter. This is manifested by the
which means that it is realised through direct existence of a clear-cut boundary between the
contact with the subject/object (in contrast instructor, who initiates the touch and touches,
with telecontact senses, which operate across and the other participants, who are touched.
space, e.g. sight or hearing) (Mizińska 2010: 83). Asked whether situations occur in a fitness gym
According to Edward Hall, touch constitutes when it is the client that touches the instructor,
one of the coding variables within proxemics one of the interlocutors answered:
measures (1963: 1007) and depends on the type
of interaction which, again, is connected with Generally, no. I don’t know if anyone
proxemic (distance) zones, each with a close would have the guts to touch me [laughs],
and far phase. Four types of social distance or the need to, but no. (…) This is probably
may be present in a training space, yet touch very one-sided, one-directional, like with
based on the physical contact of two bodies a doctor or a masseur.3
takes place within personal space (1.5–4 feet),
and sometimes also enters into intimate space In some—if rather rare—cases, clients in the
(less than 1.5 feet). As far as fitness gyms are fitness gym ask the instructor to touch them
concerned, ‘the staging of intimacy has clearly and check whether they are, for instance, flexing
been given a culturally bound significance’ their muscles correctly or assuming the right
(Andreasson and Johansson 2014: 58). This shall positions (Observation journal, August 31,
be discussed in a further section of the present 2020). In the broadest sense, such ‘incentives’
study. may be regarded as instrumental touch being
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 30Dominika Czarnecka
initiated by the participants of the training, and touching their clients during Pilates classes, and
therefore as an example of fluidly negotiating what behaviours to avoid:
the relations of power between the instructor – physical touch should be certain, exact,
and the client. Ultimately, however, it is the direct, purposeful, and confident;
instructor that decides whether or not to – clients’ permission should always be
acquiesce to the client’s request in the given requested;
situation. – touch should not be applied if the same
effect can be achieved in another way;
– the instructor should place his/her hands
THE OFFICIAL INSTRUCTIONS firmly on the body of the client (e.g. on
REGARDING INSTRUMENTAL the arms, back, legs) and instruct the client,
TOUCH DURING PILATES gently yet firmly, what is expected of him/
CLASSES her;
Fitness instructors acquire theoretical and – the sequence consists of: approaching the
practical knowledge on the policies of touch in person, instructing through touch, moving
Pilates from various sources, such as professional away;
courses for Pilates instructors, training manuals, – the client cannot be touched without
visual materials available online, or participation a warning, he/she should have an oppor-
in classes taught by more experienced coaches. tunity to notice the approaching instructor
The issue of transmitting non-verbal/tacit in advance.
knowledge, which includes ‘knowledge based
on sensual experience’ ( Jakubowska 2017: 28), Interviews with fitness instructors indicate
certainly merits its own analysis, yet lies that these instructions are mostly followed in
beyond the scope of the present study. It should, everyday practice. It should, however, be noted
however, be emphasised that during instructor that instructors’ experiences may vary. Advice
courses organised in Poland, the issue of touch seems dependent on the person of the teacher
is discussed very rarely or not at all. If courses conducting a given instructor course and the
provide some information regarding the methods he or she used in their own practice.
principles and methods of touching clients, it Asked whether the Pilates course she had
is done in passing, when discussing other issues. taken involved any mention of the principles
Touch and the related experiences are not spared of touching clients, one of the interlocutors
too much attention, which is not to mean that answered:
tactile direction is not included in the methods
of teaching instructors during Pilates courses Yes, and we were strongly encouraged to do
(or at least some of them). so. We were even expected to. (…) First of
Several basic suggestions regarding instru all, we were [instructed] to ask the person
mental touch may be distinguished in the official whether they wish for contact, ‘may I touch
instructions based on the training manuals you there?’, because not everyone wants
that I received in the course of professional that. Sometimes someone says ‘leave me
training for Pilates instructors, and the notes alone’ [laughs] and doesn’t want that. Not
I made when taking these classes. They offer to do it by force, do someone else’s work
clear indication on how instructors ought to be for them, not to push, but only gently
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 31Dominika Czarnecka
nudge, as if to suggest the right direction. in analysing processes, services, or products
And also to do it from a lower position, not in order to provide: functionality, uniformity
to hover over someone and say ‘now do this, and exchangeability, security, and reduction of
now do that’ [laughs]. That if someone is diversity (Foucault 1995: 184). The effectiveness
lying on the floor, or kneeling, not to hover of disciplinary power is largely dependent on
over them, just do it from their own level. these processes of normalisation. Attempts
That’s about it. But we were made aware of at standardisation and—consequently—
this and encouraged.4 homogenisation of the principles of touching
others in Pilates, often justified with concerns
Other coaches provided very different answers about the health and safety of instructors
to the same question: and clients, are associated with the ongoing
globalisation of fitness culture. Nevertheless,
Actually, no. And if, I mean, it must have one should not disregard local aspects, which
been discussed, since there was talk about may contain models of heterogenisation and
this kind of distance, I don’t remember diversity, as they indubitably affect the manner
exactly, 60 cm or so, that it exists. That we in which touch is used in fitness gyms. One of
should be careful about touching, about the instructors admitted:
too close proximity. I think that you have
to feel it out maybe, if this person wishes I think this is also something that stems
to be touched or not. So this must have from Western-European culture, where, in
been discussed somehow, if distance was our case, it’s a bit like this that very many
discussed. (…) But I don’t think it was people, especially, like, with a little bit
particularly emphasised.5 higher position in the hierarchy, I mean,
that if you get a bit higher in the hierarchy
No. In my Pilates class the focus was more then maybe, for example, a teacher, yes,
on verbal instructions. That is, to be able to assumes that this gives them the power to
explain clearly what someone is to do, and touch you. (…) And this management of
not how to touch them or instruct through other people’s bodies is much easier than
touch. Which, for me, came as a surprise.6 in Western countries, because of social
acceptance. And then, when you have
According to official instructions, instrumental an instructor that was brought up in a
touch ought to serve very specific purposes; with different culture, where you need consent
the most importance attached to its corrective for everything, for taking someone’s hand,
function. The use of touch may also help clients for nodding the head or something, well,
exercise better, learn new movements, and make then it’s a bit different. They have a slightly
them more aware of their own bodies. more delicate approach to these things.
The purpose of the above-described (…) They need to know that you accept
recommendations is to establish specific what they’re about to do. Here, I haven’t
models of touching during Pilates classes. noticed that during courses taught by
In Foucault’s view, standardisation appears Polish instructors.7
as an integral element of the process of
normalisation—whereas normalisation consists
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 32Dominika Czarnecka
Despite the progressing globalisation and in order to prevent clients from developing
standardisation of the policies of touch in inaccurate habits of movement. In the
fitness culture, the principles pertaining to Foucauldian sense, instrumental touch used as
touching others only reach their ultimate a disciplinary technique facilitates the exchange
form in training practices in the local context. of information, the stimulation of fitness bodies,
This means that the emergence and practical and habituation to specific kind of motion.
application of standards of physical contact
between instructors and their clients in fitness First I try to correct verbally, of course,
gyms are influenced not only by the fitness talking to the group, if I’m exercising with
industry, but also by the values, norms, and rules a group, that is. (…) Whereas sometimes,
associated with touch in a given society. when I am explaining that a slight flexing
of abdominal muscles is needed, so that
the lumbar section doesn’t sag in a four
TOUCH, CONTROL, point kneeling position, then I usually
AND PLAYING WITH POWER come up to them and gently try to do it
RELATIONS manually, position them, explain, if it’s
Some instructors use instrumental touch on other a new person.8
participants of group Pilates classes in order to
control the operations of fitness bodies (through It should be noted that, according to the
corrective practices). However, touch is not the instructions presented above, ‘touch should not
only means of exercising disciplinary power in a be applied if the same effect can be achieved
fitness gym; other methods include, for instance in another way’. This indicates the existence
disciplinary gaze (cf. Sassatelli 1999: 237–239). of a certain hierarchical order of applying
In practice, different disciplinary techniques are disciplinary techniques with regard to fitness
usually used simultaneously, to make them more bodies; instrumental touch is not the first in
effective in producing docile bodies. As noted that sequence:
above, instrumental touch during Pilates classes
is usually initiated by the instructor, while the This is simply a general rule that I try to
clients typically act as recipients of this touch. talk to everyone first, I mean, if I see that
The instructor imbues the practices of touch something is wrong. I mean, even if it’s
with specific meanings that are circulated in only one person doing it wrong, I first
the fitness room. It must, however, be noted address everyone, telling them what to
that these meanings may be negotiated both by check. And I don’t say: ‘Hey, fix this or that’
instructors and by other participants of fitness but: ‘Check if this or that is okay’ or ‘stretch
culture. The clients may or may not accept the your torso a little further’ or ‘check if your
instrumental touch; an issue which will be head is at the level the torso’, or something
addressed in a later part of this subsection. like that. Then (laughs), then if I have time,
Most fitness instructors try to observe because that’s not always the case, you
their clients during exercises, checking their know this perfectly well yourself that you
stance and the accuracy of movements. The don’t always have the time to come up to
goal is to ensure the safety of each participant, a given person. Especially if you know that
but also to notice and correct any mistakes one exercise is ending, another is beginning,
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 33Dominika Czarnecka
so in a moment you will have to tell them your body to do its best. But if you are
what to do, and this one person is far away unable to overcome this, then you simply
in the room, so sometimes there’s no way. have to find a different instructor, because
But I keep it in mind, to pay attention to I will not be able to help you anymore.’10
what this person is doing with the next
exercise. Then I come up and say. I repeat This example illustrates a specific type of
the instruction exactly. If this doesn’t help, relationality between the instructor and the
I try to demonstrate what I mean before other participants, and the asymmetrical nature
I touch a given person. And before I touch of the power relations. It also indicates that
them, I actually say ‘okay, so I will now put these relations are fluid and may be broken at
my hand on your back’, but I always try the instigation of either party.
to look at that person’s face, I mean, these It should be emphasised that theoretical
people don’t always look at me. Yes. And recommendations regarding touch in Pilates are
I always ask if this is okay. And in general not always used by instructors in their everyday
they either nod or say it’s okay, so that you practice. Coaches usually develop their ‘own’
know this is okay. Unless I know someone rules for touching. Naturally, these are rooted
because they’ve been a regular [client].9 in the official instructions they received in the
process of acquiring their professional identity
Although fitness instructors employ a similar yet working with clients in a gym allows them
sequence of actions in their training practice, to intuitively ‘discover’ and test the effectiveness
they do not always ask each of the participants of each method and to modify them. To provide
for their permission to be touched. Sometimes an example, one of my interlocutors mentioned
they just touch them, especially if they are that the master coach teaching the instructor
dealing with clients that have regularly course she attended advocated the following
attended their training sessions. This does strategy: ‘If a given person is given correction
not mean, however, that they never encounter when exercising one side of the body, they
any resistance. Asked whether a participant should also be assisted with the other.’ When
had refused to be corrected using touch, one asked why this should be done, the coach
instructor admitted: did not provide any logical explanation. One
interlocutor stated:
Yes, but then I warned them they should
find a different instructor. But I didn’t do I love such answers. I don’t think so,
it in a rude manner. I always say that I because if you adjust someone’s body on
touch people a lot. That if someone doesn’t the one side, usually they will do the other
like it, they should tell me so. Very often side correctly, and meanwhile there is time
people came up to tell me this individually, for other people, which you can use to
because they were ashamed. And I would correct someone else’s posture.11
say: ‘Listen, let’s do it this way. I will
gradually come up to you. I will always Instrumental touch is associated with a frag
keep some kind of safe distance. But one mentary approach to the body (the whole
day I will simply have to touch you, just consists of individual parts). It is directed
have to, because this way I am able to get towards specific sections of the body, applied
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 34Dominika Czarnecka
locally and in a precise manner. It seems no the remodelled punishment). The participant
coincidence that, during training, Joseph Pilates whom I interviewed stated:
adjusted his students’ position using a wooden
stick, which served as an extension of his arm. This basically makes you give a little start,
On the one hand, he developed an effective like, oh dear, I’m doing something wrong
skill in using an object through extending here. Because I was sure it was correct, but
disciplinary power over his own body; on the no, it was wrong. So you actually have to
other hand, the use of a stick during practice improve something. And this is needed.
prevented him from touching his students’ (…) A person then understands that
bodies directly (though, in practice, he did something wasn’t right. Because even if
sometimes touch his trainees without the help you are told that you have to do this or that,
of the stick). The choice to reinforce distance you can misunderstand, and a touch will
and reduce touch, or rather to employ it in actually correct you.12
a semi-tactile way, may be compared to the
medical practices of touching patients with the Fitness instructors offered the following obser-
stethoscope (Foucault 2003 [1966]: 203). Apart vations:
from reducing the touch itself, this mediated
method of touching led to the development of I mean, there’s always been this rule that
professional authority of the person touching. I don’t correct immediately, because I don’t
In commercial fitness gyms, the option of using want the new person to feel that they’re
objects that could be described as ‘disciplinary’ not doing something as well as the others,
(e.g. a stick) was eliminated. Consequently, because not everyone treats being touched,
instrumental touch became more ‘humanised’ being corrected, in the same way. Some
and the physical distance between instructors are glad, that they were noticed [smiles]
and clients diminished. This being said, the (…) But some people feel extremely
principal role of instrumental touch has embarrassed, flustered. And you never
remained unchanged since the times of Joseph know, unless you know a given person, if
Pilates. you’re going to get the former or the latter
Interestingly, the instrumental touch reaction.13
practices employed in a fitness gym involve
a remodelled system of punishment and I admit I am not the type of instructor that
gratification. In the context of recreational walks around the room correcting people.
fitness, it is the latter that plays a much more I don’t do that. Again, this is probably
significant role. Naturally, instrumental touch due to my character. (…) I wasn’t too
in itself is not a form of reward or punishment fond of that, as a participant, when some
in the literal understanding of the terms and instructors did that, so I don’t subject
is not used to evaluate or exclude any group others to it. Though I am aware that maybe
of fitness culture participants. The ‘punishment’ some people would actually like it, that
and ‘gratification’ stems from the fact that the they expect it, or maybe need it. (…) For
instructor touches a participant only if they some people, perhaps, this would not be
are executing specific motions in an inaccurate a problem, but I don’t know this because
manner (the instruction in the form of touch is I don’t know the majority of the people
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 35Dominika Czarnecka
in the room. Which is why I don’t want in the class, and their image of what a ‘good’
to come up to a specific person not to, instructor ought to do. This is when the
you know, simply not to intimidate them, beneficial effects of disciplinary power become
not to single them out for not doing apparent; effects that are rarely discussed in
something the right way. Unless, as I said, works pertaining to fitness culture. Asked
it’s really very bad. So I tend to keep my whether she considers correcting through touch
distance, simply talking all the time, trying necessary, one participant answered:
to explain as best as I can, and performing
the exercise myself as correctly as I can.14 Yes, of course. Very much so. I am grateful
for these things. I would expect it, because
The clients that are exercising correctly are not from the front it may seem to me that I’m
touched by the instructor. This lack of touch doing the exercise correctly, and I don’t see
acts as a kind of positive reinforcement (a that my shoulders should go in a different
remodelled ‘praise’), signalling that nothing [direction].15
requires adjustment and a given person is
moving in a correct fashion. Ethnographic studies indicate that many
However, the relations within the remod women participating in Pilates classes do not
elled system of punishment and gratification mind being corrected through touch during
are much more complex, as they are not limited training. One client stated: ‘[It’s] good, good.
to a single level. On one level, some fitness I feel so safe then, knowing that I won’t do any
culture participants regard instrumental touch harm to myself, that I’m doing the exercise
as a kind of commercial ‘service’, the purchase right. I am pleased.’16 Nevertheless, this is not
of which requires specific resources—namely a universal rule. Some clients do not like to be
a membership card in a fitness centre—which touched during exercising and only allow this
means that access to it is restricted. The method of correction under certain conditions
legitimisation of instrumental touch finds and to a very limited degree:
corroboration in both academic knowledge
(e.g. medicine, physiotherapy) and in the It bothers me, if it is sudden. (…) If it
practical experience of instructors applying really happens in situations in which it’s
the technique. From another perspective, in necessary, I can live with it. (…) I prefer
which instrumental touch is understood as [the instructor] to explain this to me, or,
a manifestation of the instructor’s special alternatively, ask me whether she can
attention to the person exercising, the lack of demonstrate it or touch me. I certainly
touch may cause participants to feel dissatisfied, don’t like to be surprised. (…) This is, after
anxious, or neglected. On yet another level, all, a stranger. I am not in the habit of liking
the meaning of the system of remodelled to be suddenly touched by strangers.17
punishment and gratification is shifted (if not
utterly reversed), since touch is regarded as At the same time, however, some women do
a positive and desired sign, as something the not consider instructors to be obliged to ask
clients expect to experience. In this context, the permission every time they wish to touch a client.
fact whether a coach uses instrumental touch One interlocutor offered the following opinion
affects the trainees’ mood, their participation on the issue: ‘No, absolutely not. Unless it was
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 36Dominika Czarnecka
a man (laughs).’18 Another client I interviewed, that they could communicate their reluctance
asked if an instructor should always request to be touched to the instructor beforehand and
permission to touch a person who is exercising, without providing any explanation. The clients’
replied: objection to receiving instrumental touch
may be verbal or nonverbal (e.g. a dissatisfied
In theory, probably yes, but the reason expression), intentional or non-intentional,
people come to classes is to do exercises stemming from the resistance put up by the
correctly. For me this clearly implies that body. When asked about how she reacts if
an instructor may touch you. If someone a participant’s body resists to being instructed
doesn’t want that, they should say they by touch (and thus cannot be coaxed into the
don’t.19 correct position), one interlocutor explained:
However, the clients’ attitude towards the matter Truth be told, this is the greatest conun
was not uniform: drum, because, well, gee, with individual
classes it’s great, ‘cause you have lots of
You know what, it depends on what she is time and you can use it as you wish, right.
correcting. Or not even that. I think that But with group classes it’s like, well, if
this should be communicated somehow. I feel this resistance, I sometimes give up
The fact that Eve [the client’s instructor] and say ‘okay, continue like this’ and usually
asks (…) this is very kind and very cool. I know that I won’t correct this the first
And I think that many people will open time around. But it’s always like this that
up to this, in some way. This is a question for me it is always a kind of a challenge,
of some personal impression, a feeling until the class is through I keep thinking
that this is important. But there’s also this about what could have been done, how else
other thing, namely that I don’t like to be to describe what to do. And I observe this
coerced into anything, or surprised. I don’t person doing other exercises thinking that
want to feel stressed when I’m headed for maybe there will be a moment where he or
classes (…) So some form of consent from she will have the same motion to perform
the person should be there.20 and won’t even know that he or she did it.21
This example illustrates how the official recom Later in the interview she added:
mendations regarding touch in Pilates may be
negotiated and modified by class participants in But there are also people who switch
their everyday practice. off. In the sense that their head switches
The results of ethnographic studies suggest off somewhat, which has its advantages
that some instructors inform their clients at the because this is one of the reasons why they
beginning of the first class that if they do not come to these classes, right, but they don’t
wish to be touched, they should not be afraid to react at all. In the sense that they react
say so. However, such information is not always when I am near them, but then continue
given, and it is likely that not all clients are aware exercising as they were before.22
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 37Dominika Czarnecka
The different forms of objecting to instrumental of fitness bodies through instruction. In the
touch used by clients illustrate how the context of recreational fitness, recommendations
instructors and the other participants play with pertaining to using touch are issued for the very
power relations in the fitness gym and how purpose of minimising the risk of forming bonds
clients can exercise their power. and facilitating intimacy, as well as neutralising
the pleasurable aspects of touch. In a scenario
where one person’s body is touched by another
RELATIONALITY AND person, physical closeness is generally inevitable.
INSTRUMENTAL TOUCH In order to reduce the feeling of intimacy and
Every touch exists in relation to something. the potential sexual connotations of the act of
‘Touch is our most social sense. Unlike seeing, touch, the staging of intimacy in a fitness room
hearing, smelling, and tasting, which can has been given a culturally bound significance.
generally be done alone, touching typically This is not to mean that social norms regarding
implies an interaction with another person’ intimacy and sexuality are never negotiated or
(Field 2014: 19). In such an interpretation, the infringed on.
instrumental touch between an instructor and For touch to become an efficient ‘instru
an exercising person is a part of a specific type ment’ through which disciplinary power can
of relation, one that shall in the present article operate in a fitness room, strategies must be
be referred to as ‘professional’. This definition is employed to neutralise its impact. Examples
at variance to the observations made by Mark include the consistent use of professional
Paterson (2007: 2–3) that ‘touch can cement an vocabulary in describing the specific groups of
empathic or affective bond, opening an entirely muscles that are being touched, or the emphasis
new channel of communications’, and Erin on limiting instrumental touch to the body parts
Manning: that are moving in an incorrect fashion. In the
course of acquiring their professional identity,
Through the tango, I have attempted to fitness instructors develop a specific approach
make the point that touch is not simply in which the bodies of the exercising people
the laying of hands. Touch is the act of are regarded as external objects. In the context
reaching toward, of creating space-time of recreational fitness, the instructors’ ‘right’ to
through the worlding that occurs when touch the bodies of their clients is perceived
bodies move. Touch, seen this way, is not similarly to the doctors’ right to touch their
simply an addendum to an already-stable patients’ bodies.
body. (2007: xiv)
I approach this in a very, I don’t know
According to the above, touch is a significant how to put it accurately. For me this is not
element of human relations and as such has touch, as in, not like when I’m touching
the potential to forge bonds and consequently acquaintances. In a way, I’m separating the
facilitate closeness and intimacy. In the bodies of these people and their images, as
professional relations between instructors and they enter the room, and to me they are
the people participating in their fitness classes, maybe like to a doctor, they are simply
however, touch is not employed with the aim of bodies that ought to be working in a certain
forming bonds, but of controlling the operations way. And they can be my acquaintances
suomen antropologi | volume 45 issue 4 winter 2020 38Dominika Czarnecka
once the class is over. They can be my instructors and their clients, and consequently,
clients whom I like very much and whom also the methods of correcting the latter’s
I can hug, and this is a completely different motions. One of the coaches explained her
touch.23 attitude towards her role as an instructor thusly:
Incidentally, I have always been explaining I actually wonder about the term instructor,
that this is a bit like with a gynaecologist, because I don’t regard myself as an
a dentist, a masseur. I mean, when you go instructor, but rather as a guide or a teacher.
to a dentist, they touch you. When you go Because while I do give instructions, these
to a gynaecologist, they also touch you. So are not the typical kind, you know what
I’ve also kept saying ‘Imagine that I am I mean. The thing is, you can be very good at
touching you in a more medical way.’24 something, like, you can be a great gymnast,
or a great biologist, but be totally unable
Thus, instrumental touch does not function to teach others the things you can do. And
outside of, but only within specific kinds of it’s precisely the same with this, you can be
relations, referred to here as ‘professional’, as very skilled, perform each exercise perfectly
they are based on constant emphasis on their and have completely no idea how to teach
strictly professional character. Relations of this people to do these exercises. And there are
kind inherently involve strategies for reducing people who are masters at something, and
physical closeness to the minimum, avoiding there are teachers, who teach how to do
affective engagement, and also providing this something.25
objectively high-quality services.
Another key feature affecting professional Instrumental touch in Pilates is not meant to
relations between instructors and their clients be used to force people to perform exercises
is the fact that they are constructed in the or go beyond the limitations of their bodies.
context of recreational fitness. The context Correction through instrumental touch only
determines the aims of engaging in physical acts as ‘guidance’ that helps fitness culture
activity set by participants of fitness culture. participants exercise better and ensure that
While indubitably distinct from informal and they are safe when doing so. At the same time,
spontaneous forms of leisure, fitness culture is however, the use of instrumental touch may
often described as ‘rational recreation’ (Sassatelli discourage clients from engaging in physical
2015). Due to this recreational context, the activity as such. Thus, the required ‘dose’ of
relations that form between fitness instructors touch during Pilates classes is much smaller
and their clients in the fitness room differ from, than in the case of training done by professional
for instance, those observable between coaches athletes or dancers, if not eliminated at all.
and athletes in professional sport. The essential
focus of physical recreation is not on maximising
performance and winning competitions, but on
CONCLUSION
keeping active (though, it must be added, this is The aim of the present analysis was to present
not the only aim of these activities). The goals the complexity of the relations between Michel
determined by this recreational context affect Foucault’s concept of anatomo-political power
the nature of professional relations between and the instrumental touch applied during
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