Debating the Status of Graphic Design Education at the Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich
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DOI: 10.53788/SWBE0312
training education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 152
Sonderstellung Originally, this reform was a counter-
movement to industrialization, through
which a decline in crafts had become
Debating the Status apparent. The most influential of these
counter-movements was the Arts & Crafts
of Graphic Design Movement of the 1890s, which began in
Education at the England and included social reform plans
in addition to a reform of the crafts. Its
Kunstgewerbeschule aim was to counter loveless, industrial, mass
Zürich production by means of products that
expressed uniqueness and inherent beauty.
Decades later, the representatives of
refined design, based on good craftsman-
ship that resisted excessive decoration
Rudolf Barmettler, Jonas Niedermann and automation, organized themselves into
various national or regional associa-
tions such as Deutscher Werkbund or later
Whoever wished to train as a graphic Schweizer Werkbund.3 They believed
designer in Switzerland up to the 1980s had that a better apprenticeship was part and
two options: to embark on an apprentice- parcel of an appropriate education, and
ship as a graphic designer in a commercial by this they meant that craftsmanship had to
enterprise, or to study in the Fachklasse be complemented by an artistic school
Grafik (Graphic Design Class) at one of the education, with in-school workshops.4 As a
arts and crafts schools.1 This duality of result, workshops based on this model
training types goes back to the first half of were established in various schools in the
the 20th century, when the profession Netherlands, France, and Germany.
was split into two differentiated tracks, and Basel and Zurich also followed the example
their emergence was not without rivalry. of arts and crafts reform schools such as
The core of the conflict was an ongoing Düsseldorf, Berlin, Weimar, and Munich.5
dispute between the “commercials”—the Since then, there have been competing
tradesmen—and the “artists.” These demands when training as a graphic design-
often heated discussions had their origins er, with craftsmanship on the one hand
in the Europe-wide debates on arts and and artistic expression on the other. This
crafts reform, and the associated emergence essay uses the example of Zurich to trace
of training workshops at the arts and the debates on the establishment and
crafts schools at the turn of the century.2 recognition of the Fachklasse Grafik intraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 153
Switzerland in relation to vocational train- and Crafts School. The school workshop
ing, as documented in archival material concept, originally conceived for further
from the Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich and education, became a Fachschule (Fach-
the Gewerbeschule Zürich, the local klasse) and was integrated into the Gewer-
professional associations,6 and the city and beschule Zürich. As understandable as
Canton of Zurich. this step was at that time, this reorganization
devalued the school workshop concept
and led to public confusion about the actual
Negotiating two options for graphic function of the school.
design training in Zurich As early as 1916, Altherr stated that a
certain dualism was noticeable in the
When Alfred Altherr took over the manage- expansion of the workshops. Because of the
ment of the Kunstgewerbeschule and shortage of students (master craftsmen
Gewerbemuseum Zürich in 1912, he had and junior craftsmen), school apprentices
come from Berlin and brought with him in arts and crafts were trained in Zurich
the ideas of the German Werkbund.7 Shortly between 1912 and 1920.11 However, this con-
after taking up his post, he stated that tradicted the 1916 regulation that stipulated
the workshop, introduced by his predeces- that the school’s task was to further edu-
sor Jules de Praetere, had moved too far cate pupils only after they had completed an
in an “artistic” direction, even into “kitsch.”8 apprenticeship.12 This contradiction soon
Consequently, he redefined the tasks and led to an unwelcome competition between
goals of the school: after graduating from apprenticeships in the Fachklassen and
the school, graduates should not only practical apprenticeships. As a result, diffi-
become artists but also be able to meet the culties arose with the trade associations,
needs of industry and advertising. Further- which did not want to recognize the Fach-
more, Altherr promised that the school’s klasse as a form of apprenticeship; there
artistic direction would lead master crafts- were thus arguments in 1916 with the Verein
men, junior craftsmen, and apprentices Schweizerischer Lithographiebesitzer
to develop exemplary craftsmanship.9 There- (VSLB) (Association of Swiss Lithography
fore, in 1916, he initiated a reorganization Owners) and the Schweizerischer Litho
of the Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich.10 But graphenbund (SLB) (Swiss Lithography
instead of setting up its own design school Association). Apprentices who had com-
for the applied arts, a “Hochschule für pleted their apprenticeships in the Fach-
angewandte Kunst” as was done later in klasse were subsequently no longer allowed
Vienna, Altherr took another step towards to be employed by the companies affili-
craftsmanship with his concept of an Arts ated to the VSLB; those who were alreadytraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 154
thus employed were immediately dis- independence from economic constraints
missed.13 In spite of this decision, the Arts was a major concern. He wanted qual-
and Crafts Department of the Gewerbe ity work to emerge in the Fachklassen, “to
schule Zürich continued to train graphic stimulate thinking and feeling in the best
design apprentices in the Fachklasse.14 possible way.”20 This could not be learned
Graduates of the Fachklasse Grafik were in a restless business, he claimed.21 Entry
called freie (freelance) graphic designers into the Fachklassen was not open to every-
after their training.15 Given these circum- one—there was a tough selection process.
stances and the lack of external recogni- Even today (2020), there is a qualifying exam
tion, the school tried to revise the profile of in the foundation course and a subse-
its Fachklasse. It established a Sonderstellung quent exam in the Fachklasse that students
(special status) in industrial vocational have to pass.
training, which was also not welcomed by In 1939, there was a change of directors
the aforementioned associations. at the school, due to age restrictions.
The main goal of the four-year appren- The new director, Johannes Itten, strove to
ticeship training in a private company emphasize “künstlerisch-schöpferischen
(master craftsman apprenticeship) is above Entwurfsfähigkeit” (artistic-creative design
all the “Besitz der zur Ausübung des Beru- ability).22 According to Itten, the curricu-
fes nötigen Fähigkeiten und Kenntnisse” lum of the Fachklasse should be worked out
(possession of skills and knowledge neces- systematically and according to pedagogical
sary for the practice of the profession).16 methodologies, following basic, scientific/
The five-year training in the Fachklassen artistic principles, which was not possible in
(including the foundation course and vocational apprenticeships.23 He propa-
entrance exam), on the other hand, also gated the concept of the “allergrösste Indivi-
focuses on independence in creative dualisierung des Lehrenden und des Ler-
work, the quality of execution, and the devel- nenden” (greatest individualization of the
opment of new fields of activity.17 The stu- teacher and the pupil). This would be a
dent in the Fachklasse is to be fostered in pedagogical prerequisite for promising work
such a way that he is able to solve the versa- in creative teaching.24 This insistence on
tile tasks of practice, and should do so teaching and artistic freedom aroused dis-
technically and artistically as flawlessly as trust. Did this mean artistic overconfi-
possible.18 Furthermore, the “Stärkung dence instead of “usability”—visual self-
der Urteilskraft und die Pflege des guten realization instead of graphic design for
Geschmacks” (strengthening of judg- commercial use?
ment and the cultivation of good taste) was
of utmost importance.19 For Altherr,training education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 155
The debate on “Sonderstellung” and on the other side were Berchtold von
certification Grünigen as the representative of the Ver-
band Schweizerischer Grafiker (VSG)
Skepticism about the orientation of the (Swiss Graphic Design Association),
Fachklasse also became noticeable in the the Swiss Werkbund (SWB), and head of
debate about the certification of this the apprentice classes of the Arts and
training path that started in August 1940. Crafts Department of the Gewerbeschule
For the development of graphic design Zürich, plus Johannes Itten as director of
education in Switzerland, this debate was the Gewerbeschule Zürich.27
of momentous significance (with one spe- At its core, the dispute revolved around
cific meeting having a crucial impact), and the question of whether the diploma
its consequences remain valid today. The exams held at the Arts and Crafts Depart-
description of a meeting between Johannes ment of the Gewerbeschule Zürich could
Itten, the then director of the Gewerbe legally be equated with the apprenticeship
schule Zürich, and representatives of the exams held by the canton. Itten overcon
federal and cantonal authorities, illustrates fidently assumed that the Gewerbeschule
how education was negotiated based on could determine its own certification and,
legal, political, and professional motives.25 like his predecessors, he cited the school’s
Itten’s predecessors had established the relevance and special status in the voca-
Fachklasse Grafik as a parallel vocational tional education system as his justification.
training pathway since the 1920s, yet there To Itten’s surprise, none of those
was no recognized certification for it. Direc- present questioned the special status of the
tor Itten hoped to strengthen the “Son Fachklassen. The crux of the discussion
derstellung,” or “special status” of the Fach- seemed to be certification. Itten criticized
klasse as a form of training, but also the fact that the diplomas of the Fach
wanted to anchor its certification in law.26 klassen were not recognized by the federal
At a decisive meeting in August 1940, government and the canton. Georg Gilg,
all the authorities involved were present: the the representative of the KIGA, rejected the
Bundesamt für Industrie, Gewerbe und Sonderstellung certification. But he sug-
Arbeit (BIGA) (Federal Office for Industry, gested that instead of a separate diploma,
Trade and Labor), represented by Arnold the Fachklasse students should receive
Schwander; and the Amt für Industrie, the regular Swiss Federal Certificate as a
Gewerbe und Arbeit des Kantons Zürich qualification. This proposal seemed
(KIGA) (Office for Industry, Trade and pragmatic and feasible, but it was clearly
Labor of the Canton of Zurich), represented not what Itten had hoped for. Gilg, how-
by Georg Gilg and Dr. Ernst Zaugg. Sitting ever, seemed to have general doubts abouttraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 156
arts and crafts education. As a representative cantonal requirements of the individual
of the Canton of Zurich, he demanded professions and be approved by the KIGA
that the existing cantonal teaching program and the BIGA.29 In addition, the train-
be adhered to. Itten tried to convince those ing relationship had to be regulated by an
present that the Fachklassen knew best apprenticeship contract. As a result, the
how to define and carry out their final exams Gewerbeschule Zürich developed a corre-
themselves. Berchtold von Grünigen, as sponding regulation for the Fachklasse
representative of the VSG and the SWB, Grafik. This regulation was regarded as
shared Itten’s opinion, and when the author- mandatory until the 1980s, although it
ities demanded that the graduation pro- already caused discomfort to the VSG
cesses at the Fachklassen should be overseen and the SWB. The associations were of the
by external experts, he complained about opinion that any regulation of training
such demands that would clearly curtail the should be rejected. According to them, a
independence of the Fachklassen. graphic designer is an independent artist
As one outcome of this debate, Itten whose impulses must emerge from the free,
had to come to terms with certification by spiritual development of his personality.30
means of the Swiss Federal Certificate for And from today’s perspective, this opinion
the Fachklassen, and with having examiners is even more stridently upheld: the teacher,
drawn from the ranks of the professional who is himself an artist, can only give
associations. his best if he feels free. The two associations
made an unequivocal plea for freedom in
teaching.31
The compromise This phobia of regulations on the part
of some associations and designers was also
The negotiations with the federal govern- a result of the zeitgeist. In October 1945,
ment and the canton resulted in an order the SWB emphasized explicitly that its atti-
from the Volkswirtschaftsdirektion des tude was backed by a “Angst vor Gleich-
Kantons Zürich (Department of Economic schaltung” (fear of enforced conformity).32
Affairs of the Canton of Zurich) that There were perceptible influences, they
acknowledged the Sonderstellung of the claimed, that were inhibiting creative devel-
Fachklassen and agreed on a separate, opment. Furthermore, the advantage
final exam. The latter was now legally equi of having been spared from war, unlike the
valent to the final cantonal apprentice- neighboring countries, was in danger of
ship exams.28 It was important for this “spe- being lost.33 The demands of the sponsors
cial status” that the curricula and examina- (the BIGA and the KIGA), however, were
tion plans should meet the minimum understandable from today’s point of view.training education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 157
As late as November 1945, Director Itten many pupils had no idea that any work ought
tried to regain territory he believed he to be based on reproducibility. It should
had lost. He emphasized the link with the be noted that no businessman had ever spo-
SWB and demanded that the experts ken to students to develop a brief from
supervising examinations should be elected a sales perspective. He concluded that the
by the examination commission on the link between advertising professionals,
basis of proposals from the school super prospective businessmen, and the teachers
visory commission and the SWB. He of the Fachklasse Grafik ought to become
insisted that the experts themselves should more active.35 Nine years later, none other
be members of the SWB and, if possi- than advertising legend Adolf Wirz spoke
ble, of the professional association (VSG) up, the then president of the Bund Schweize-
in charge.34 rischer Reklameberater (BSR) (Swiss
Clearly, this raised certain questions: Association of Advertising Consultants). His
Would the idealistic support of the arts and concern was that young graphic designers
crafts schools by the SWB and VSG—the should engage in practice with the correct
emphasis on artistic and didactic freedom mindset. Wirz wrote that he would wel-
as well as a resistance to any regulations— come it if pupils were made aware of the real
sooner or later lead to methodical arbitrari- task of the Gebrauchsgrafiker (commercial
ness, to an interchangeability of learning graphic designer).36
contents, subjects, and tasks? Was there not
a real danger at this point that the Fach-
klasse Grafik would drift into the realm of Conclusion
free arts and alienate itself from practice?
Was there not the danger of a certain crony- In retrospect, Director Itten’s persistent
ism if school directors, department heads, “struggle” for the special status and certifica-
faculty members, and external jurors were tion of the Fachklasse Grafik was under-
members of the same professional asso standable. What he subsequently achieved
ciations? On the other hand, were the “com- became the standard throughout Switzer-
mercial” trade associations at that time land—to the present day. These negotiations
really the “devils”? led to a coexistence of Fachklasse and
In 1947, the cold shower came promptly. practical apprenticeship in graphic design
The representatives of advertising and training that is unique in Europe. A
the industry—the “commercials”—were graphic designer’s training is based on an
enraged. The criticism came from the “artistic,” conceptual orientation (Fach-
Zürcher Werbeklub (Zurich Advertising klasse) on the one hand, and an advertising,
Club). Paul O. Althaus remarked that service-related, craftsmanship-basedtraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 158
orientation (apprenticeship in practice) on exist anywhere in Switzerland. On the con-
the other. The constant rivalry between trary, project teaching and workshop teach-
these two forms of training has long proved ing, with basic and advanced subjects,
to be very productive. Each has had to are still the standard in our curricula. This
compete with the other for clients in the model has proven to be very successful
marketplace, and the complementarity when compared to tertiary training abroad.
and overlap involved have contributed to It is notable here that the curricula in Bach-
the high quality of Swiss graphic design elor studies in visual communication and
training. graphic design are still largely based on the
However, the constant call for freedom Fachklassen model.
of teaching and artistic expression, which
has been characterized by a certain ideal-
ism, proved to be something of a “boomer-
ang.” The problems it brings were also
exemplified by the criticism leveled by rep-
resentatives of advertising and industry
in the postwar years. When too much “art”
and too many “concepts” are involved,
the labor market tends to get bypassed. In a
positive sense, regulation by the authorities
also means that teaching concepts and
curricula must be developed and disciplines
and professional profiles reconsidered.
This ensures that teaching can keep pace
with the development of technology and
with new tasks in practice, while at the
same time opening up new fields of activity.
About forty years ago, however, a new,
academic training path for graphic designers
opened up via the higher education col-
leges of the schools of design. Its importance
further increased some twenty years ago
when this training attained university status
(at the Universities of Applied Arts).
Pure lectures and self-study, although com-
mon at universities abroad, do not reallytraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 159
1 Today there are four different 8 See “Timetables,” in the volume office), “Entwurf eines Regle-
training paths in Switzerland: the Visual Arguments. ments über die Ausbildung des
academic path at a university of 9 Altherr 1916c: 14. Graphikers in der graphischen
applied sciences and arts; the path 10 Budliger 1978: 97. Fachklasse der Gewerbeschule I
via further education after com- 11 In the winter and summer semes- der Stadt Zürich,” annex, no. 5.
pleting an apprenticeship at the ter of 1928–1929, for instance, Zurich: June 8, 1938. Zürcher
Colleges of Higher Education; the there were twice as many school Hochschule der Künste, Archiv
Fachklasse Grafik; and that of an apprentices as assistant and mas- ZHdK, AY-VCB-00001.
apprenticeship within a company. ter craftsmen in the Fachklassen. 17 Steiner, Heinrich. Letter of the
2 von Grünigen 1943: 261. See Altherr 1929: 5. Ortsgruppe Zürich (Zurich local
3 “[Der Werkbund strebte] die 12 Zentralschulpflege der Stadt group) of the Verband Schwei
Veredelung der gewerblichen Zürich. Verordnung über die zerischer Grafiker VSG to the
Arbeit im Zusammenwirken von Organisation der Gewerbeschule Volkswirtschaftsdirektion des
Kunst, Industrie und Handwerk und des Kunstgewerbemuseums Kantons Zürich. Zurich: Septem-
durch Erziehung, Aufklärung Zürich. Zurich: April 27, 1932. ber 12, 1945. Zürcher Hoch-
und Stellungnahme zu künstler- Zürcher Hochschule der Künste, schule der Künste, Archiv ZHdK,
isch und volkswirtschaftlichen Archiv ZHdK, AB-UAE-00002. AB-UAE-00002.
praktischen Fragen” (Zumstein 13 Budliger 1978: 110. 18 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Memo-
2013b: 63). The social reform 14 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Minutes randum on the decision of the
plans on the other hand were of the Supervisory Commission Teachers’ Conference of the Arts
dropped. See Kruft 1977: 29. of the Gewerbeschule Zürich. and Crafts Department of the
4 Frauenfelder 1938: 62. The Zurich: December 12, 1917. Gewerbeschule Zürich. Zurich:
Prussian Ministry of Trade and Stadtarchiv Zürich, V.H.c.121. April 28, 1938. Stadtarchiv
Commerce had issued a decisive 15 These trained apprentices—freie Zürich, V.H.c.121.:7.1.
“Lehrwerkstatt-Erlass” (Training Graphiker—could later only work 19 See Keller, Ernst. Letter to the
Workshop Decree) in 1906, as either a freelancer or an inde- kant. Industrie- und Gewerbe
which defined training workshops pendent graphic designer, as they amt (cantonal industry and trade
as common components of had no right to be employed by office), “Entwurf eines Regle-
education. See Maciuika 2006: the contracting companies. It also ments über die Ausbildung des
120–131. led to misunderstandings, for the Graphikers in der graphischen
5 The director of the Kunstgewer- lithography trade and related Fachklasse der Gewerbeschule I
beschule Zürich and the Gewer- professions in Switzerland under- der Stadt Zürich,” annex, no. 5.
bemuseum Zürich, Jules de stood the term Graphiker (graphic Zurich: June 8, 1938. Zürcher
Praetere, advocated the school designer) to mean Zeichner-Litho Hochschule der Künste, Archiv
workshop concept. See de graph (draftsman-lithographer). ZHdK, AY-VCB-00001.
Praetere 1908: 19. Later there was See Keller, Ernst. Letter to the 20 Kienzle 1929: 22.
a lively exchange among the kant. Industrie- und Gewerbeamt 21 Altherr 1924: 7.
reform schools. Highly respected (cantonal industry and trade 22 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Minutes
designers came to teach in office), “Ausbildung des of the Supervisory Commission
Switzerland in the 1920s GRAFIKERS in der grafischen of the Gewerbeschule Zürich.
(e.g. Fritz Helmuth Ehmcke). Kunstanstalt,” annex, no. 1. Zurich: June 27, 1941. Stadtarchiv
6 The Swiss Werkbund (SWB) and Zurich: June 8, 1938. Zürcher Zürich, V.H.c.121.:2.1.3.1.
the Verband Schweizerischer Hochschule der Künste, Archiv 23 Ibid.
Grafiker (VSG). ZHdK, AY-VCB-00001. 24 Itten 1939: 14.
7 Altherr was a co-founder of the 16 Keller, Ernst. Letter to the kant. 25 See “Training,” in the volume
SWB in 1913. See Bignens 2008: Industrie- und Gewerbeamt Multiple Voices.
13–18. (cantonal industry and trade 26 Federal Act on Vocationaltraining education policy schools associations Arts and Crafts 160
Training, June 26, 1930, 876. See the Gewerbeschule Zürich.
“Legal Documents,” in the Zurich: December 4, 1945.
volume Visual Arguments. Stadtarchiv Zürich,
27 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Minutes V.H.c.121.:2.1.3.1.
of the Arts and Crafts Depart- 35 Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich.
ment of the Gewerbeschule Minutes of the Supervisory
Zürich. Zurich: August 21, 1940. Section I of the Kunstgewerbe
Stadtarchiv Zürich, schule Zürich. Zurich: Febru-
V.H.c.121.:3.1.2. ary 18, 1947. Stadtarchiv Zürich,
28 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Minutes V.H.c.121.:2.1.3.1.
of the Supervisory Commission 36 Wirz, Adolf. President of the
of the Gewerbeschule Zürich. Bund Schweizerischer Reklame-
Zurich: April 29, 1944. Stadt berater (BSR) (Swiss Associa-
archiv Zürich, V.H.c.121.:2.1.3.1. tion of Advertising Consultants)
29 Volkswirtschaftsdirektion des in a letter to Hans Fischli, direc-
Kantons. Order of the Volks tor of the Kunstgewerbeschule
wirtschaftsdirektion des Kantons Zürich. Zurich: February 24,
Zürich “Verfügung: Fachklasse 1956. Zürcher Hochschule der
gilt als Lehre.” Zurich: 1944. Künste, Archiv ZHdK,
Stadtarchiv Zürich, V.H.c.121.:7.3. AY-VCB-00001.
30 Steiner, Heinrich. Letter of the
Ortsgruppe Zürich (Zurich local
group) of the Verband Schweizeri-
scher Grafiker VSG to the Volks
wirtschaftsdirektion des Kantons
Zürich. Zurich: September 12,
1945. Zürcher Hochschule der
Künste, Archiv ZHdK, ABUAE-
00002.
31 Swiss Werkbund. Minutes of the
Board of Directors of the Swiss
Werkbund SWB. Zurich: Sep-
tember 13, 1945. SWB-Archives.
32 Swiss Werkbund (signed by Rich-
ard Bühler and Egidius Streiff ).
Letter to KIGA, Zurich, as well
as to the Gewerbeinspektorat
Basel-Stadt (Trade Inspectorate
of the Canton Basel-City).
Zurich: October 5, 1945. Zürcher
Hochschule der Künste, Archiv
ZHdK, AB-UAE-00002. See
“Letter of Correspondence,” in
the volume Visual Arguments.
33 Ibid.
34 Gewerbeschule Zürich. Minutes
of the Supervisory Section I ofYou can also read
