Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
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doi:10.5477/cis/reis.152.47
Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged
Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the
Capability Approach
Perspectivas y políticas sobre la juventud en desventaja en España: un
análisis desde el enfoque de capacidades
Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel
Key words Abstract
Political Analysis With the crisis in Spain, the youth face a situation of multi-dimensional
• Social Exclusion disadvantage. In this paper we analyse the perspectives of different
• Capability Approach stakeholders on this situation, as well as how these perspectives inform
• Youth the design and implementation of public policies. We carried out a
• Political Participation qualitative study with an innovative theoretical approach, the capability
approach. We reviewed secondary sources and undertook 21 in-depth
interviews with 21 key stakeholders. Evidences show that current policies
affecting the youth have a narrow focus on job creation, overlooking the
multiple disadvantages that today’s young face. This situation is
aggravated by the lack of participation in definition and implementation of
policies, and by partisan interests and short-term strategies.
Palabras clave Resumen
Análisis político Con la crisis en España, la juventud se enfrenta a una situación
• Exclusión social multidimensional de desventaja. En el artículo analizamos los puntos de
• Enfoque de vista de distintos actores sobre dicha situación, y cómo estas
capacidades perspectivas se reflejan en el diseño e implementación de las políticas
• Juventud públicas. Realizamos un estudio cualitativo mediante una aproximación
• Participación política innovadora, el enfoque de capacidades, utilizando tanto revisión de
fuentes secundarias como entrevistas en profundidad a 21 actores clave.
Las evidencias muestran que las actuales políticas tienen una perspectiva
limitada, centrada en la creación de empleo y que no considera las
múltiples desventajas a las que se enfrentan los jóvenes hoy en día. Esto
se agrava con la falta de participación en la definición e implementación
de políticas, y con intereses partidistas y estrategias cortoplacistas.
Citation
Hueso, Andrés; Boni, Alejandra and Belda-Miquel, Sergio (2015). “Perspectives and Policies on
Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach”. Revista Española de
Investigaciones Sociológicas, 152: 47-62.
(http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.152.47)
Andrés Hueso: WaterAid (United Kingdom) | ahuesog@gmail.com
Alejandra Boni: INGENIO-Instituto de Gestión de la Innovación y el Conocimiento (CSIC - Universitat Politècnica
de València) | aboni@dpi.upv.es
Sergio Belda-Miquel: INGENIO (CSIC - Universitat Politècnica de València) | serbelmi@ingenio.upv.es
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6248 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
Introduction Against this backdrop, in this article we
aim to analyse the situation and disadvanta-
When compared with similar countries, the ges of youth in Spain. We examine the diver-
economic crisis in Spain stands out not only se perspectives and visions that different key
because of its greater intensity and greater stakeholders have on youth disadvantages,
impact on unemployment, but also for its existing policies to tackle youth problems
multidimensional and differential effect on and policy making and implementation pro-
the young. Youth unemployment figures have cesses, paying special attention to the parti-
been consistently over 50% (Rocha, 2012; cipation of youth and other relevant actors.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística, 2014),
To undertake this analysis, we draw on
more than twice the EU average.
the capability approach for the conceptuali-
The Spanish model of welfare State was sation of ideas on disadvantage and partici-
already considered “sub-protectionist” pation, as well as for looking at how these are
(Walther, 2006) before the crisis. Those in translated into public policies. The capability
need are expected to resort to their family approach is a framework that provides a
networks – the key safety net in Mediterra- complex, multidimensional and process-
nean social systems (Soler, Planas and Feixa, centred perspective (Bonvin, 2009), which is
2014)–, while charities also play an important both relevant and innovative for addressing
role. Regarding the young, youth policies in the issue at hand.
Spain have always been underdeveloped
and very few resources have been dedicated In the next section, we present key con-
to this group, especially in comparison to cepts in the capability approach (capabilities,
Central and Northern European countries functioning and the concept of the ‘informa-
(Wallace and Bendit, 2009). tional bases of judgement in justice’) and its
perspectives on disadvantage and participa-
In this context, the crisis has brought not
tion. We describe our methodological strate-
just high unemployment, but also general
gy in section 3. In section 4, we explore the
budget cuts both in youth policies and in
different perspectives on youth disadvantage
other sectoral policies directly affecting
and how these relate to public policies and
youth (Soler, Planas and Feixa, 2014). This
indicators. In section 5 we deal with the
has resulted in a situation of uncertainty and
views different stakeholders have on policies
serious disadvantage for the young, who
affecting youth. We then analyse their pers-
face many challenges in emancipating and
pectives on the policy-making process, with
fulfilling their personal and professional aspi-
a particular emphasis on participation; we
rations (Comas, 2011).
close with our conclusions.
Unemployment measures, which have
been received with controversy, have been
the only policy response to this situation, Conceptual and analytical
thus potentially overlooking the multiple di- framework: Key elements of
sadvantages the young face today (Moreno the Capability Approach and
Mínguez, 2012), especially those at the low its relevance in analysing
end of the social spectrum. Moreover, the public policies affecting
lack of a multidimensional and more nuan- disadvantaged youth
ced perspective on youth disadvantages
may be exacerbated by the fact that their Capabilities are defined by Sen (1999a: 87)
voices are hardly listened to and considered as the substantive freedoms (which can be
in policy making and implementation (Soler translated here as real freedoms or opportu-
and Planas, 2014). nities) to lead the kind of life that people va-
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 49
lue. Functionings are the activities that peo- functioning can lead to disadvantages in
ple perform and that are valued by them. The others, [in contrast] doing well in one functio-
capabilities approach emphasises the impor- ning... will lead to improvements in other
tance of individuals assessing their own li- functionings” (Wolff and de-Shalit 2007: 133-
ves, in terms of both capabilities and functio- 134). This paves the way for a multidimensio-
nings. nal and intersectional perspective on disad-
It is important to understand the idea of vantage.
capabilities as freedoms or opportunities. Another relevant contribution to analysing
They include both material things (for exam- inequalities and disadvantages from a capa-
ple, a capability would be nourishing and a bility approach has been made by Bonvin
functioning would be eating adequately) and (2013), who highlights the importance of in-
non-material elements (a capacity would be tegrating so-called classical or ‘old’ inequa-
having political convictions and a functioning lities (such as income or lack of education)
would be starting a hunger strike). Sen re- with ‘new’ inequalities (such as lack of recog-
minds us that what is most important is peo- nition or lack of the capability to aspire).
ple having the freedoms or valuable opportu- Additionally, he suggests that inequalities
nities (capabilities) to lead the kind of lives exist not only in relation to ‘objective’ or ob-
they want to lead. servable factors, but also to ‘subjective’ fac-
The expansion of capabilities does not tors such as motivation or the ability to pro-
occur in a vacuum; a “set of capabilities” is ject oneself into the future (Bonvin, 2013: 6).
determined by three elements: Personal con- A focus on capabilities or real opportuni-
version factors (such as metabolism, fitness, ties would have important implications on
reading ability and intelligence); social con- public policy design, specifically on policies
version factors (such as public policies, social dealing with inequalities and disadvantage.
norms, gender roles and power relations) and Using a simple example, the success of po-
environmental conversion factors (such as licies aimed at achieving economic growth is
climate and geographical conditions). These conventionally measured by the evolution of
three factors, plus our own personal histories, income indicators. From a capability pers-
determine our ability to convert commodities pective, however, the ultimate goal of public
or resources into capabilities and functio- policy would be framed as expanding what
nings (Sen, 1999a). It is important to point out people are able to do or be. In this view, peo-
that diversity matters when it comes to trans- ple are at the core; a healthy economy is im-
forming resources into capabilities and portant as it can allow us to enjoy a long and
functionings; such diversity, which is motiva- healthy life, a good education and work that
ted by personal characteristics, by the con- fulfils us.
text in which people live and by the resources This new perspective implies two key shi-
they have access to, is important when thin- fts. First, the analysis moves from the eco-
king of interventions and public policy. nomy to the people. Secondly, the measure
Several authors have used these notions of success shifts from income to what people
in discussing inequalities and disadvantage. can do and be in their life.
Of particular relevance is the contribution of From a conventional perspective, trade-
Wolff and de-Shalit (2007: 182), who define offs such as impacts on the environment or
disadvantage as “a lack of genuine opportu- employment are resolved through market
nities for secure functionings”. These authors mechanisms. From a capability approach,
understand disadvantages and functionings these issues are part of the measure of suc-
as interrelated issues; “disadvantage in one cess and trade-offs are framed as referring to
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6250 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
which population groups to focus on (the dis- crucial for the formation of values and
priori-
tribution), which period of time to prioritize ties for development (Sen, 1999a). Conse-
(the dynamics) and which aspects of people’s quently, in the capability approach the impor-
lives to focus on (the dimensions) (Alkire and tance of participation is recognized and
Denehulin, 2009). valued for multiple reasons (Sen, 1999): It
In the capability literature, the selection of has an intrinsic value, since political partici-
specific informational data, the determina- pation is an essential part of human well-
tion of the adequate content and purposes of being; an instrumental value, since indivi-
policies, and the establishment of the suita- duals present and defend their interests in a
ble evaluative yardstick for assessing the democratic context; and a constructive va-
value and success of public action is what lue, since desires, needs or beliefs are neither
Sen (1990: 111) calls the Informational Basis given nor static, but rather constructed and
of the Judgement of Justice (IBJJ). In terms re-constructed during the course of social
of public policy analysis, it implies looking at interactions. Therefore, the capability ap-
what information is selected, by whom, for proach denounces the divide between politi-
what purpose, and with what consequences cal decision-makers and experts on the one
(Ley, 2013). The selection of a specific IBJJ hand and passive beneficiaries on the other
involves a decision on which perspectives (Bonvin, 2009).
and information are considered valid and re- As we see in the next sections, which
levant, and has crucial implications in terms consider disadvantage from a subjective,
of public action. multidimensional and intersectional perspec-
tive, the analysis of the IBJJ in which public
Therefore, when dealing with policies re-
policies are grounded, and the different le-
lated to disadvantage and inequality, the di-
vels of participation in the policy process, are
fferent definitions, perspectives and judge-
key elements for understanding current pers-
ments–what are the key dimensions, what
pectives, policies and practices related to
factors play a role, how they interact– of de-
disadvantaged youth.
cision makers and relevant stakeholders will
inform the IBJJ and shape the policy making
process.
Methodology
Finally, the relevance of democracy in the
capability approach must also be noted. In Even though a discussion of the concept of
Sen’s thinking, deliberation and public deba- youth is beyond the scope of this work, it is
te are central (Sen, 1999b). There are three necessary to provide some clarity in terms of
arguments to support the primacy of political the age range considered. While the EU ge-
freedom and democracy for development. nerally uses the 16-24 years of age interval,
First, there is the intrinsic importance of po- in Spain and other Mediterranean countries
litical freedom, understood as the ability to the transition to adulthood takes place later
participate in political and social life, as one than among their European peers. Therefore,
of the basic human capabilities. Secondly, the age group considered in this study ran-
there is the instrumental value of political ges from 16 to 29 years of age, which is more
freedom in order to debate, to argue, to pu- common in the Spanish context1.
blicly express what is valued or to democra-
tically elect political representatives. Finally,
there is the constructive value of political li- 1 Despite not doing it, we are aware of the importance
of discussing the concept of youth, and actually this
berty; the rights that guarantee discussion, extension of the age range included in ‘youth policies’
debate, criticism and open disagreement are could be interpreted as an example of how the concept
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 51
A challenge for undertaking this research Interviews were conducted both in Madrid
was the differences among Spain’s regions. and in the city of Valencia and neighbouring
These are related to the socio-economic si- municipalities. The interviews were semi-
tuation of the young, as well as to youth po- structured using open-ended questions. The
licies. This is a consequence of the country’s question list was used flexibly, stressing the
decentralised government system, where issues most related to the profile and experti-
competences over youth policies lie with the se of the informant. Interviews were conduc-
regional Autonomous Communities, and ted between October 2013 and January 2014.
most of the implementation with local gover- A qualitative content analysis was perfor-
nments. Therefore, and bearing in mind the med on the interviews and on relevant docu-
scope of the research, we focus on national ments. The software Sonal2 was used to en-
level policies, and point where useful to simi- code and analyse interviews, drawing on
larities and differences in policies at the re- predefined themes and categories, which
gional and local level, without intending a were completed and redefined during the
systematic comparison. The methods used process. Saturation was reached for most of
in this study were the gathering of secondary the topics addressed, except some which
information and interview-based empirical would benefit from additional perspectives
research based on 21 interviews. As the aim from political representatives.
of our study was to gather different perspec-
This primary information was used to
tives on youth policies, every relevant group
gather the perspectives of the stakeholders
in the definition and implementation of youth
on the policies, and complemented the se-
policies was considered in the process of se-
condary data gathered from laws, policies,
lecting interviewees. The final sample was:
statements and reports from repositories of
Government officers in policy-making posi-
relevant institutions, such as the national and
tions (3), members of parliament at national
regional Youth Institutes, as well as from
(1) and regional level (1), members of NGOs
think tanks and other public and private ins-
and advocacy organizations on youth issues
(4), academic experts (4), members of labour titutions.
unions (2), professionals in the youth sector Apart from the limitations mentioned, the
(3),and youth representatives in youth coun- rapid social and political transformations
cils (2) and political youth organizations (1). Spain is currently experiencing (including
The only important weakness in the sample sudden budget cuts and elimination of youth
was the absence of politicians from the ruling programmes) must be noted; this study con-
party (our interview requests at different le- siders this situation using data covering up
vels were either not responded to or diverted to early 2014.
towards civil servants). The lack of responsi-
veness can be only partly explained by their
time constraints, and we also interpret it as a Current perspectives on
lack of interest and readiness to discuss the disadvantaged youth
topic. We partially compensated for this
sample bias with information from secondary Definitions
sources (such as statements in the media
and institutional webs). Interviewees were asked about what term
they used for characterising the disadvanta-
is used to legitimise inequalities and prevent conflicts
among age groups (Serrano, 1995). 2 The software is available at: http://www.sonal-info.com
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6252 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
ged situation of youth. Preferred terms were based on old inequalities in which subjective
“vulnerable youth” or “youth at risk”, either factors, such as aspirations, motivations,
standing alone or coupled with “social exclu- ability to project oneself into the future, ca-
sion” or “poverty”. All these concepts are pacity to aspire, etc., (Bonvin, 2013) are not
generally used interchangeably, although taken into account.
there is not necessarily agreement on their On the other hand, a ‘new view’ on the
meaning. Actually, one expert believes that risk of social exclusion seems to emerge in
“one of the problems is that none of these the context of the current crisis. Being
terms has ever been defined with exactitude” young is seen as a disadvantage in itself,
(academic expert 1), leading to a high degree due to the precariousness of the labour
of confusion. In the end, “youth at risk of so- market, the high level of unemployment and
cial exclusion” seems to be the most com- its long duration (for youth and their fami-
mon term, both in the interviews and in the lies), coupled with shrinking social protec-
literature (see, for example, Moreno, López tion and rising education costs. In the words
and Segado, 2012). of one youth leader, “just for the fact of
Two main perspectives were clearly ob- being young, you are already in a situation
servable regarding the disadvantages faced of inequality, even more in the time we are
by youth. On the one hand, what can be ca- living now, in which [we] are the segment of
lled the ‘classical view’ on the risk of social the population most affected by the conse-
exclusion identifies the young as having re- quences of the crisis” (representative in re-
duced possibilities of being able to take part gional youth council 1). This has several
in ‘normalised’ social and economic life (es- consequences that limit the opportunities of
pecially regarding access to the labour mar- youth to emancipate and fulfil their aspira-
ket), as a result of a combination of several tions. This definition emphasises a diachro-
inhibiting factors such as early school leaving nic perspective on youth disadvantages, as
and fewer education opportunities, living in it places attention on recent changes in the
low income households, precarious housing, context and the situation of youth –particu-
the breakdown of family networks, lack of larly in terms of employment and problems
social support, and scarce opportunities for for emancipation. It also considers, even if
healthy leisure. One interviewee listed: “Youth to a limited extent, certain subjective fac-
with limited training, youth that do not find tors, such as the aspirations and motiva-
work, long-term unemployed, [...] unstructu- tions of the young, which can be conside-
red families” (member of NGO 1). Several red, in a capability perspective, as an
population groups, such as gypsies, immi- attempt to integrate ‘old and new inequali-
grants, youth with disabilities and those resi- ties’. Generally, those working in the third
ding in poor or conflictive neighbourhoods sector or in NGOs based in ‘difficult neigh-
were identified as having higher likelihood of bourhoods’, and those doing research in
being at risk of social exclusion. The crisis, related areas position themselves within the
apart from making life even more difficult for classical view of social exclusion; while tho-
those in such a situation –they have fewer se in youth organisations and youth coun-
income opportunities and reduced social cils and those working in the youth sector in
protection–, has led to an increase in the general (policy-makers, politicians) are clo-
number of low income households where no ser to the new view. However, these two
one is employed, resulting in them slipping ways of understanding youth disadvantage
into this category. This could be considered, are not contradictory, and actually many in-
according to the capability approach, a mul- terviewees had a combined perspective,
tidimensional perspective on disadvantage acknowledging the vulnerability of youth as
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 53
a whole, but also identifying specific groups Indicators
in more severe situations due to factors
identified in the ‘classical’ view: “The situa- The perspectives described are reflected
tion of the young nowadays is one of in- —even if in a very simplified way– in the indi-
equality as compared to the adult popula- cators used to characterise the situation of
tion, and then within the young, there are youth in Spain, which reveal the IBJJ that is
potentially inspiring public policies and actions.
collectives which suffer it more; […] disa-
bled young […] young women […] young Spain’s National Statistics Institute (INE),
LGBT […] rural young […] young immi- following EU guidelines, measures an overall
grants” (young trade union member 1). A at risk of poverty or social exclusion rate, cal-
civil servant working in a youth institute culating the population in any of these situa-
tions: at risk of poverty (persons in families
also highlighted the need to differentiate
with an income under 60% of the national
among age groups among youth and bet-
average income), at risk of severe material
ween young people living with their families
deprivation, in households without jobs or
and those living on their own, the latter not
with low employment intensity (members
being considered at risk of social exclusion
working less than 20% of their total poten-
prior to the crisis but now facing increasing tial). Using these indicators the risk of social
deprivation. exclusion among youth has increased from
Although these two perspectives are not 21.8% in 2007 to 34.5% in 2012 (INE, 2013).
contradictory, they illustrate the lack of clear This indicator could be seen as consistent
definitions, which is problematic from a po- with the ‘classical’ view of social exclusion
licy making perspective, as there is no com- mentioned, although extremely simplified, as
mon ground for more nuanced discussion it uses several economic variables to identify
about the situation of youth and for planning deprived populations in society. When these
actions and targeting groups, as one acade- data are communicated to the press and the
mic expert stressed in his interview. Along public by the National Statistics Institute
this line, a couple of interviewees stressed (INE, 2010), the income measures are what is
the need to embrace the plurality of youth, most emphasized. This may also happen in
and the idea of ‘vulnerabilities’ was seen by practice, as the perspective of a professional
them as a better way to characterize the si- in a youth institute shows: “in fact, what de-
fines being in a situation of risk of social ex-
tuation many face. “We tend to use ‘youth
clusion is income level” (professional in re-
in situations of vulnerability’, also because
gional youth institute 1). A problem with
within this vulnerability we understand that
these indicators, which relates to the lack of
differences exist, don’t they? Different vul-
clear definitions of these groups, is that they
nerabilities, different situations” (think tank
are too all-embracing, in the sense that they
member 1). From our perspective, however, do not help differentiate among the plurality
the concept of vulnerability does not contri- of situations mentioned earlier, and the range
bute to revealing the multidimensional natu- of persons accordingly classified as at risk of
re of disadvantage, especially considering social exclusion is too broad. As a conse-
the new inequality perspective. There seems quence of this lack of discriminatory capaci-
to be a tension between a demand for ge- ty and reductionism in the informational ba-
neral terms from the policy making realm, sis, it seems that those at high risk of social
and the emphasis in the capability approach exclusion are subsumed in a larger group
on individuals’ objective and subjective and thus lose relevance and do not receive
characteristics. the attention required.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6254 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
It could be said that IBJJ informing Spa- riod of popularity. This is because of its intrin-
nish youth policies considers traditional di- sic limitations and negative connotations.
sadvantages –‘old’ inequalities– and inhibi- There is a noteworthy study by Serracant
ting factors, as is usually the case in the (2012) in which a modified NEET is proposed
European context (Wallace and Bendit, as a tool to better target social policies. The
2009). However, the indicator used shows a indicator is based on a Eurostat (2013) and
much more restricted and simplified defini- OECD one, but aims at reducing the breath
tion of youth in social exclusion. This is in- and heterogeneity of situations that tended
adequate for capturing other views of the risk to be subsumed under the original NEET.
of social exclusion among youth, as expres- Despite the new indicators explored in
sed in the groups interviewed. Due to the these studies being more multidimensional
household level focus and the weight of in- and person-centred, these more —capabili-
come variables, the situation of the young ty-friendly— perspectives have not led to a
seems to be diluted within the household, review of the national IBJJ; the key official
labour related problems are minimised and indicators remain unchanged. However and
other issues such as emancipation are ne- in spite of the rigidity of the official IBJJ, the-
glected. re has been a shift of political priorities from
In the literature reviewed on this topic youth at high risk of social exclusion towards
(see Rocha, 2012 and Serracant, 2012, and unemployed youth —as reflected in public
others cited in this section) there seems to be spending (see Ministerio de Sanidad, Política
some consensus around the idea that a re- Social e Igualdad, 2011)—, which can be in-
newed look is required for comprehending terpreted as a move towards the new view of
the new realities of the young. Although it is social exclusion —though with a narrow fo-
not clear yet how this should materialise, se- cus on unemployment and income. This has
veral existing indicators in recent publica- shaped the few recent youth-related political
tions have been gaining attention. Interestin- initiatives, but has not stopped the reform of
gly, the Spanish Youth Council has started to the social welfare system, which has drama-
elaborate a quarterly publication called tically affected youth, as we discuss in the
“Emancipation Observatory”, thoroughly next section.
analysing existing indicators of emancipation
(especially employment and housing related),
which is a way of highlighting what they con- Policies affecting youth
sider relevant in this respect. Another exam-
ple is Rocha (2012), who analyses the diffe- In most European countries, youth policies
rential impact of unemployment on youth, emerged over time and as part of sectoral
including an indicator of the rate of tempo- policies –employment, housing, health and
rary jobs. A recent study (Moreno, López and culture– (Wallace and Bendit, 2011), while in
Segado, 2012) does a very thorough analysis Spain the model has led to an independent
of these issues: Apart from exploring existing political and administrative structure for
indicators, new ones are introduced and youth policies, as a different sectoral policy
used in a survey, trying to explore the “ideal” (Comas, 2007).
ages “according to the young” for leaving the As Soler and Planas (2014) remark, in the
parental home, for cohabitation with a part- early 1980s youth policies focused on leisu-
ner, for marriage and for having children. re. Starting in the mid-1980s they began to
Finally, there is also the NEET (Not in Edu- address emancipation by focusing on em-
cation, Employment or Training) indicator, ployment, housing and education. In the late
which has lost momentum after an initial pe- 1990s affirmation of youth identity became
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 55
central and, more recently, there has been a Measures affecting youth at
shift towards citizenship. However, these high risk of social exclusion
changes have been limited to the level of po-
licy discourse; practices remain largely un- There is a consensus among the interviewees
changed and are still focused on socio-cul- on the lack of public priority given to the pro-
tural and leisure programmes targeting youth blems facing youth. If we exclude the pers-
in general, i.e. not specifically those at risk of pective of government officials –reluctant to
social exclusion. In turn, policies specifically elaborate on this topic– the interviewees
addressing youth at risk of social exclusion agree on the fact that there is neither political
are very limited. These policies are develo- will nor a clear strategy for protecting youth
ped by other government departments, such from the differentially severe effects of the
as social services, education or housing and crisis on them. On the contrary, the budget
cuts and measures taken deepen these in-
remain a low priority in their agendas (More-
equalities. Along these lines, further shared
no Mínguez, 2012).
ideas emerge from the interviews, which are
Additionally, the Spanish way of imple- critical of the orientation of policies of recent
menting youth policies is very complex. The years (and even decades) affecting youth at
national government can design broad youth high risk of social exclusion.
policies –like the national Youth Plans elabo-
Most interviewees, especially those pro-
rated from 1991 until 2008– and has a great
fessionals working directly with youth, stated
say in many areas that affect youth, such as
that workers in the youth sector are generally
employment, health and education. Howe-
not specialised to deal with social exclusion,
ver, competences over youth policies are es-
as they only work with ‘normalized’ or ‘inclu-
sentially held by the Autonomous Communi-
ded’ youth. However, for them, the problem
ties, and this is reflected in the fact that their
is that staff and structures in social services
related expenditure was six times greater departments, which have the responsibility
than that of the national administration in for addressing situations of social exclusion,
2006 (Comas, 2007). In legal terms, however, do not always have enough sensibility to deal
each Autonomous Community has different with the specific needs of the young. As a
competences over youth policies, depending result, they believe that they are inadequately
on their own statutes and regulations. Finally, targeted and receive insufficient attention.
although municipalities do not legally hold
The academic experts interviewed also
competences over youth policies, they are
emphasized that key policies dealing with the
very active stakeholders in the youth sector
problems of persons at high risk of social ex-
and have traditionally been responsible for
clusion do not adequately target youth, partly
implementing most of the programmes, both
because they focus on the household level,
those coming from higher administrative le-
addressing youth only indirectly. For exam-
vels and their own.
ple, a key central government instrument to
It is beyond the scope of this paper to fight social exclusion is the Plan Prepara, a
analyse these complex interactions and how temporary rent subsidy (around 400 € a
they are affecting policies. What we aim for month during 6 to 18 months) given to hou-
in this section is to capture the perspective seholds without income once the period of
of the interviewees on the specific policies unemployment benefits is over. Another simi-
addressing youth at high risk of social exclu- lar scheme is the Renta Mínima de Inserción
sion and youth in general to try to understand (‘Minimum insertion income’), given to hou-
the extent to which relevant elements of the seholds that cannot meet their basic needs.
capability approach are being addressed. The scheme was already in existence before
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6256 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
the crisis, but the number of beneficiaries further and interpreted this is a deliberate
practically doubled between 2007 and 2012 process of dismantling of the welfare state:
(Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e —they make brutal cuts in social policies
Igualdad, 2012). Both measures are house- and increase their transfers to NGOs by mi-
hold focused and can only benefit the young llions of euros— (member of national parlia-
through their families, as they are rarely en- ment). Under the perspective of the capabi-
titled to them; the first requires at least two lity approach, this is a serious issue: who is
years of employment, the latter is for persons going to remove the unfreedoms that hinder
over 25 years of age. This bias is also linked the expansion of real opportunities for
to two elements highlighted in the previous youth, and specially the most disadvanta-
section. Firstly, the IBJJ considered is one- ged? Passing this responsibility on to chari-
dimensional, privileging the economic pers- ties and the private sector without adequate
pective and income related measures. Se- control mechanisms does not seem a rea-
condly, the specific problems of the young sonable way forward, especially taking
and the diversity of this population are not equity into consideration.
being addressed by existing policies.
Another effect of the budget cuts has
been that the weight of charities in the so- Measures affecting youth in
cial welfare system is increasing. Municipal general
social emergency systems, for instance,
We now deal with measures affecting youth
neither reach all the petitioners of services
in general, which obviously also impact on
nor cover all their basic needs, so people
those at high risk of social exclusion. Regar-
are sent to charities (Cáritas Española,
ding youth-specific policies, activities such
2013), especially food banks and meal cen-
as leisure, providing information, encoura-
tres. Regarding specifically persons under
ging participation, educational exchanges or
18 at high risk of social exclusion, social
language courses, have been severely redu-
welfare departments have taken preventive
ced (Soler, Planas and Feixa, 2014) during
measures such as leisure day-centres and
the crisis, and several regional youth orga-
protective measures such as family shelters
nisms have been shut down. The national
and residences. These places are generally
Youth Plan has not been replaced by any
run by NGOs and have gradually been de-
similar strategy document since 2008. Mo-
clining, both in terms of the number of peo-
reover the national rent subsidy for young
ple they reach and the stability of their fun-
people called the basic emancipation rent
ding, as the representatives of NGOs
and launched in 2007 was withdrawn in late
interviewed highlighted. In fact, they add, a
2011.
punitive system is being promoted, with
high investments in reform centres run by However, almost all the interviewees su-
the private sector, sometimes with questio- ggest that the policies having the greatest
nable profit-oriented practices. Bad phar- impact on youth are not specifically youth
macological practices, prison-like punish- policies but general policies.
ment systems and lack of transparency Education was the most cited of these
have been documented in recent studies polices, with strong reductions in expendi-
(Amnistía Internacional, 2009; Defensor del ture in public education, increases in the
Pueblo, 2009).The academic experts inter- student/teacher ratios (Barómetro Social
viewed see these developments as a pro- de España, 2014) and increases in univer-
blem, as it means that the state is not fulfi- sity fees (Ministerio de Educación, 2013
lling its obligations. A parliamentarian went and 2014b); all of which affect both the
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 57
quality of and the access to education. well, it is not that I am sceptical in respect
Another illustrative aspect is the differen- to this, but I believe that in addition to all this
ces in the IBJJ used by most of the inter- it is necessary to inject quite a lot of resou-
viewees to evaluate this situation and the rces” (professional in national youth institu-
one used by the government. While the te 1)– to strong criticisms from the rest:
latter focuses on the fact that the student/ “[these plans] are not integrated” (think tank
teacher ratio is still below the EU average
member 1), “the measures are the classical
(Ministerio de Educación, 2014a) and that
ones, and I think it is an error” (academic
the system has been able to assume the
expert 3). The strong stress on entrepre-
increased demand for higher education,
our interviewees —mainly those from trade neurship was also widely criticised. An
unions and academia— focus on the im- interviewee from a trade union think tank
pact on inequality in access to education highlighted two problematic issues. Firstly,
that these cuts may imply: —in secondary the focus on entrepreneurship is a way of
education and the university, with the in- putting the responsibility to solve a collecti-
crease in fees and the reductions in scho- ve and public problem on the shoulders of
larships, who is going to study?— (young the individual citizen: “The kind of policies
trade union member 1). that are being advocated for are the ones of
Employment was another area unani- self-employment and training, which are
mously raised by the interviewees. As men- nothing more than the individualisation of
tioned, unemployment rates remain at dra- responsibilities” ( think tank member 1). Se-
matic levels (Instituto Nacional de condly, entrepreneurship will not be effecti-
Estadística, 2014). The government ve in solving youth unemployment, taking
highlighting the slight reductions in the rate into account that youth generally do not
since late 2013 (El País, 2014) contrasts have working experience and there is a lack
with the interviews with trade union and
of a supportive policy environment, both in
youth representatives, where qualitative
terms of policies and practical issues, such
considerations were also part of the discus-
as availability of micro-credits.
sion —such as precariousness, insecurity,
underemployment. This illustrates the diffe- To sum up, the IBJJ underpinning public
rences in their respective IBJJs. Delving into intervention regarding youth is focused on
recent measures, the Plan de Empleo Juve- increasing the number of youth accessing
nil (Youth Employment Plan) and the Siste- education or finding employment. Most inter-
ma de Garantía Juvenil (Youth Gurantee viewees seem to consider a more complex
Plan) stand out. The former is a specific IBJJ, which includes considerations related
youth employment and entrepreneurship to inequality in access, and qualitative di-
strategy launched in early 2013 to promote mensions of education or employment. From
contracts and entrepreneurship among the
that broader perspective, they are critical of
young. The Youth Guarantee Plan, from late
the many dimensions of the disadvantages
2013, tries to guarantee all the young (up to
faced by youth that are being neglected.
24) receive apprenticeships, continuous tra-
ining or a job offer within four months after Only the civil servants interviewed are less
they graduate or become unemployed. openly critical, but it must be noted that we
Although the impact of these plans cannot could not interview representatives of the ru-
be assessed yet, the reactions of the inter- ling party, and thus their perspective –surely
viewees ranged from caution among civil more supportive of current policies– is mis-
servants–“it is almost the same as usual… sing in the analysis.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6258 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
The policy making process have suffered severe budget cuts and are not
safe from plans to shut them down. The Va-
lencian Community Youth Council, for instan-
Institutional forms of youth ce, is still active,although their consideration
representation
as a consultative body was eliminated in the
The question of who participates in the de- 2010 Valencian Youth Law. Local Youth
cision making process and how is crucial Councils can also exist at the municipal level.
from a capability approach. For academic There are 18 in the Valencian Community,
experts and for workers dealing directly with although not all are fully operative, due to a
youth, politicians and higher level civil ser- decrease in funds and lack of active partici-
vants are the ones who have a say in these pation. The youth council representatives
processes, at the expense of the voice of interviewed at national, regional and local
those specialised in youth problems and levels interpret these dynamics as a reaction
working directly with the young at the local from the government to the critical stand of
level. A youth expert describes this as fo- the councils towards the budget cuts affec-
llows: On the one hand, there are “the direct ting youth, as well as a lack of interest in lis-
agents of youth policies, basically municipal tening to the voice of the young.
youth workers, youth councillors, youth or- The academic experts shared this view
ganisations, particularly youth councils (…) and stress that governments at all levels do
[who] know the subject perfectly and try to not value participation in policy-making.
act in a way that is coherent with their This lack of political will appeared as the
knowledge and the real situation of youth” main barrier for the effective participation of
(academic expert 1). On the other hand, the- youth in policy making. In addition, they also
re are the private companies, trade unions recognised that youth councils are not re-
and the regional and national governments:“a presentative enough, as levels of participa-
group of actors who are not youth-specific tion are very low, and this facilitates their
and define the problem of youth from their neglect by policy makers. The issue of par-
own interests” (academic expert 1). He be- ticipation in youth councils was also a con-
lieves the latter are the ones who make the cern for all the interviewees familiar with
decisions, turning youth policies into a rhe- them. Indeed youth councils represent for-
torical game that suits them. mal youth organisations, in which only 4-5%
The main mechanisms for young people’s of Spanish youth is participating, and only
participation, Youth Councils, do not seem to 18% of the young has heard about the re-
work as a way to include the voices of the gional Youth Councils (Comisión Senado,
young in policy making. For one thing, the 2012). This is attributed, by the national
National Youth Council, which , during many council representative interviewed, to the
years, had privileged access to the policy fact that their main function is consultative
making process, was suppressed by the and they do not directly organise activities
Spanish Government in January 2014 despi- for youth. A further problem raised by a cou-
te internal and external pressure —including ple of interviewees that had been active in
a letter from the European Parliament presi- youth councils in the past, is the excessive
dent (Schulz, 2013). There are also Youth weight political parties’ youth organisations
Councils in the Autonomous Communities, sometimes have in the councils, introducing
with similar structure and functions as the partisan interests with disrupting effects.
national one. There were 13 in 2010 (Comi- Active local councils are reportedly more
sión Senado, 2012), but at least 5 had been representative of youth in their municipali-
eliminated by early 2014. The remaining ones ties, as they are constituted by smaller
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 59
youth organisations which are in turn closer Related to this divide, there is a national
to the young. In any case, the existence of level Youth Observatory, which has among its
the youth councils was considered positive aims to gather the opinions of youth on pro-
overall, even by the interviewees sceptical grammes and interventions, and thus help in
about their efficacy. bridging the gap between policies and the
A further barrier to the participation of the reality of youth. However, an expert inter-
young, which was mentioned by almost viewed assessed its impact as limited, pri-
every interviewee, is the little interest of youth marily because the outputs produced do not
in engaging with or joining formal organisa- get the political attention needed: “I believe
tions in general. For them, there is little that we know, but we don’t want to know”
knowledge about participation mechanisms (academic expert 1).In addition, at the muni-
and a general distrust towards institutionali- cipal level there are major differences in the
sed political participation (parties, unions, participation of youth in the implementation
etc.) —this finding is also mentioned in seve- of programmes. Youth workers and youth re-
ral studies (Comisión Senado, 2012). presentatives emphasize that in small muni-
cipalities there are more opportunities
The voice of youth at the through formal or informal mechanisms for
implementation level youth to exert some influence on the pro-
grammes and measures they are offered. In
The only institutionalised mechanism being medium and large municipalities, this de-
the declining impact of the youth councils pends on the vision and motivation of local
mentioned, specific measures and program- politicians and members of the administra-
mes that are offered to youth are generally tion, or on the initiative of the organisations
designed without taking into account their implementing each programme.
voice, according to the NGO representatives
and academic experts interviewed. As one Other key stakeholders
youth expert argued, this lack of promotion
or encouragement of the participation of the Given the quantity of programs and public
young is related to the prevalent traditional resources managed by the private sector, it
view of the young as “objects of protection” is a key stakeholder in the definition and im-
(academic expert 4), or ‘clients’ of public ser- plementation of youth policies or social ser-
vices. As was mentioned, policies have ad- vice policies affecting youth. The involve-
vanced, at the discursive level, to conside- ment of NGOs and private firms in the design
ring youth as citizens with a key role to play and development of these measures pre-
in society, but this has yet to translate into sents a mixed picture.
practice (Soler, Planas and Feixa, 2014). There is no formal mechanism to gather
Those interviewed who work closely with their opinions. For one NGO worker inter-
the young believe that the lack of substantive viewed, who has long experience in the
participation results in a big gap between po- youth sector, participation is based mainly on
licy makers and implementers and the ‘bene- lobbying, so large NGOs and foundations
ficiaries’ of the policies. The former are not have easier access to decision makers and
aware of the situation, the codes and the lan- thus have greater power to impact youth and
guage of the latter, as a member of the natio- welfare policies. At the same time, smaller
nal youth institute illustrates with the example organisations can only reach policy makers
of the slow adaptation of youth services to the through more extensive networks where their
digital era, in an age of “native digital youth” message may get diluted. The conclusion of
(professional in national youth institute 1). this interviewee is illustrative: “who has in-
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-6260 Perspectives and Policies on Disadvantaged Youth in Spain: An Analysis Using the Capability Approach
fluence? Those who have the resources to Nevertheless, despite this immobility in
influence” (day-centre worker 2). the official IBJJ, political priorities have shif-
Despite the lack of space for participation ted because of the new reality of dramatic
by the private sector in the definition of poli- rates of youth unemployment. In contrast
cies, it seems that they are given a lot of room with these emerging perspectives, however,
to manoeuvre at the implementation level, ac- new priorities and policies seem to work with
cording to one academic expert interviewed. a very simplified IBJJ based on income and
This can enable innovative practices locally, employment, which does not consider the
but as a whole it may lead to neglect of gover- situation of youth at high risk of social exclu-
nment responsibility, as discussed in the pre- sion, and may be obscuring the diversity of
vious section, laxity in public control and to situations facing disadvantaged youth. The
low quality service delivery. sole focus on employment disregards other
relevant dimensions and thus will not help
those suffering cumulative disadvantages.
Concluding remarks Moreover, the impact of youth employment
policies is not measured from a more quali-
We have seen that there are different pers- tative perspective, obscuring the analysis of
pectives on the social exclusion of youth in the quality and security of jobs and their im-
Spain. On the one hand, there is a classical pact on young people’s lives. The emphasis
view, related to having low income and limi- on entrepreneurship is also problematic for
ted access to education, health, housing and several stakeholders: for one thing, it may be
leisure alternatives. From a capability ap- a way for the state to avoid its obligations
proach, it can be said that this perspective towards youth and individualise responsibi-
embraces to some extent a multidimensional lity for youth unemployment. In addition, en-
and intersectional perspective on disadvan- trepreneurship promotion will at its best
tage, although neither ‘new’ factors affecting reach the low hanging fruit, having thus no
the young nor any subjective factors are con- impact in terms of equality. In contrast, diffe-
sidered. On the other hand, there is a new rent stakeholders demand more complex,
view emphasizing that youth as a whole are multidimensional, person-centred and con-
currently at risk of social exclusion, due to text-sensitive perspectives and policies,
the differential impact of the crisis on them, more in line with a capability approach.
which affects their possibilities to develop The key to understand this situation can
their life plans. This is a more diachronic ap- be in the policy making process, which is
proach, focused on emerging inequalities also a sensitive and controversial issue. For
affecting youth, and considering certain sub- most interviewees, policy-making is highly
jective factors, such as aspirations. top-down; governments at different levels
The established IBJJ is grounded in indi- seem to prioritise their actions in order to
cators that apply primarily to a very simplified accommodate the pressures they face and
classical view –considering almost exclusi- to focus on areas that have more visibility;
vely income indicators–, and with very little the constructive or intrinsic value of partici-
discriminatory capacity, impeding the identi- pation is not seriously considered by autho-
fication of those most deprived. This reflects rities, and its instrumental value is often
the blurred boundaries of the concept of so- considered only for legitimisation. As a con-
cial exclusion, which has not been adequa- sequence, governments do not promote the
tely defined yet. Moreover, this IBJJ does not participation of the young, and there is a
comprehend the new reality of social exclu- general lack of representation of organiza-
sion of youth as a whole. tions and councils.
Reis. Rev.Esp.Investig.Sociol. ISSN-L: 0210-5233. Nº 152, October - December 2015, pp. 47-62Andrés Hueso, Alejandra Boni and Sergio Belda-Miquel 61
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