Specifying Fly Ash for Use in Concrete
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As seen in Concrete InFocus, Spring 2008
feature
Specifying Fly Ash
for Use in Concrete
By Karthik H. Obla, Ph.D., P.E.
Managing Director, Research & Materials Engineering, NRMCA
O
ver the past several decades, the use of fly ash in concrete has had a successful track
record. The performance benefits fly ash provides to mechanical and durability
properties of concrete have been well researched and documented in actual struc-
tures. Currently, fly ash is used in more than 50% of all ready mixed concrete placed in the
United States, yet many design professionals continue to remain overly restrictive when it
comes to using fly ash in concrete.
This article addresses some optimal ways of specifying fly ash for use in concrete while
ensuring that the desired concrete performance is achieved. Most of these recommendations
form part of a larger NRMCA publication that should be released later in 2008. Project speci-
fications for most commercial work in the United States are typically written as per American
Institute of Architects MasterSpec format. Any cementitious material is typically addressed
under Section 2.5 (Concrete Materials) of that format as follows.
Cementitious materials: Use materials meeting the following
requirements:
Hydraulic Cement: ASTM C150 or ASTM C1157 or ASTM C595
Pozzolan or Fly Ash: ASTM C618
Slag: ASTM C989
Silica Fume: ASTM C1240
The above format clearly states that fly ash has to meet ASTM C618, which is the standard
specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. This by
Currently, fly ash is used in itself is adequate for specifying fly ash in concrete. Frequently, design professionals make it
more than 50% of all ready more complicated and too restrictive. Some of these restrictions, the possible rationale behind
mixed concrete placed in them and issues related to not having these restrictions are discussed below.
the United States, yet many
Limitations on quantity of fly ash
design professionals continue
This is perhaps the most frequently applied restriction governing the use of fly ash in a con-
to remain overly restrictive crete specification. When fly ash was originally used in concrete in the 1970s, there was some
when it comes to using fly basis for restricting its use. However, after extensive research and several decades of successful
ash in concrete. utilization of fly ash, there is no basis for a restriction on the quantity of fly ash that should be
permitted to be used in concrete. Some may say that the ACI 318 Building Code restricts fly
60 ı SPRING 2008
Impact of Fly Ash LOI (carbon) on Air Entrainment
10
9
8
7
Concrete Air Content (%)
6 Source B
Source C
Source D
5 Source H
Source C
4 Source E
3
2
Cement Micrograph
1 Fly Ash Micrograph (note spherical particles)
Impact of Fly Ash LOI (Carbon) on Air Entrainment Hill,
R.L., and Folliard, K.J. (2006)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Loss on Ignition (LOI) %
ash use to 25% of total cementitious content. ash frequently is required. Also, with greater may argue that by restricting LOI contents,
However, that is inaccurate. The new ACI quantities of fly ash, the durability of con- the air-entrainment problems due to fly ash
318-08 Building Code in Chapter 4 defines crete related to resistance to ASR, sulfate at- can be reduced. However, that is inaccurate.
very severe freeze-thaw exposure (Exposure tack and chloride-induced corrosion is fur- Figure 1 illustrates that at the same LOI, dif-
Class F3) as concrete exposed to freezing ther enhanced. Further, the use of fly ash in ferent fly ashes can lead to different perfor-
and thawing cycles that will be in continu- concrete supports sustainable construction. mance related to generating the necessary air
ous contact with moisture and exposed to While it is true that greater quantities of content. In fact, the low-LOI fly ash in that
deicing chemicals. For concrete structural fly ash can delay setting and early strength study was more sensitive to air entrainment
members subject to Exposure Class F3, there gain, these could be addressed to a large than the higher-LOI fly ash. The reason for
is a limitation on the quantity of supplemen- extent through the effective use of chemi- this is that certain fly ashes have finer car-
tary cementitious materials, expressed as a cal admixtures. The concrete producer can bon, which, in spite of lower LOI, can have
percentage of the total cementitious materi- evaluate the setting and early strength-gain a more significant effect on air entrainment.
als, as follows: characteristics of concrete containing fly So, restricting the LOI of fly ash to 2% or
1. Fly ash or other C618 pozzolans – max: ash under varying ambient conditions to 4% does not eliminate the problems with air
25 percent assure the contractor that these needs will entrainment.
2. Total of fly ash or other pozzolans and be achieved. It should be left to the concrete The issue is not the LOI but rather the
silica fume – max: 35 percent producer to optimize concrete mixtures to variability of carbon content and type at a
3. Combined fly ash, pozzolan and silica accommodate different quantities of fly ash. given source. If the carbon content and type
fume – max: 50 percent with fly ash or Prescriptive limits on fly ash amounts do varies frequently (even as often as during
pozzolan not exceeding 25 percent and not help concrete performance in any way the day) in an unpredictable manner, then
silica fume not exceeding 10 percent and may actually limit the improvement in it will be challenging for the concrete pro-
4. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag concrete durability. ducer to supply air-entrained concrete with
– max: 50 percent consistent levels of entrained air. This is re-
5. Silica fume – max: 10 percent Limitations on the loss on ally a quality-control issue that the fly ash
The primary reason for these limits in ignition (LOI) of fly ash to less marketer and concrete supplier have to re-
the Building Code is to minimize the po- than x% (x = 2 is typically 2 or 4) solve through frequent testing. The fly ash
tential for deicer-related surface scaling that Most commercially available fly ashes marketer can do a quick indicator test every
can subsequently compromise the concrete will not meet this specification limitation, four truckloads and supply that information
cover over reinforcement and initiate corro- so in effect, this requirement will prevent to the concrete producer when delivering
sion earlier than expected. There is no tech- fly ash use. In fact, C618 already has a LOI the fly ash load. The concrete producer can
nical reason to extend this maximum 25% limit of 6%. adjust the air-entrainment dosage on that
limit for other applications. It is seen that LOI is a measure of unburnt carbon in basis and confirm the air content of the pro-
for adequate resistance to alkali silica reac- fly ash. Certain forms of unburnt carbon duced concrete. Some of the indicator tests
tion (ASR) with some types of aggregate and can absorb air-entraining admixtures and are LOI, mortar air content and fly ash foam
for sulfate resistance, more than 25% of fly affect air entrainment of concrete. So, some index test.
CONCRETE in focus ı 61
Specifying a maximum LOI limit does This will allow for necessary quality-control also used. Slag cement may be the preferred
not resolve the air-entrainment problems actions if necessary. supplementary cementitious material in
related to fly ash use and might in fact pro- some markets. Concrete producers will gen-
vide a false sense of security because these ef- Limitation on mixture erally not stock more than one or two types
fects may not be determined before concrete proportioning, such as replacing of supplementary cementitious materials.
is placed in the structure. “1.2 pounds of fly ash per pound Project specifications must address local
of cement” availability and experience to allow fly ash
28-day strength requirement This mixture-proportioning approach and pozzolans meeting C618, slag meeting
In general, concrete containing fly was popular when fly-ash use in concrete was C989 and silica fume meeting C1240 in the
ash has a slower rate of strength develop- in its infancy and the use of chemical admix- specification.
ment and often results in a higher later-age tures was not very prevalent. The objective It is true that Class F fly ash is more ef-
strength than with portland cement con- was to achieve 28-day strength equivalent fective in increasing concrete’s resistance to
crete. In some projects, there may not be a to a portland cement concrete mixture with ASR and sulfate attack. However, rather
need for a 28-day strength requirement for some sources and types of fly ash, cement, than disallowing Class C fly ash, durabil-
members or classes of concrete that will not aggregates and chemical admixtures. It was ity can be ensured through a performance
have anticipated construction or service understood early on that there is no magic specification as discussed below:
loads applied at 28 days. For example, speci- replacement ratio of cement with fly ash.
fying 8,000-psi compressive strength to be The optimum replacement level will depend Requirement for Class F fly ash
for resistance to Alkali Silica
Reaction (ASR)
Design professionals often specify pre-
Fly ash has to meet ASTM C618, which is the standard scriptive requirements such as quantities
specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural of Class F fly ash, slag, low-alkali cement,
pozzolan for use in concrete. This by itself is adequate for the use of a non-reactive aggregate, etc., to
specifying fly ash in concrete. avoid ASR-related distress in structures.
Class C fly ash may not be allowed. Con-
crete resistance to ASR can be ensured by
incorporating the performance option pro-
vided below in the concrete specification:
achieved at 56 instead of 28 days for columns on the strength targets at different ages, the Alkali silica reactivity – If the aggregate
will result in highly optimized mixtures. A properties being targeted, climactic condi- is deemed reactive as per Section XX.X and
later-age strength requirement when feasible tions, the use of admixtures and cement and for structural concrete members that will
will permit a higher quantity of supplemen- fly ash sources. The concrete producer must be moist in service, submit documentation
tary cementitious materials, reduce the total be allowed to tailor concrete mixture pro- qualifying the proposed cementitious ma-
cementitious content (paste volume) and portions to satisfy strength, durability and terials used with the aggregate by ASTM
therefore reduce the potential for cracking fresh properties such as workability, setting C1567 tests with an expansion after 14 days
while improving long-term concrete dura- time, etc. of exposure less than or equal to 0.1%.
bility. Many projects have been successfully C1567 is a standard test method for
completed where the specified strength had Limitations on the class of fly ash determining potential alkali-silica reactiv-
to be attained at 56 days. or supplementary cementitious ity (ASR) of combinations of cementitious
If there is a need to obtain information material materials and aggregate. Generally, fly ash,
about the acceptability of concrete strength Some specifications only permit the use silica fume and slag are used to mitigate
at an earlier age, one might use a percent- of C618 Class F fly ash. In many parts of the problems associated with deleterious ASR,
age of the specified strength at the desig- country, good quality Class C fly ash is also with increasing levels typically leading to
nated earlier age or an accelerated curing available. In some regions, a good quality improved resistance. If the aggregate is
procedure in accordance with ASTM C684. Class N pozzolan, such as calcined clay, is deemed reactive, the concrete supplier can
perform ASTM C1567 tests with different
types and proportions of supplementary ce-
mentitious materials and choose the combi-
When fly ash was originally used in concrete in the 1970s, nation that yields a 14-day expansion lower
there was some basis for restricting its use. However, than 0.1%. For example, if 25% fly ash A
after extensive research and several decades of successful shows expansion below 0.1%, the concrete
utilization of fly ash, there is no basis for a restriction supplier should use at least 25% of that fly
on the quantity of fly ash that should be permitted ash in the mixture proportions. Th is is a
better approach because more than 70% of
to be used in concrete.
the aggregates are typically found to test as
potentially reactive to ASR by the ASTM
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© 2008 Concrete Equipment Company. CON-E-CO and the CON-E-CO logo are registered trademarks of Concrete Equipment Company, Blair, NE. An Oshkosh Corporation.C1260, Potential Reactivity of Aggregates limit on the available alkali content of fly limits. Therefore, there is no need for a
(Mortar-Bar Method). Most of the aggre- ash. Research indicated that there was separate limit on the total alkali content
gates that test to be potentially reactive no good correlation between the mea- of fly ash.
show good field performance. Disallowing sured available alkali content and the
Class C fly ash on the basis that the aggre- performance of the fly ash to mitigate The requirement of a certain
gate fails the C1260 test or even the C1293 ASR. Th is limit has been deleted from quantity, type of fly ash or
concrete prism test is not a good approach. C618 and it is not measured by marketers another supplementary
The use of C1567 test limits allows the pos- of fly ash. Th is requirement, however, cementitious material for
resistance to chloride ion
penetration
For concrete exposed to chlorides (deic-
With greater quantities of fly ash, the durability of concrete ing chemicals, marine exposure), it is well
related to resistance to ASR, sulfate attack and known that fly ash, silica fume and slag
chloride-induced corrosion is further enhanced. can increase resistance to deterioration re-
lated to the corrosion of reinforcing steel
Further, the use of fly ash in concrete supports
by reducing chloride ion penetrability of
sustainable construction. concrete, with increasing levels typically
leading to improved performance. Howev-
er, it is not advisable to invoke prescriptive
proportions, type and choice of fly ash,
sibility of using Class C fly ash at different continues to remain in some project speci- silica fume and slag to attain the improved
dosages while ensuring that the concrete fications. However, if the total alkali of fly performance.
can attain resistance to ASR. ash is high (> 5% Na2O equivalent), the fly The ASTM C1202 test, which re-
ash has not been found to be effective in ally measures the electrical conductivity
Limits on the available alkali of controlling ASR. These high-alkali fly of concrete, provides a rapid indication
fly ash ashes, when tested with reactive aggregate, of concrete’s ability to resist chloride ion
ASTM C618 used to have an optional will exceed the ASTM C1567 expansion penetration. By requiring a low C1202
ı
64355860_odisa.indd
SPRING 2008 1 11/2/07 1:48:55 PMcoulomb level, the design professional en- tary cementitious materials judiciously to
The use of silica fume without
sures that the concrete mixture will have a attain target performance levels. The use
any other supplementary
potential for low chloride ion penetrability of a lower quantity (3% to 4%) of a highly
cementitious material
without establishing prescriptive limits on reactive pozzolan such as silica fume with
the quantity, choice and types of fly ash, A concrete specification that requires fly ash or slag can lead to optimum early
slag or silica fume. If the test option is the use of, say, 7% silica fume without any age strength, fresh concrete properties and
used, it will need some necessary lead time other supplementary cementitious mate- significant long-term durability benefits.
for developing and testing one or more rial may not be an optimized mixture for
mixtures. Depending on the criteria, a val- the application. The design professional Reference to water to cement
ue of 1,500 to 2,000 coulombs at 28 days should focus on the intended performance ratio (w/c)
might be selected as the criterion. The test requirement (permeability, resistance to It is common for concrete to have sup-
samples must be standard cured for seven ASR, sulfate attack, etc.) and allow the plementary cementitious materials such as
days, followed by 21 days of curing in concrete producer to combine supplemen- fly ash and slag that are included in the
100-degree water. For standard laboratory
curing, the test period should be extended
to at least 56 days to recognize the benefit
provided by fly ash. The use of C1202 test
criteria provides freedom to the concrete
producer to optimize mixture proportions
while ensuring that concrete of low chlo-
ride ion penetrability is used.
Note that the C1202 test has a high
testing variability and is not very suitable
for the testing of samples obtained at the
your advantage
jobsite. It is suggested to be used primarily
to qualify concrete mixtures. For critical
projects, if the design professional is inter-
ested in the use of C1202 criteria for con- CONCRETE
crete acceptance, a more rigorous statisti- WHERE
cal approach is appropriate, as discussed in
Reference 8. YOU
NEED IT,
Requirement for Class F Fly
ash for resistance to sulfate WHEN
attack YOU
For different levels of sulfate exposure,
the 318 Building Code has w/cm, com- NEED IT.
pressive strength and cementitious type
requirements. Concrete containing Class
C fly ash is not known to be very effective
against sulfate attack. Therefore, engineers
prescribe only Class F fly ash for concrete With CemenTech Volumetric Concrete
exposed to sulfate environments. The new Mixers you can reach more job sites, more
318-08 Code adopts a more progressive
economically. Short loads or large pours,
approach and allows a performance-based
evaluation of the proposed cementitious CemenTech delivers consistent, quality
materials by ASTM C1012. The code also concrete every time — putting CemenTech
permits the evidence of past successful users at a significant advantage.
field performance to be used. The use of
C1012 criteria ensures that the concrete
is resistant to sulfate attack and does not
restrict the use of Class C fly ash or any
other material. The one disadvantage of
this approach is the considerable lead time
needed, since tests progress for six months
to one year.
356048_Cementech.indd 1 12/11/07
CONCRETE in focus ı 9:11:22
65 PMAnnual Book of ASTM Standards Vol-
ume 4.01, ASTM International, West
The design professional should focus on the intended Conshohocken, Pa., www.astm.org
4. ASTM C618, C989, C1202, C1240,
performance requirement (permeability, resistance to ASR,
C1260, C1293, C1567, Annual Book
sulfate attack, etc.) and allow the concrete producer to combine of ASTM Standards Volume 4.02,
supplementary cementitious materials judiciously to attain target ASTM International
performance levels. 5. ACI 318-05, “Building Code Require-
ments for Structural Concrete,” ACI
Manual of Concrete Practice, Ameri-
can Concrete Institute, www.aci-int.
calculation of w/cm. The ACI 318 Building be determined by placing trial slabs rather org
Code has limitations on the maximum wa- than the prescriptive minimum cementi- 6. Hill, R.L., and Folliard, K.J., (2006),
ter-to-cementitious-materials ratio (w/cm) tious material content approach, which does “The Impact of Fly Ash on Air-En-
for various durability requirements. Re- not necessarily ensure good fi nishability. trained Concrete,” Concrete InFocus,
ferring to w/c may be misleading, and this Also, a high minimum cementitious mate- Fall 2006, pp. 71-72.
should always be referred to as water-to- rial content frequently leads to non-opti- 7. Thomas, Michael, “Optimizing the
cementitious-materials ratio (w/cm). mized mixtures, high paste contents, higher Use of Fly Ash in Concrete,” Portland
shrinkage, high temperatures due to heat of Cement Association, Publication IS
Minimum cementitious content hydration and associated cracking. ■ 548, 2007, 24 pages
requirements 8. Obla, Karthik, and Lobo, Colin,
ACI 301 and 302 recommend mini- “Acceptance Criteria for Durability
mum cementitious material content (not References Tests,” Concrete International, Ameri-
cement) for floor slabs only, primarily to 1. Guide Toward Improving Concrete can Concrete Institute, May 2007, pp.
improve fi nishability. There is no techni- Specifications, NRMCA publication 43-48.
cally valid reason to include a minimum (under development) 9. ACI 301, 302, ACI Manual of Con-
cementitious content for other structural 2. Master Spec, Cast in Place Concrete, crete Practice, ACI, www.aci-int.org.
elements, provided the performance re- Section 03300, American Institute of For more information, contact Obla
quirements for that element are achieved. Architects, http://www.arcomnet.com/ at 240-485-1163 or via e-mail at kobla@
Even for floor slabs, the fi nishability can 3. ASTM C150, C595, C1012, C1157, nrmca.org.
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