Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship and Domestic Religion in Terrace House 2 at Ephesos
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Chapter 12
Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship and
Domestic Religion in Terrace House 2 at Ephesos
Norbert Zimmermann
In the seven peristyle houses that form the insula of Terrace House 2, a broad
variety of evidence for private worship, domestic religion, or other religious
activities has been uncovered. The archaeological documentation extends
from architectural settings such as rooms dedicated to gods and niches with
paintings or statuettes of divinities, and finds like small altars and images of
deities, to religious objects like thymiateria (“incense burners”) and deposits
of offerings. The following contribution will survey these different contexts
and address a range of material, although the archaeological situation is rather
complex. Before discussing the evidence, some general remarks on the condi-
tions of their preservation and discovery set some parameters for the potential
and limits of interpretation.
1 Overview of the Terrace Houses
The seven peristyle houses of Terrace House 2 extend along three terraces
(Plan 2, no. 51 and Plan 3). The insula has a common building history of four
main phases of construction, use, and reconstruction over a period of nearly
200 years, spanning Tiberian to Gallienic times.1 In addition, each of the seven
peristyle houses that comprise the insula has its own character and microhis-
tory of abandonment, burial by erosion in antiquity, and modern excavation
and documentation.
A few remarks illuminate the problems of interpretation. While Units 1–5
seem to have been in regular use for family housing, Unit 6 may have served
1 For Terrace House 2 and the single peristyle houses called ‘dwelling units,’ see Thür 2005a
(Unit 4); Krinzinger 2010 (Units 1 and 2); Thür and Rathmayr 2014 (Unit 6); Rathmayr 2016a
(Unit 7). The publication of Units 3 and 5 are still in preparation. For an overview in English
on Terrace house 2, its building history, and its paintings, see Zimmermann and Ladstätter
2011, 42–138.
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212 Zimmermann
an association,2 and Unit 7 an imperial cult.3 The units differ not only in the
topographical position and extension, but also in our perception of the ground
level. This becomes clear when we see how the main entrance of Unit 6 is
displayed as the first floor, seen from the main access at the Embolos, while
for Unit 1 and 2 we should expect the main entrance from the south, the so-
called Hanghausstrasse (‘Terrace House Street’), to the center of the now
lost first floor galleries around the main courtyard, and not, as usually done
nowadays, from the east or west on today’s ground level. These observations,
in combination with the location of finds and their attribution to a specific
room, are important for our interpretations of their meaning and use in the
different spaces.
Furthermore, the excavation revealed that the destruction happened not in
a single event, but through a series of earthquakes, documented by evidence
for reconstruction of the partially damaged insula preserved in subsequent
destruction layers. In some cases it is evident that previous earthquake debris
was never moved away, as in Unit 4, where nearly complete sets of household
furnishings came to light.4 In other units, precious objects were found in closed
rooms, obviously stored there during the unfinished reconstruction process. In
other cases, it is evident that certain areas had been cleared of debris for a lim-
ited reuse of the space in late antiquity.5 All these different conditions require
a careful analysis of each object and setting to reconstruct the context and
the original use—something that can hardly be done in this contribution. But
what can be done is to select some of the more interesting finds and to discuss
as much evidence as possible regarding the private religious practices of the
inhabitants.
2 Entrances
We begin our survey with the entrances of the houses. They testify to a com-
mon concern to control the boundaries between outside and inside for the
protection of the house and its inhabitants and visitors.
In the entrance of Unit 6, on the Embolos level of the outer vestibulum 1,
before entering the main staircase leading to the upper level, the left (east)
side of the doorway was protected by a roughly depicted phallus (fig. 12.1),
2 Thür 2014b, 849–53; see also below.
3 Rathmayr 2006, 119–49; Rathmayr 2016a.
4 See Ladstätter 2005a, 242–62.
5 For example, Unit 2; Rathmayr and Wiplinger 2010, 100; Ladstätter 2010, 193.
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Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship 213
a common apotropaic symbol for protection and fortune, amply attested in
similar locations, for example, at Pompeii.6 A similar protection of an outer
entrance is not preserved in other units, but the southern Units 1 and 2 offer
analogies in protecting the entrances to their courtyards. As mentioned above,
the main entrance was probably from the so-called Terrace House Street in the
south and led to the ground floor galleries around the court. In Unit 2, a stair-
case in the southwestern corner descended into the south gallery of the main
court (SR 22–23), where the end of the stair was marked from the first building
phase onward with a heros equitans relief, visible as one entered the court (fig.
12.2).7 A niche in front of the relief could be used for small offerings, but it was
constructed only in the late Severan period (fourth building phase), when the
marble slabs that decorate the walls were installed. In this position, the relief
was visible to every person entering the court, and at the same time the relief
itself ‘saw’ every single door that opened onto the court. In other words, its
magical protection covered the entire inner space of the house.8
Figure 12.1 Terrace House 2. Graffito of a phallus in the entrance of Unit 6
6 Taeuber 2014, 119 and n. 672, pl. 111, GR 254B. Apotropaic phallic images are quite common at
the entrances of houses in the western empire, e.g., the Priapos in the fauces of the Casa dei
Vettii (Pompei 6.1).
7 Cristof 2010, 657–58. For a similar terracotta relief in the late Hellenistic domus of Terrace
House 1, see Rathmayr, in this volume, fig. 13.10.
8 On mounted heroes in domestic religion see Tybout 2005.
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214 Zimmermann
Figure 12.2 Terrace House 2. Heros equitans relief in the entrance of Courtyard SR 22–23
of Unit 2
Iconographically, we see the mounted hero making an offering to a snake, the
animal that represents the agathos daimon, to whom we will soon return. The
relief dates, as in similar cases, to the late Hellenistic period, at least one gener-
ation before the construction of Terrace House 2. It remains an open question
if there is a real personal or familial relationship between the persons repre-
sented on the relief and the owners or inhabitants of the house. In any case,
during its long history the relief was never moved and never changed function
from that which the first inhabitants intended.
The situation is similar—but less clear—in Unit 1, where a round base marks
an analogical position next to the staircase leading down from the first floor to
the south gallery of the courtyard (SR 2). The base could have been the loca-
tion of the Hekataion (fig. 12.3), a three-sided statuette of Hekate, found very
close by.9 The crossing point would have been protected in all directions, and
9 Rathmayr 2010, 338–39.
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Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship 215
Figure 12.3 Terrace House 2. Hekataion, probably once protecting the entrance of SR 2 of
Unit 1
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216 Zimmermann
again the effect could be intended in both ways, toward each passing person
as well as from the Hekataion toward each door opening onto the courtyard.
3 Domestic Sanctuaries
The entrance of Unit 4 brings us to the issue of real domestic sanctuaries, at
least in a secondary context. During the excavation, in the Entrance Room 4
and in the small Room 5 to its north, three late Hellenistic grave reliefs were
found, two still in situ inside a niche, and one with an uncertain original
location.10 All of them show a man on a kline and his wife sitting to his right
side, with several other family members and slaves gathered around the main
group. At least twice, a snake is part of the scenery, but again we cannot prove
the relationship between the owner or the inhabitants of the house and the
persons depicted in the reliefs. Ancestor worship, however, seems a very rea-
sonable possibility.11 Room 5 was the original entrance, and only in phase III,
when the huge Marble Hall (31) and Apsidal Hall (8) of Unit 6 occupied a third
of the surface of Unit 4, did their entrance shift to the south from Room 5
to 4, creating the small sanctuary. Decorated with all three reliefs, the sanc-
tuary also contains a huge image of a male snake, lifted up in five loops, his
mouth gaping open (fig. 12.4) on the opposite northern wall.12 The position
of the snake allowed the agathos daimon to control the entrance as well as
all the doors of rooms that opened onto the court.13 While the reliefs always
remained visible, the snake was only detected during the excavation, as it
was covered with white plaster. Within the same layer of white plaster, on the
opposite wall beneath the relief, a male portrait had been added, which today,
unfortunately, has completely vanished (fig. 12.5). The portrait, like the reliefs,
probably functioned as part of a private ancestor cult. In this case, we are able
to document the dynamic process of transformation from the entrance reliefs
to the installation of the small sanctuary for domestic worship.14 It seems to
be possible to read the diachronic changes in the shrine Room 5 as indicating
the growth of the occupants’ ancestor cult over time, and for subsequent gen-
erations, adapting the images to cohere with the contemporary family while
integrating at least partly their ancestral traditions.
10 Thür 2005a, 208–11.
11 See, regarding the house and especially the atrium as place for the ancestor cult, at least
in Republican Rome, Stein-Hölkeskamp 2006, 305–10.
12 Strocka 1977, 92–93; see also Quatember 2000, 76–99.
13 Zimmermann 2005a.
14 Rathmayr and Zimmermann 2014, 717–22, 719 with fig. 3.
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Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship 217
Figure 12.4 Terrace House 2. Wall painting with agathos daimon as snake, from Room 5 of
Unit 4
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218 Zimmermann
Figure 12.5 Terrace House 2. Drawing, south wall of Room 5, Unit 4, painting of an
ancestor’s portrait below the niche with a funerary relief
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Archaeological Evidence for Private Worship 219
A much larger space probably dedicated to a domestic shrine was discov-
ered in Room 31b of Unit 6. In phase IV, two former niches of the north wall
were covered by the construction of a socle, with an aedicule in the center
and probably a wooden wardrobe on both sides. Unfortunately, no trace of the
cult statue venerated here remains, and the function of the wardrobe, whether
for books or for religious objects, is unknown. The monumental dimension
and the position close to the entrance of the Courtyard 31a, afford Room 31b a
religious function in a dimension and position corresponding to the monu-
mental size of Unit 6.15 It is interesting to note that the rather elaborate system
for closing the room, as reconstructed by Hilke Thür, very probably allowed
occupants to see inside the room from the courtyard or vice versa even when
the doors were closed. A perforation in the middle door allowed for a glimpse
inside of, or outside from, Room 31b when the inner door was closed.16 It seems
that communication with or from the shrine was intentionally not interrupted
by the doors.
4 Niches for Religious Practices
Beside these shrines, some niches for religious practices were preserved in
Terrace House 2. A first example was found in Room 45b of Unit 7, on the low-
est Embolos level. The room is a part of the tabernae rooms behind the line
of monuments known as the Octagon and the Heroon on the south side of
the Embolos.17 In the niche on the western side of the wall, an unusual image
of Artemis, with her deer and offering at an altar, was painted in phase IV
(fig. 12.6). In subsequent decoration, Artemis was painted over by a motif of
scattered flowers. Two objects, an inscribed vessel and a terra cotta herm,
however, were found on the ground close to the niche, probably previously
contained therein.18 As indicated by the wall paintings around the niche—an
iconographic program of servants offering goods to the entering guests—the
room may have served as a space for hospitality, a kind of tablinum or caupona.19
Another niche adorned with a motif of scattered flowers was discovered in
SR 9d of Unit 4, a small kitchen installed on the first level of the unit.20 It is
probable that a small head of Serapis once rested in one of the two little niches
15 See Thür 2014a, 33–36.
16 See Thür 2014a, 183, 189–90, pl. 75.
17 See Rathmayr 2016a, 728, 740–43, 769–71; Rathmayr, in this volume.
18 See Rathmayr 2016a, 769–70.
19 Zimmermann 2016, 743.
20 Zimmermann 2005a, 119.
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Figure 12.6 Terrace House 2. Wall painting showing Artemis making an offering at an altar,
niche in Room 45b of Unit 7
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in the western wall over the cooking place, where the open fire requires, so to
speak, the presence of a deity for protection and welfare.21 The position recalls
the western lararia with their natural connection to the fire and the cooking
place of the house.22
A final example of a niche for a domestic shrine comes again from Unit 6.
Located on the south wall of the Small Room 36e, on the west side of the
Peristyle Court 31a, it can probably be interpreted as a domestic shrine and
may even be connected to the presence of fire: this small room contained the
praefurnium of the heating system for Room 36d, and was built in the fourth
phase. The ensemble of finds that may be attributed to the niche is a lamp with
a satyr, and a thymiaterion with the portrait of Serapis.23 Wherever there was
a place for open fire in the house like cooking places or prefurnia, its presence
required protection by deities, often displayed in niches.
5 Thymiateria
With the thymiaterion, often documented and found widely in contexts for
daily offerings of incense, we arrive at a natural group of objects for everyday
worship in Terrace House 2.24 The god being worshipped (usually Dionysos
or Serapis) is depicted in the center flanked by two lamps under a little altar
platform for incense (fig. 12.7). An overview of the find spots of thymiateria
demonstrate, as in Unit 4, their widespread distribution in the entrances of
houses and in their main rooms.25 One can imagine that when guests passed
the entrance of these rooms, everyone brought an offering to the deity. This is
confirmed by the plans of Unit 2 and Unit 6, with indications of the positions
of the thymiateria detected during the excavation.26 The thymiateria belong
to the last period of use, from the mid-3rd century onward, and attest that the
inhabitants of Terrace House 2 were largely devoted to Dionysos and Serapis.
6 Ensembles of Deities, Ensembles of Portraits
A consistent quantity of sculpted deities of every genre has been detected in
Terrace House 2, showing a variety of possibilities for creating sacred spaces,
21 Thür 2005a, 219 and 225.
22 On lararia, see Giacobello 2008.
23 Thür and Rathmayr 2014, 286–88, 390.
24 Ladstätter 2013a.
25 Ladstätter 2005a, 248–56, especially fig. 46.
26 Ladstätter 2014, 468–70 (Unit 6); Ladstätter 2005a, 539–40 (Unit 2).
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Figure 12.7 Thymiaterion with head of Serapis, from Terrace House 2
protected areas or devotional places in various architectural and functional
settings. The oldest example is a relief of a fountain from the Hellenistic
period, originally part of a preexisting building that was incorporated into the
eastern wall of the east gallery in court 21 of Unit 4: inside the rectangular well
enclosure, facing the person drawing water, a marble relief with three nymphs
protects the water and may safeguard its healing effect.27
An interesting ensemble of statuettes of deities was found throughout
Terrace House 2, confirming generally the connection to the Roman and
Greek Olympian gods, as well as to some Egyptian gods like Isis and Serapis.
Some finds belonged to small ensembles and can most likely be attributed
to (now lost) domestic shrines. This is the case for ensembles of deities from
an explicitly religious context, as in the gallery of the first floor of Unit 2. The
ensemble consists of three bronze statuettes of Serapis, Isis Panthea, and Athena
27 See Rathmayr 2005, 214–16, pl. 141.2.
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(fig. 12.8), and a small bronze altar.28 One can also hypothetically link them
to some of the private portraits found in the vicinity, and think about an in-
stallation including the portraits and the statuettes. A religious function could
thus be proposed for the little ivory portraits of a man, a woman, and a boy,29
belonging to a family dating to the mid-3rd century ce. It is possible that they
show the family of the last patron of Unit 2. Taking into account other finds
which demonstrate a military career in Egypt, the explicit devotion to Egyptian
deities is even more comprehensible.30 Unit 2 documents this relationship,
due to the preservation of the destruction layers, better than any other unit of
Terrace House 2. Other units preserved even more material, but yielded fewer
clear examples of personal devotion.
7 Offerings and Evidence for Sacrifices during Construction
(Foundation Deposits)
As a last and very important group we should mention the evidence for sac-
rifices during the construction of a building. These offerings to the gods, pe-
titioning for a stable and enduring construction, were found occasionally,
wherever an excavation was possible, under the ground level.31 They usually
consist of sets of ceramic or glass objects that are uncommonly well preserved
and intentionally buried in a strategic position at the center of a court or be-
yond a door sill. The largest group of objects was found in court 21 of Unit 4
and can be attributed to the very first phase of construction.32 The deposition
of a complete set of tableware allows for the reconstruction of a religious meal
that could have taken place during the process of construction, with the ritual
burying of the remains as protection for the building (fig. 12.9). Due to the ab-
sence of written sources, we lack more detailed information on the circum-
stances of such offerings, but they occur in contexts connected not only to the
first building phase but also to later renovations.
Similar offerings were found in later construction phases, close to new or
renewed doorways. In Unit 3, the new opening of the door between Rooms 16b
and 17 (in phase III) was marked by the deposition of an offering under the
28 See Christof 2010, 659.
29 See Christof 2010, 666, pl. 293.
30 See Flessa 2010, 670–76, pl. 494.
31 There is not yet any general overview on such construction sacrifices in the Roman
period. For coins see Donderer 1984.
32 Ladstätter 2005a, 238, pl. 214; a construction offering was also detected in 2004 under the
pavement of room 12a in Unit 5, see Ladstätter 2005b n. 96.
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Figure 12.8 Terrace House 2. Bronze statuettes of Serapis, Isis Panthea, and Athena,
from Unit 2
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Figure 12.9 Terrace House 2. Construction sacrifice, deposited in Courtyard 21 of Unit 4
new soil and the new mosaic floor of Room 17.33 In a similar manner, in Unit 6
the transformation of the doorway between the western part of the gallery
around the peristyle court and its southern part was protected by an offering
under the soil of the entrance.34 We could expect a ritual for similar trans-
formations in the house connected to ritual eating and drinking intended to
protect the new part of the house and its inhabitants.35 As mentioned, literary
sources are widely lacking for this kind of offering, making the archaeological
evidence even more precious.
8 Graffiti
Finally, one could list a large number of graffiti from wall surfaces expressing
religious feelings or documenting a relationship to religious phenomena. Very
often the wish for fortune is expressed with only a name and the intention
for good luck (eutyche).36 Sometimes a selected deity is named, such as Roma
(fig. 12.10),37 or drawn as an image, like Athena.38 In one instance, we can see
the imprint of the finger ring of the patron of Unit 2 (in phase IV), with the
33 Ladstätter 2005b, 179–86.
34 Waldner 2014, 460–61, par. 4.
35 On the meals and their spaces and decorations, see Zimmermann 2017.
36 Taeuber 2005, 133 (GR 87, GR 44, GR 90, GR 28, GR s73).
37 Taeuber 2005, GR 73. The inscription reads: ῾Ρώμη πανβασίλια, τὸ σὸν κράτος οὔποτ᾽ ὀλῆται.
“Rome, queen over all, may your power never perish” (transcription by Taeuber, transla-
tion by Steven J. Friesen).
38 Taeuber 2014, 337 (GR 242), pl. 108.
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Figure 12.10 Terrace House 2. Graffito evoking Roma, Unit 4
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image of Isis-Fortuna stamped into the still wet plaster of the new wall paint-
ings. This was an action intended to seal the building activity with the personal
seal of fortune,39 but we know that it soon failed. Only one generation later a
series of earthquakes destroyed Terrace House 2, and also preserved this un-
usual and precious evidence of domestic and private religion.
To sum up, then, in Terrace House 2 we do not have standardized domes-
tic shrines like the lararia at Pompeii. But the rich evidence attests a range of
important religious phenomena, including at least the veneration of Greek,
Roman, and Egyptian deities, the presence of agathos daimon as a snake,
the maintenance of ancestor cults, and the practice of sacrifices during con-
struction. Further excavation and analysis will certainly enhance the already
impressive array of objects connected to religious activity in the private houses
of Ephesos.
Acknowledgements
I want to express my gratitude to Sabine Ladstätter, the director of the Austrian
Archaeological Institute and the Austrian excavation at Ephesos, and to all col-
leagues of the Terrace House team who shared their knowledge and scientific
results with me over the years.
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