HOSTING TOUR DE FRANCE UNDER COVID-19: BARGAIN OR BURDEN FOR NEW STAGE CITIES? - CYRIL HERZET MASTER'S PROGRAMME IN TOURISM - DIVA PORTAL
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Umeå University
Department of Geography
Master Thesis in Human Geography (Spring Term 2021)
Supervisor: Roger Marjavaara
Hosting Tour De France Under
COVID-19: Bargain or Burden for
New Stage Cities?
Cyril Herzet
Master’s Programme in Tourism
14th of May 2021
RÉSUMÉ (Français)
Le Tour de France (TDF) est le troisième événement sportif au monde
et la plus grande course cycliste en termes de popularité et de prestige.
L’événement génère une exposition médiatique mondiale et attire
chaque année des millions de visiteurs à court et à long terme. Le TDF
est donc extrêmement attrayant pour les communautés à la recherche de
profits. À l’aide de la Direction Moyenne Linéaire (MLD) et
d’interviews semi-structurées (côté communauté et organisation), ce
mémoire analyse l’évolution spatiale du TDF au fil du temps en
comparant le parcours de 2021 à d’autres intervalles temporelles de la
course. En outre, les raisons du changement potentiel en termes de
distribution spatiale sont étudiées en tenant compte des problèmes
actuels dus à la pandémie de COVID-19 ayant gravement affecté le
secteur du tourisme et, par conséquent, les avantages que les
communautés espéraient percevoir en accueillant le TDF. Les résultats
ont montré que l’itinéraire de 2021 s’écarte des éditions précédentes de
l’histoire du TDF en incluant 10 nouvelles villes étapes qui n’ont jamais
accueilli l’événement auparavant. Le répondant de l’organisation a
indiqué que la pandémie n’a affecté qu’indirectement le parcours du
TDF et que l’emplacement du Grand Départ ainsi que les principales
contraintes internes imposées aux organisateurs sont des éléments clés
dans la répartition spatiale de l’événement. Les communautés
interrogées ont reconnu qu’il y avait un risque à accueillir le TDF cette
année en raison des mesures restrictives potentielles. Cependant, elles
ont admis que les bénéfices apportés par la course surpassaient
largement les impacts négatifs potentiels dus à l’épidémie. En effet, le
TDF reste un moyen d’apporter des effets économiques positifs, de la
cohésion sociale, du bonheur, de la fierté et de la satisfaction aux villes
hôtes à un moment où l’industrie du tourisme est au point mort.
Mots clefs : Tour De France, Tourisme Sportif, Courses Cyclistes, Exposition Médiatique,
Réputation des Lieux, Marchandisation des Lieux, Développement des Communautés.
ABSTRACT (English)
The Tour De France (TDF) is the third largest sporting event in the
world and the biggest cycling race in terms of popularity and prestige.
The event generates global media exposure and attracts millions of
short- and long-term visitors each year, thus, TDF is extremely
appealing for communities in search of profits. Using Linear
Directional Mean (LDM) and semi-structured interviews (community
and organization sides), this paper analyzes how TDF has spatially
evolved through time by comparing the 2021 racetrack to other time
intervals. Additionally, reasons of the potential shift in terms of spatial
distribution are investigated considering current issues due to the
COVID-19 pandemic that has severely affected the tourism sector and
therefore, the benefits that communities were expecting to perceive by
hosting TDF. Findings showed that the 2021 route deviated from
previous editions time of the TDF history including 10 new stage cities
that never hosted the event before. The respondent from the
organization indicated the pandemic only indirectly affected the TDF
route and that the location of the Grand Départ as well as the main
internal constraints imposed to the organizers are key elements in the
spatial distribution of the event. Interviewed communities
acknowledged that there was risk while hosting TDF this year due to
potential restrictive measures. However, they recognized that benefits
brought by the race largely overweight potential negative impacts from
the epidemic. Indeed, TDF remains a way to bring economic benefits,
social cohesion, happiness, pride and satisfaction to hosting cities at a
time when the tourism industry is at a standstill.
Key words: Tour De France, Sport Tourism, Cycling Events, Media Exposure,
Place Reputation, Place Commodification, Community Development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Roger Marjavaara from the Geography Department of Umeå University for helping and encouraging me during this thesis, his precious advice allowed me to get through every step with more confidence. Then, I am very grateful to my relatives, my friends and my girlfriend for their unconditional support throughout the elaboration of my thesis. Finally, I am thankful to my respondents from A.S.O. (organization of Tour De France) but also from the communities that will host the event for the very first time in July 2021 namely, Céret, Changé, Chatou, Landerneau, Malaucène, Sorgues and Vierzon.
CONTENTS
I- INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1
II- LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 3
1- The Commodification of Place ................................................................................................. 3
1.1. Space and Place ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Place as a Product ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Tourism .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Destination Branding ................................................................................................................ 6
2- Sport Tourism as a Way to Promote Places ............................................................................ 8
2.1. Sport Tourism ........................................................................................................................... 8
2.2. Impacts of Major Sporting Events ............................................................................................ 9
2.3. Experiencing Place Through Sport Tourism .......................................................................... 10
2.4. Cycling Tourism ..................................................................................................................... 12
III- STUDY CONTEXT: THE TOUR DE FRANCE .................................................................. 15
1- The Story of the Tour .............................................................................................................. 15
2- Impacts of Tour De France ..................................................................................................... 17
3- The Making of the Tour’s Itinerary ....................................................................................... 18
4- The COVID-19 Outbreak ....................................................................................................... 19
IV- METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 20
1- GIS Treatment and Analysis .................................................................................................. 21
2- Semi-Structured Interviews.................................................................................................... 24
3- Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................... 25
V- RESULTS ................................................................................................................................. 27
1- The Spatial Evolution of Tour De France.............................................................................. 27
2- Interview with the Main Actors of the 2021 Tour De France: A.S.O. and the New Cities 34
2.1. A.S.O. ..................................................................................................................................... 34
2.2. The New Communities ........................................................................................................... 36
VI- DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................ 37
1- Causes of the 2021 Route Deviation ....................................................................................... 38
2- Motives for Hosting the Tour During the Pandemic ............................................................ 39
3- Tour De France as a Cure Against the Fatalism of the Pandemic ...................................... 41
VII- CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 42
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 43
Appendix : Questions for the Organization and Community Sides ............................................... 48
I- INTRODUCTION
For a long time, places have been trying to promote their image and to become appealing
through various means in order to attract settlers, customers, traders, investors, travelers or
visitors (Anholt, 2010). Major sporting events like the Football World Cup, Olympic Games or
Tour de France are reputed for their uniqueness and for attracting many visitors (Getz, 2008).
These events can generate a variety of negative or positive impacts (economic, social, political,
cultural, environmental or psychological) among local communities. Indeed, when a locality
hosts an event it might be perceived either positively or negatively and this will affect its
willingness to host (or not) sport events in the future (Karadakis, 2013). Above all, sporting
events are a way to promote places given the broad media attention they generate (Malfas,
Theodoraki & Houlihan, 2004). Thus, every place tries to distinguish itself to provide the best
possible image, outdoor sporting events are therefore an alternative to avoid unauthentic
sportscapes since they occur in open spaces rather than being confined within a stadium (Relph,
1976 ; Augé, 1995). Consequently, cycling events, and especially Tour De France (also called
TDF or the Tour in this paper), which takes place on public roads can be considered by local
communities as a valuable branding strategy since its spatial distribution changes every year
(Bačík & Klobučník, 2017). According to Bull and Lovell (2007), Tour De France is the biggest
annual sporting event in the world (bearing in mind that Olympic Games or Football World
Cup take place every four years), the race is free to view and is composed of 21 different stages
taking place within the country and sometimes abroad.
In the context of this study, sport tourism will include spectators, officials and riders who
are travelling in order to attend (passively or actively regarding the status) to Tour De France
(direct or short-term impacts) but also, the tourists who will visit a destination because they saw
it on TV during the event (indirect and long-term impacts). In short, sport tourism is here
conceptualized as the touristic activities revolving around this major cycling event. Indeed,
given the international media attention and the economic benefits generated by the race, hosting
a stage start or finish can be appealing for localities although they have to make a bid for the
coming of the Tour (Palmer, 2010). Thus, there is an intense competition among French and
foreign cities to host the various stages for the prestige but especially for the various profits that
the race creates (Bull & Lovell, 2007). In addition, its international popularity attracts millions
of people who want to support the athletes and experience this feeling of euphoria alongside
the most famous roads.
The COVID-19 outbreak is a complex and global phenomenon that affects the entire
society. Academics from various domains have started to focus on the repercussions of such a
crisis at different economic, political and social levels. The tourism industry is currently one of
the most affected sectors by the virus, indeed, it has entailed a substantial decrease of both travel
supply and demand (Nicola et al., 2020). Indeed, the COVID-19 pandemic is also having a
major impact on sporting schedules given that many sporting events have been cancelled or
postponed (Gallego et al., 2020). Visitors (spectators or participants) tend to significantly
contribute to the local economy given that they usually stay in the host community before,
during and after the event (Perić, 2018). Due to the sanitary measures established by the French
government, the previous edition of Tour de France 2020, that was supposed to take place in
July, was postponed and conducted in September. Also, in order to be able to organize such an
event in these times of uncertainty where the virus is still spreading, Amaury Sport Organisation
(TDF organizers) has had to adapt to very strict regulations that might have changed the race
and its impacts on local communities.
1The main issue here is that local communities usually invest a lot of money in order to host
a stage of TDF because they are expecting significant positive impacts on the short term as well
as on the long term (Varnajot, 2020). The decision of applying for such events is generally
made by local politicians and event managers, all these stakeholders held top positions in local
organizing committees and had been involved in planning and implementing major sporting
events in the region with public funding (Schnitzer et al., 2017). However, due to the COVID-
19 epidemic, the perceived benefits might not fulfill the expectations, and this might lead to a
certain disappointment from local communities. Indeed, governmental measures on the race
have implemented new restrictions that slow down visitors’ consumption and therefore reduces
potential profits for local traders. Moreover, these new conditions might influence the attitude
of the local decision-makers and could also affect locals’ perceptions towards the event which
is usually considered as a bargain for tourism development.
Literature about Tour De France and elite cycling events in general is relatively scarce, a
few scholars have attempted to depict and analyze the various impacts of such events in a
community-based perspective (Lamont, 2009; Mignot, 2016b; Bull & Lovell, 2007; Desbordes,
2007; Balduck, Maes & Buelens, 2011; Varnajot, 2020). There are even less studies that have
attempted to investigate the spatial distribution changes of TDF as well as the reasons for these
changes in pattern (Bačík & Klobučník, 2017; Breteau, 2020). Also, in light of what has been
mentioned before, the problem of the pandemic could be a game changer for both the organizers
and the hosting cities. Therefore, impacts on the making of the racetrack as well as the
consequences of the measures that can be implemented within hosting cities during the event
deserve further attention. Moreover, as an ongoing phenomenon, the COVID-19 outbreak as
well as its impacts on tourism are not yet a well-developed topic in the literature and requires
more consideration. This is particularly significant when considering that the potential of
sporting (and cycling) events for community development could be seriously altered by the
pandemic.
Based on relevant literature emphasizing the importance of places and their specificities as
key factors for the success of TDF but also the communities’ need for hosting such events in
order to promote themselves, this study attempts to assess the potential implication of COVID-
19 on the upcoming edition of TDF. Indeed, this research aims to answer the extent to which
the route of the 2021 Tour De France has spatially changed in comparison with the previous
editions. Also, the reasons for those potential changes (considering the pandemic and place
characteristics as potential factors) as well as localities’ motives for hosting the Tour during
this period of uncertainty will be examined. In order to investigate these different strands of
research, the study will aim to answer questions such as:
• To what extent is the 2021 TDF route spatially differing from previous editions?
• What are the reasons for those potential changes and to what degree place characteristics
and the COVID-19 pandemic are responsible for those alterations?
• Why did new communities apply for hosting TDF this year and to which extent the
event is still contributing to place/community development?
This would be done through Geographical Information System (GIS) which will allow to
compare the stages’ distribution from the 107 previous editions with the 2021 racetrack but also
with other time intervals of the Tour’s history. Afterwards, semi-structured interviews from
both Amaury Sport Organization (A.S.O.) and community sides (including seven cities that will
host TDF for the first time) will be conducted. The following paper will be divided into five
main sections. Firstly, a review of literature summarizing the main concepts and theories
2relevant for this study is necessary in order to identify research gaps. Secondly, a special focus
on Tour De France and its main characteristics will be provided. Thirdly, the methodology used
for this research will be explained in detail. Fourthly, main findings from GIS analysis and
semi-structured interviews will be presented. Finally, the results will be discussed in relation to
the main theory and recommendations for further research will be made before the conclusion
of the study.
II- LITERATURE REVIEW
The first part of this study aims to review relevant scholar literature in relation to place
branding or commodification occurring through tourism, sport tourism and sporting events with
a particular focus on cycling events and Tour De France. In addition, major impacts entailed
by sporting or cycling tourism have recently brought to the attention of academics as well as
the ways in which places can be experienced through such practices. Also, the last section will
be dedicated to the potential impacts of COVID-19 on tourism as well as sporting events in
order to provide to this research an exclusive approach.
1- The Commodification of Place
1.1. Space and Place
First of all, it seems necessary to describe the geographic concepts of “place” and “space”
since they are fundamental for the purpose of this study. One and all believes that being in one
place (or site) instead of another makes a change, as well as being close to something rather
than far does (Sack, 1993). According to Tuan (1979), the concepts of place and space are at
the center of the geographical discipline. However, the concept of place holds a broader and a
more intangible sense than location because of its unique entity, its specific set symbolized by
meanings and its historical background. In a more physical approach, whether it is built or
simply emerged, artificial or natural but also streets and minerals or vegetation, place is
something, it is a compilation of things or objects located on a specific spot in the universe
(Gieryn, 2000). Altogether, these parameters form a unique place and allow us to distinguish
them from each other simply because cities and landscapes differ regarding their specific types
of nature, climate, culture or physical structures (Agnew, 1987).
According to Tuan (1979), a location can turn quickly into a place through the creativity of
engineers and architects. For instance, a remarkable monument or a special event can turn an
abandoned and insignificant wasteland or field into a place (e.g., Disneyland can be seen as a
permanent carnival created out of thin air). Therefore, biophysical characteristics are of prior
significance in the creation of these personal meanings. In effect, landmarks and specific
elements of the landscape can contribute to sense of place through their symbolic icons to which
people can give meaning (Vanclay, 2008). Consequently, regional development organizations
might establish promotional material as an attempt to transform the way individuals feel about
a location (ibid.). As an example, local communities can organize festivals and other types of
events that might influence people’s feelings about the place. In effect, as Low (2009) specified,
places are socially created by the population that lives in and interact with them; therefore, they
are politicized, culturally relative, and historically specific multiple constructions. It is then
essential to consider place and space as embodied but also to understand that their materiality
can be abstract and discursive, as well as physically located (Low, 2009).
3From a geographical perspective, place is a unique point in the universe as well as the
distinction between here and there, hence it allows us to realize what is near and far (Gieryn,
2000). Nevertheless, this definition remains quite narrow since it does not include any other
element than relative position and area. More recently, Thrift (2009) has provided a detailed
definition of space. According to him, space emerges from the significant work of reinforcing
collectives by bringing various things (bodies, fauna and flora, manufactured items and
landscapes) into alignment. As a consequence, every type of space do exist, may they be linked
to each other or not. Thus, he identified place as the process where spaces are organized in
certain ways that allow affective and embodied potentials to open up. This can be related to
previous definitions of place mentioned above where places and spaces are mainly influenced
by the individuals’ perceptions (Tuan, 1979; Vanclay, 2008; Low, 2009). As Tuan (1979)
claimed, the space that we perceive, build and that gives indications for our behavior is
transformed regarding the person or the cultural group.
Crouch’s (2000) approach is in line with Tuan’s reasoning. According to him, “place” can
be defined as a meaningful space, a physical picture or a landscape that people imagine and
represent themselves, consequently, place is way more subjective than “space” which refers to
a geometrical landscape characterized by its location, area or distance. This means that all
places are not equal and that many parameters might influence the vision of a place as well as
its position regarding other places. In this context, the fact that place, space and their location
matter implies that localities do not share the same characteristics . As such, they can therefore
be differentiated and marketed in various ways following their qualities. When seen as a
product, a place can be more or less attractive following its unique attributes, relative location,
individual relations, accessibility and complementarity (Ullman, 1956) but also following the
type of economic activity established to develop it. Indeed, place distinction usually relies on
various socio-economic and industrial factors which are also important in terms of
competitiveness (Molotch, 2002). This said, it is furthermore relevant to understand the way in
which places are seen, commodified and branded as products.
1.2. Place as a Product
The relations between places and products (whether a good or a service) are not a new
phenomenon. Indeed, places have been trying for a long time to promote their image and to
become appealing in order to attract travelers, settlers, customers, visitors, traders, investors
and, more recently, “influencers” (Anholt, 2010). The concept of “strategic place marketing”,
established by Rein et al. (1993), aimed to clearly demonstrate that places had to run and market
themselves like firms in order to remain competitive within global market. In Rein’s early
contribution, the issue of place image is addressed, and its importance recognized. Indeed, the
concept of place marketing also means that the area is shaped in order to reach its market targets
just like as one firm would promote any other product. As a result, increasing investments allow
a place to enhance its attractiveness for living in, investing in and visiting (ibid.). Then, place
marketing is still perceived fundamentally as a means for selling more efficiently the goods,
services and attractions of a place (Anholt, 2010).
According to Hall (2008), place branding goes together with modern place competition, the
latter being mainly based on accessibility and amenity. As identified by Kerr (2006), the
development of transport and technology has allowed greater mobility of resources but also
broader access to various markets. That is the reason why the competition between industries
is now global and is occurring in a more open market as a result of the establishment of free
trade policies. Also, locations are competing in order to both keep present industries and attract
4new ones. In addition, some industries are now regionalized, and the development of clusters
of industries or individuals implies that there are geographic winners and losers. By considering
place as a commodity that can be revitalized, advertised and marketed, it can then be introduced
as packages of social and economic opportunity competing against each other in the
marketplace in order to get their part of mobile capital and people (Hall, 2005). This developing
process of place branding and imaging can thus happen naturally whether it is through word of
mouth or media exposure although there are some efforts to pass specific information by the
private and public sectors at destinations. In the same lines, Anholt (2010) claimed that
nowadays, due globalization, competition can be found at different scales; subnational and
supranational regions, states or provinces, nations, towns but also villages since they are all
competing for the same people, products and capital. In return, those very same products,
services and people also compete externally for customers, prestige and media attention.
Therefore, place branding can also be related to place marketing as well as place imaging
or reimaging (Hall, 2008). In effect, it is considered as a significant factor in the attraction and
the retaining of mobile capital, firms, people but also in the branding and marketing of local
products and services. According to Hall (2005), places are now produced commodities ready
to be consumed and their branding or marketing operations require the establishment of specific
identities, images and representations of places. Places can be branded or commodified in
different ways and through various industries, however, it is broadly recognized that tourism
has a strong connection with commercial marketing (Ritchie & Ritchie, 1998). Therefore,
tourism is usually seen as a valuable way to promote places as well as to create destination
brands.
1.3. Tourism
As stated earlier, there is a global competition between locations and the demand for the
most successful place brand-building strategies has never been that high (Rein & Shields,
2007). For instance, place reputation is important when investors are searching for a suitable
location to spend their money, but it can also be the same for migrants seeking for the best place
to settle in. Moreover, a lot of small communities possessing limited resource capital have to
make some difficult decisions regarding which brand strategies they should apply to their place
(Rein & Shields, 2007). Consequently, tourism is often considered by hosting communities as
an efficient way to meet these conditions (Andereck et al., 2005). For the purpose of this study
but also in order to better understand the role of tourism in relation to destination branding as
well as its contribution for community development, it would be thus relevant to provide a clear
definition of the tourism concept.
In the words of Hall (2005), it is necessary to accept the numerous definitions of tourism as
well as to understand the reasons why the concept presents those differences. In many countries,
it is mainly recognized that the term “travel” is a synonymous of tourism and that both concepts
are utilized to depict three main notions: the movement of individuals, a sector of the economy
or an industry as well as a wide system of interacting relationships of individuals. Therefore,
places are of central importance when thinking about tourism and leisure since it is where the
whole touristic process occurs (Crouch, 2000). In an attempt to define the notion of tourism,
Hall (2005) also identified the most common elements found in the literature body of the
discipline. A first argument is that tourism is the temporary, short-term travel of non-residents
along transit routes to and from a generating point and a destination. A second is that tourism
usually affects the destination, the transit routes and the generating point of visitors in various
ways. Thirdly, tourism has the ability to influence the travelers’ characters. Fourthly, the
5tourism phenomenon is mainly for recreation or leisure purposes, even though business travel
should also be considered as significant. Finally, the practice of tourism is a voluntary
movement. In the same lines, Hinch and Higham (2011) insisted on the temporal dimension
related to tourism since leisure travel is characterized by a temporal stay away from home of at
least one night. As a result, excursionists and tourists are usually differentiated for statistical
analysis, the former is visiting a destination for less than 24 hours whereas the latter visits it for
more than a night. Another key dimension of tourism involves reasons for travelling or the
activities practiced during the stay, since tourism presents various kinds of activities, many
tourism research have emerged.
In terms of impacts, tourism can be induced by media exposure and is usually perceived as
a potential source of economic growth contributing to the improvement of life quality such as
work opportunities, tax incomes, economic diversity, festivals, restaurants, natural and cultural
attractions, as well as outdoor recreation opportunities (Ritchie & Ritchie, 1998; Andereck et
al., 2005). However, it is important to acknowledge that various categories of tourism exist and
that the associated effects depend on the established type of tourism development in the
community. Academics also pointed out that tourism might have negative effects on residents’
quality of life (Andereck et al., 2005). Indeed, negative impacts can appear in different ways
such as crowding, traffic and parking problems, increased criminality and cost of living, tension
between visitors and locals, as well as transformations in hosts’ lifestyle. Since the
attractiveness of a place depends on the elements present in that specific area such as unique
features, relative location, individual relations, accessibility as well as complementarity
(Ullman, 1956), place as a product is then spatially fixed and connected to a specific location.
The same is applicable to the potential effects of tourism on a location, indeed, if tourism is
place-specific then each destination will experience unique impacts regarding its very own
particularities. Considering all these parameters, academics have tried to frame the tourism
phenomenon by contributing to the identification of numerous tourism categories or sub-
categories (Tureac, 2010). As reasons for travelling to a particular location may vary, a more
and more frequent motivation is to participate in or experience sport (Shipway, 2007). In
addition, while practicing tourism, places can be experienced and branded in various ways and,
as we shall see later on, Sport Tourism is undeniably one of them (Rein & Shields, 2007;
Standeven & De Knop, 1998).
1.4. Destination Branding
In opposition to physical products that can be relocated to a place that presents advantageous
production costs and more flexible legislations for private businesses, tourist destinations are
deeply anchored in their geographical locations. Thus, tourism is place-specific (Page &
Connell, 2009). In this touristic context, a geographical location includes a destination brand.
Ritchie and Ritchie (1998, p. 17) have therefore provided a definition of this notion: “…a name,
symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic that both identifies and differentiates the destination;
furthermore, it conveys the promise of a memorable travel experience that is uniquely
associated with the destination; it also serves to consolidate and reinforce the recollection of
pleasurable memories of the destination experience.”
Closely related to destination brand, the concept of place branding has been defined by
Mommas (2003) as the practice of applying brand strategy and other marketing techniques and
disciplines to the economic, social, political and cultural development of cities, regions and
countries. Thus, place branding can be understood as a process allowing the reflection upon the
way in which the location is marketed for development purposes while a destination brand can
6be seen as the resulting product from the very place branding process. Hall (2008) has depicted
place branding as the development as well as the promotion of a place so the latter could be
distinguished from other locations and receive benefits for its businesses, organizations,
inhabitants, goods or services. Furthermore, Hall suggested that place branding is a multi-
directional process with both internal and external forms. Internal place branding is about the
development and building of the brand in relation to the identity of the place, which includes
community pride as well as the creation and preservation of an attractive environment. In
contrast, external place branding is about communicating the brand and its values, as well as
place attributes, to external markets in order to achieve place branding goals and objectives.
Regardless which marketing strategies are used to differentiate them, locations as well as
their landscape characteristics are unique in essence and, when seen as touristic products, they
cannot be replicated somewhere else or replaced by any other places (Gotham, 2015; Page &
Connell, 2009). Hall (2005) argued that locations within a spatial system are spatially fixed, in
effect, cities cannot move away in order to optimize distance functions even though they evolve
and adapt following new networks and patterns of accessibility over time. Likewise, tourist
destinations are composed of items and infrastructures that are also spatially static (Hall, 2005).
Therefore, in order to experience a particular destination that is spatially fixed, people have to
move to specific areas through physical mobility (Ullman, 1956), as a result, leisure travel can
occur, and the place can be consumed by visitors. In effect, given that tourism production and
consumption are place-specific (Hall, 2005; Page & Connell, 2009), the co-presence of visitors
and places is essential to the activity (Boden & Molotch, 1994).
Consequently, places are searching for different ways to promote themselves on the global
marketplace but also to expose their particular attributes to the broadest possible audience. In
this context, destination marketing organizations, often supported by the government, are
traditionally responsible for promoting their own locations (Kerr, 2006). Place branding can be
achieved through various tangible or intangible means (Jansson & Power, 2006). Tangible
strategies consist of mechanisms such as flagship projects or iconic developments, often as part
of wider planning strategies or redevelopment projects. Intangible strategies include the use of
advertising, slogans, media positioning as well as the creation of new myths about places.
Jansson and Power (2006) argued that regular events were a valuable strategy adopted by cities
and their region to strengthen their brands but also an efficient way to attract important media
attention that can be helpful to companies trying to be integrated into wider markets. In addition,
they point out that cities are frequently competing in order to attract more frequent events such
as renowned trade fairs that can improve their reputation as meeting points of innovation and
quality. Furthermore, it is more and more difficult to reach an audience that is increasingly
saturated with media and advertising (even for the most media-savvy and well-funded
companies). Thus, displaying the right image in the right way through the proper media and
channels is a challenge for urban branding initiatives (Jansson & Power, 2006).
Although Jansson and Power’s reasoning concerns specific areas such as urban
agglomerations and specific events like trade fairs, it is also applicable to different kinds of
locations and events. In relation to this, Hall (2008) argued that urban areas usually have enough
capital to develop special events although it is much more complicated for peripheral areas to
establish such projects given their smaller financial means. However, other branding elements
can be found such as, the development of the Ice Hotel in Jukkasjärvi (Sweden) which turned
out to be a better marketing brand for the region in terms of media exposure than the nearby
mine in Kiruna. Therefore, many remote areas have to develop their place branding strategies
7with the help of a natural feature, which can often be realized through a sport tourism-based
development of a community.
2- Sport Tourism as a Way of Promoting and Developing Places
2.1. Sport Tourism
Sport and Tourism both share the capacity to provide experiences to individuals who
consume them (Shipway et al., 2016). It is argued that the various inconstancies regarding sport
tourism are due to the complexity in defining both sport and tourism disciplines (Gibson,
1998a). Indeed, a broad definition for both concepts exists, however, Hinch and Higham (2011)
provided a valuable conceptualization of sport. They characterize sport as a structured, goal
oriented, competitive, contest-based, ludic physical activity. The main components emerging
from this perception are rules (playing area and time duration) competition (competing to
achieve a goal), play (elite, amateur or casual) and physical activity (degree of performance).
Considering the generated entertainment through place specificity, competitiveness,
enthusiasm or athletic prowess, sport becomes a means to attract investors, events, media
coverage, nation’s identity and visitors but also to brand and embody places (Rein & Shields,
2007; Higham & Hinch, 2018).
The practice of Sport Tourism is not a new phenomenon, indeed, the action of travelling
away from home to attend (actively or passively) a sporting event was already made by Greeks
in 900 BC during the Ancient Greek Games (Gibson, 1998a). The complexity of sport when
combined to the complexity of tourism entails the emergence of numerous types of the sport
tourism phenomenon (Hinch & Higham, 2005). Nevertheless, it has been settled that sport
tourism is more than the sum of the separate entities of sport and tourism with the assumption
that sport tourism is a unique phenomenon (Hinch & Higham, 2011). As a result, this category
is a subfield of the tourism industry and its contribution to the tourism economy has grown
significantly during the last decades, indeed, the sector is characterized by a broad range of
offerings related to various services (Pigeassou, 2004). In the 90s the quantity and the variety
of opportunities to take part in sport tourism have grown: travel magazines, newspapers,
television and radio commercials are full of destinations, attractions, and events focused on
sport, as well as physical activity (Gibson, 1998a). The economic outcomes are entailed by the
craze of the consumption for those services (Pigeassou, 2004).
Following different definitions of sport tourism, niche markets are numerous and may
involve a large part of the tourists (Hinch & Higham, 2011). However, a broad and basic
definition of sport tourism would encompass active or passive participation in a sporting event,
active recreation and nostalgia sport tourism (Gibson, 1998b). For instance, previous studies
from Standeven and De Knop (1998) identified active sport tourism as a participation in sport
during holiday. It included many recreational and physical activities associated with adventure
and nature-based tourism like hiking, golfing, scuba-diving or fishing just as other types of
participation in organized running, swimming or cycling competitions. On the other hand,
passive or event sport tourism was associated to the passive participation in a sporting event as
a spectator from Olympic Games, football games or tennis matches for instance. The major
divergence between the two types of sport tourism remained in the degree of physical
implication, namely the difference between taking part in the event as a competitor or as a
spectator. Gibson (1998b) also included nostalgia and celebrity as another passive form of sport
tourism in reference to the visit of sport-related attractions or the meeting of famous
personalities during a vacation context with the aim to attract more sports fans. Thus, this large
8definition of sport tourism highlights the significant potential markets that can be targeted by
the tourism industry (Hinch & Higham, 2011). Furthermore, various sport tourists categories
rely on specific types of sporting event (Duglio & Beltramo, 2017).
The existing body of literature concerning sporting event tourism presents a wide array of
events ranging from small-scale, medium size, hallmark to mega sport events (Getz, 2008).
Various studies from the sport event/tourism academy attempted to evaluate the impacts of
sporting events of varying sizes on communities, whilst others were trying to highlight the
importance in the choice of the event following the capacities of the destination. Therefore,
several authors have tried to categorize these sporting events, but the main characteristics
considered are the size, the scale, the cost, the duration of the event as well as its number of
spectators, participants, tourists and its media aura (Higham, 1999; Gratton, Dobson & Shibli,
2000; Getz, 2008; Hinch & Higham 2011). Events necessitate investments of human, economic,
and physical resources from areas that host them (Agha & Tasks, 2015). Human resources may
be symbolized by the workers and the volunteers needed to organize the event. Economic
resources encompass private and public investments. Physical resources include features such
as locations, accommodation, private or public transportation, and food services. In general,
large events attract more tourists as well as greater levels of business and government funding
because of their global status, thus, they require more resources (Agha & Tasks, 2015). In
contrast, smaller events usually bring less visitors and lower levels of business and government
assistance, and require fewer resources (Gibson, Kaplanidou & Kang, 2012). A great advantage
from which beneficiates sport tourism (especially major sporting events) on other forms of
tourism is that media (television, newspaper, radio and internet) offers a broad diffusion of the
sporting activities around the world and at all levels: local, regional, national and international
(Hinch & Higham, 2011).
Thus, this aura from media exposure is a way to promote destinations and to attract more
visitors in the future who will take part in many touristic activities including a sporting
dimension or not. In addition to being a means of commodifying locations, sport-based tourism
is a way to connect travelers to places by creating a strong feeling of attachment (Bale, 1993).
These ties of affection between the tourist and the place can therefore be influenced by the type,
the settings and the impacts of the sport event. Indeed, sport events appear to be an efficient
option to entail tourism development in a community, however, there are several types of sport
events that occur at different scales and their impacts can be either positive or negative (Taks,
Chalip & Green, 2015).
2.2. Impacts of Major Sporting Events
Since this paper does not aim to review every type of sport event and their related impacts,
mega-events and hallmark events will be discussed under the umbrella term of major sporting
events. In general, most of the researchers have concentrated their work on economic and
tourism impacts resulting from major sport events. Malfas, Theodoraki and Houlihan (2004)
claimed that these large-scale events are characterized by the significance of the expenditures
on required facilities and infrastructures, the incomes generated by the large number of visitors
as well as the tickets and media visibility around the world. Indeed, major events are also
important in order to achieve several objectives that contribute to tourism development and
benefit the host community by attracting visitors, generating media exposure as well as
international awareness for the destination with a positive image and by delivering benefits to
local residents (Getz et al., 2012). Furthermore, reasons for hosting these types of events are
numerous and policymakers often insist on positive impacts such as long-term economic
9benefits, tourism development, sport development, urban regeneration or social cohesion
among the host community (Agha & Tasks, 2015). Nevertheless, the actual reasons from the
decisionmakers to host these sport events might be sometimes questionable and serve their
hidden political aims without taking into consideration important aspects that may entail
negative impacts (Agha & Tasks, 2015). As stated by Kuper and Szymanski (2009): “It turns
out that hosting the World Cup doesn’t make your rich, but it does make you happy” which
raises the question of who really benefits from these major events and suggests that some
impacts (not only positive) may result from strategic planning (Taks, Chalip & Green, 2015).
Thus, it is commonly recognized among academics that major sporting events can
contribute to community development with for instance economic, touristic and cultural
benefits, urban regeneration and sporting legacy (Emery, 2001; Daniels, Norman & Henry
2004; Bull & Lovell, 2007; Fourie & Santana-Gallego 2011; Li & Jago, 2013; Schnitzer et al.,
2017; Perić, 2018; Hinch & Ito 2018; Vega Ferri et al., 2018). However, negative social impacts
might occur if the event and its interface with the hosting community are not under control
(Schnitzer et al., 2017). Additionally, environmental negative effects can also appear if the
magnitude of the event is not adapted to the local community (Li & Jago, 2013). As such,
Andreff (2016a) applied the “winner’s curse” theory to the communities that obtained the rights
to organize a major sporting event. This means that the local community has underestimated
the costs and overestimated the profits of such an event and will experience a more or less
significant deficit.
Ritchie (1984) argues that major events are recurring events of limited duration and claims
that these events draw on their uniqueness, authenticity and quality but also have a potential to
increase local pride, tourism development as well as international aura. Indeed, major sporting
event as a tourist attraction became an institution and it earns stability over time. Furthermore,
its traditions create a greater sense of community and place identity which entails a strong link
between the event and the city images (Getz, Svensson, Peterssen & Gunnervall, 2012). Thus,
sporting events vary in terms of size, attractiveness and significance which creates different
impacts that may influence the residents’ perceptions (Karadakis, 2013). As a consequence,
communities perceive an increase in terms of economic activity after hosting sport events and
see these occasions as windows into their economy, culture, and health but also as an
opportunity to enhance the brand of the destination.
2.3. Experiencing Place Through Sport Tourism
In order to understand how a place can be experienced and branded through Sport Tourism
and sporting events, it is necessary to put into relation these main concepts. In a tourism context,
when an individual leaves its daily routine in order to travel for leisure outside its geographical
space it suggests that there are some experiences available at the destination that cannot be
found in the home environment and which compensates the travelling costs (Hingham & Hinch,
2018). In effect, essence of tourism is deep-rooted in unique cultural experiences taking place
away from home, these experiences present authentic and place-specific characteristics that are
viewed, smelled, heard and touched by visitors (Standeven & De Knop, 1998). All together,
they shape the tourist’s experience of the place.
In the words of Hingham and Hinch (2018), sport exerts an important influence on the
meanings that people attach to a certain place. In addition, sporting engagement is undertaken
to establish identity, give meaning to the participants’ lives and connect to place. Indeed,
tourists that are engaged in sport while travelling experience place attachment in two different
10ways: place dependence (the area presents particular resources or settings that enable certain
sport activities and contribute to a strong attachment to the place) and place identity (the
location where we practice sport activities contributes to our self-identity). In contrast, Tuan
(1974) provided an alternative vision of place attachment, he employs the term “topophilia” in
order to qualify the visitor’s feeling that ties affection with place or landscape. In relation to
sport, the understanding of topophilia lies in the sentiment that many sports fans experience for
their “home field” (Bale, 1993). In short, this concept refers to a strong attachment or even a
love feeling for a place because of sport. Topophobia is therefore the dark side of a sense of
place as well as the opposite version of topophilia (Tuan 1979). An example from sport is easy
to find since we confine many of the sport spaces and activities inside massive stadiums because
of fear (phobia). Indeed, crowds and inclement weather are often perceived as dangerous and
risky, thus, if they are contained, fear is reduced, this is why sports organizers decide to enclose
sports grounds in stadiums and arenas.
In a different way, Bale (1993) identified four instances in which tourists and places are
interacting in a sport context. Firstly, the search for the sacred means that many people have
changed their worship from a religion to a certain type of sport, in short, just like religious
pilgrims, sport tourists travel from a certain point to the “sacred” sport site. Secondly, the
development of homelike ties to a destination significates that a particular sporting site may be
considered as “home” since fans or athletes develop sporting loyalties to the place. This
interaction between sport tourists and place is quite similar to Tuan’s “topophilia” described
earlier, by symbolizing the strong place attachment individuals can experience. However, it
contrasts with certain concepts of tourism defining tourists as individuals leaving their home
environment (without distance threshold) for a leisure purpose (Higham & Hinch, 2018).
Thirdly, aesthetics are also a way to give sport spaces a meaning (Bale, 1993). In effect, the
place acquires its meaning through aesthetics of various sporting landscape elements. For
instance, football stadiums can be intricately linked to the perception of a place since they
represent “live sites” and “fan parks” especially during major events (McGillivray & Frew,
2015). Lastly, Bale (1993) identified sport heritage places as an alternative way to create a
meaning to a place. Thus, sport heritage can be related to the concept of nostalgia sport tourism
since it implies visiting a historical place or a built environment dedicated to a certain sport
such as museums, sporting facilities or arenas (Gibson, 1998b).
While place can be endowed by sports through various ways, several authors have
demonstrated that more and more sportscapes (landscapes characterized by sporting facilities
and structures), especially stadiums, courts and arenas, tend to become standardized (Relph,
1976; Bale, 1994; Gordon, 2013). This refers to the concept of “placelessness” symbolized by
the unauthenticity of many modern and artificial sport settings that are required to guarantee
spectators’ comfort and safety, to make the competition fair on an even playing field but also
to respond to media’s technological needs as well as commercial attractiveness (Higham &
Hinch, 2018). However, outdoor sporting events are an alternative to avoid inauthenticity
within sportscapes since they occur in open spaces rather than being confined within a stadium
(Augé, 1995). Once again, Page and Connell’s (2009) claim that tourism is place-specific is
demonstrated here with the differences between experiencing sport within a built environment
or in the nature. Therefore, enclosed arenas symbolize the removal of sports from unique place-
specific weather conditions, however, these modern stadiums allow athletes to play regardless
the time or the weather of the day (Higham & Hinch, 2018). Given that the sport tourism
experience is entailed by the interactions between the tourist and the place (Standeven & De
Knop, 1998), outdoor sporting events are a good way to provide a meaning to places but also
to promote them. As claimed by Kulczycki and Halpenny (2014); “landscapes and settings are
11important travel motivators, especially for sport tourism events. Understanding perceptions of
sportscapes and travel motivations are essential for sport event organizers and destination
managers’ to create sustainable and successful sport tourism events and destinations”.
Considering the concept of “placelessness” symbolized by the unauthenticity of modern
and artificial arenas (Hingham & Hinch, 2018), it can be argued that, through their unique
context, cycling events can provide meaning to places but also promote them. Therefore,
cycling events are of great importance for local communities regarding the benefits as well as
the media attention they might generate (Mignot, 2016a).
2.4. Cycling Tourism
The concept of cycling tourism has been subject to debate among academics since many
definitions tend to exclude or overlook the variety of cycling-based activities relative to tourism,
such as spectators at cycling events, and individuals who travel to participate in cycle racing
events. Lamont (2009) highlighted this research gap and proposed his own conceptualization
of cycling tourism in order to enable segmentation of the bicycle tourism market but also to
measure accurately its size, economic value, benefits as well as its impacts. Therefore, he claims
that a bicycle tourism definition should include: a cycling experience occurring outside a
person’s home region, a single-day or multi-day trip durations, cycling as the main driver for
travelling, active or passive participation in cycling but also cycling events’ competitors and
observers (Lamont, 2009). As a result, other academics also started to include spectators and
participants when studying cycling tourism events (Ritchie, Tkaczynski, & Faulks 2010;
Kulczycki & Halpenny, 2014; Bursa & Mailer, 2020). Lamont (2009) justifies the inclusion of
competitive cyclists and cycling events spectators (connoisseurs or not) by the great number of
cycling tourists as well as the large benefits these two categories can add to this specific niche
market. Indeed, he claims that their inclusion may favor increased expenditure on cycling
infrastructures in the hosting communities which would serve the interests of tourism event
managers. Thus, the latter would find advantageous measures of the benefits of cycling events
organized elsewhere, useful for soliciting sponsorship or fiscal support for the organisation of
their events.
Cycling is considered as a carbon-free activity that usually occurs in special places and from
a touristic point of view, it can be seen as a sustainable way to entail tourism development
(Dickson & Robbins, 2009; Kulczycki & Halpenny, 2014). Concerning road cycling events,
place is also an important parameter since the landscape or transportation system (the road) is
temporarily transformed into a racetrack for the length of the event (Hinch & Higham, 2004).
Therefore, it is arguable that the place-specific dimension of tourism suggested by Page and
Connell (2009) can also be applied to cycling events since location’s characteristics and
destination’s image both contribute to the decision making of competitive cycling tourists
(Kaplanidou, Jordan, Funk, & Ridinger, 2012). Additionally, although road bicycling is limited
to specific terrain conditions and does not allow to travel through various landscapes, cycling
riders are often choosing carefully beforehand a terrain that might favor their abilities
(Kulczycki & Halpenny, 2014). The same reasoning can be applied to event organizers who
meticulously decide on the future racecourse by choosing certain locations presenting specific
attributes that can make the race more spectacular (Marchetti, 2003). A multitude of cycling
events exists all around the globe and at various levels of participation ranging from amateur
club competitors to international elite cyclists that travel the world competing in major cycle
racing events. Also, it should be emphasized that competitive cycling is not limited to riding on
the open road, but also includes velodrome (or “track”) events, mountain bike races, as well as
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