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Distorted realities
The discursive construction of realities in digital news media
Stockholm University
Department of Media Studies
Master Thesis
Global Media Studies
June 2020
written by David Jeremias Vogt
Email: david.jeremias.vogt@gmail.com
Supervisor: Professor Kristina RiegertDavid Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
Abstract
This study is designed to gain an understanding of the reality creation process in digital news
media. By looking into the case of the Trump-Ukraine scandal the way how the 2 major US
online news platforms CNN and FoxNews discursively construct reality for their audiences is
examined. Within this analysis a qualitative framework is used, by applying a multi-method
approach, consisting of a multimodal-discourse analysis and a critical discourse analysis. In
the increasingly polarized and fragmented US society, explanations are needed for why
people are having fundamentally different understandings of the current political events. A
quite reasonable amount of research has been conducted in this field. However, the media
studies are currently lacking profound explanations in the field of digital news. This project
offers relevant findings of how the analyzed publications construct the events around an
important and controversial topic through their online news coverage.
Interestingly, this project shows that the news coverage about the Trump-Ukraine scandal in
both channels differs decisively in terms of its journalistic style and contextual meaning.
FoxNews uses direct quotations to hand over the narration to the political actors involved in
the political process. In that way, FoxNews functions as the opinion creation machine for
conservative worldviews and presents a Trump-favorable version of the events. On the other
hand, CNN injects its news coverage with emotionalizing elements and creates through that
a very Trump-critical and partly prejudiced news reporting, focusing more on the sensational
value of the story rather than on sole information.
Important to mention is that this research offers limited explanations to the problematic
nature of the issue since digital news embodies a decisive factor in the opinion creation
process but is one factor out of many. Therefore, more research is needed to fully elaborate
on the digital news environment and its impacts on society.
3David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 3
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 6
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Aim of the research ........................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Research questions ........................................................................................................ 8
1.3 Motivation for this research ........................................................................................... 9
1.4 Limitation..................................................................................................................... 10
2. Background ............................................................................................................. 12
2.1 FoxNews ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.2 CNN ............................................................................................................................. 13
2.3 The media environment and partisan lines in the US – theoretical findings .................. 15
2.4 The Ukraine affaire....................................................................................................... 19
2.5 Political scandals in the US: a long tradition ................................................................. 20
3. Theoretical framework ............................................................................................ 22
3.1 Reality: a social construction ........................................................................................ 22
3.2 The role of language ..................................................................................................... 23
3.3 The social construction of news .................................................................................... 25
3.4 Scandals and emotion: the driver for discursive reality construction ............................ 27
4. Methodological framework ..................................................................................... 30
4.1 The method.................................................................................................................. 30
4.2 Multimodal Discourse analysis ..................................................................................... 30
4.3 Critical Discourse Analysis ............................................................................................ 32
4.4 Operationalized research questions ............................................................................. 34
4.5 The topic ...................................................................................................................... 35
4.6 The sample ................................................................................................................... 35
4.7 Analytical framework ................................................................................................... 37
4.7.1 Video analysis framework ............................................................................................................ 37
4.7.2 Textual analysis ............................................................................................................................ 38
5. Research results ....................................................................................................... 41
5.1 Phase 1 – CNN Segment 1 ............................................................................................. 41
5.2 Phase 1 – FoxNews Segment 1...................................................................................... 43
5.3 Phase 2 – CNN Segment 2 ............................................................................................. 44
5.4 Phase 2 – FoxNews Segment 2...................................................................................... 46
5.5 Phase 3 – CNN Segment 3 ............................................................................................. 48
5.6 Phase 3 – FoxNews Segment 3...................................................................................... 51
4David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
5.7 Phase 4 – CNN Segment 4 ............................................................................................. 53
5.8 Phase 4 – FoxNews Segment 4...................................................................................... 55
6. Discussion of the results ........................................................................................... 57
6.1 Video analysis .............................................................................................................. 59
6.1.1 Main underlying messages ........................................................................................................... 59
6.1.2 Ideological standpoints: ............................................................................................................... 59
6.2 Textual analysis ............................................................................................................ 60
6.2.1 Quotation ..................................................................................................................................... 60
6.2.2 Metaphorization and lexical choices: ........................................................................................... 62
6.2.3 Identity construction of political actors ....................................................................................... 62
6.2.4 Narratives ..................................................................................................................................... 63
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 65
8. Sample..................................................................................................................... 67
8.1 CNN ............................................................................................................................. 67
8.2 Foxnews ....................................................................................................................... 67
Works Cited ..................................................................................................................... 69
5David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
Acknowledgements
This project exceeds the suggested word scope of this project. The two very text-heavy
methods in combination with the complex theoretical constructs of this project require a
more detailed and precise description to do justice to the desired intention of this research.
I would like to thank my supervisor, my parents, and friends, who supported me along with
this lengthy, enlightening path.
David Jeremias Vogt
6David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
1. Introduction
At the beginning of this journey lies the question which is concerned with the reasons for
America’s increasingly bitter divide. The Ukraine affair around Donald Trump has shown once
more what high level of controversy the battleground of US politics is offering. Hard fought
partisan lines are reflected in the media’s agenda what does not leave audiences behind
impact less. Therefore, the main objective of this present research is to find out how digital
news media discursively construct reality for their audiences. A qualitative approach is used
to examine how 2 of the most influential news channels, naming CNN and FoxNews are
creating worlds and worldviews for their readers through their digital publications. The
thematical input for this study offers the Ukraine scandal, a political scandal with
international importance, exciting and upsetting media audiences in the US and beyond. A
combination of a multimodal discourse approach and a classical discourse analysis is used to
explore the ways of news reporting on this controversial issue. The material is given through
news segments that consist of videos and textual components.
The theoretical background is delivered by Paul A. Boghossian, from who’s theories on the
social construction of knowledge it is possible to conclude that reality is constructed and not
perceived (Boghossian, 2010). Furthermore, the theories of Berkowitz and Liu on the social
construction of news, together with the findings of Wahl-Jorgensen about emotions in news,
build the theoretical backbone for the analysis of the research results. Looking at the social
construction of news, the authors refer to 3 main frameworks that determine the cultural
production of meaning in news. This first is described as journalistic storytelling through
mythical narration. The second frame deals with collective memory in news and its role in
explaining and reframing specific events. The third concept is defined through the
construction of meaning through ideography (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, pp. 306-310).
Concerning emotions in news, Wahl-Jorgensen points out that emotionalizing elements are
often embedded in news reporting on political issues. She explains that emotions are inherent
in mediated communication. In the case of news coverage on political scandals, mostly the
moral aspects of the topic are foregrounded (Wahl-Jorgensen, 2019, pp. 39-42).
The methodological tools in this study have a qualitative character. On the one hand, the
material is analyzed through the multimodal discourse approach. The concept presented by
Gunther Kress (2010) is used for the video parts of the news segments. The multimodal
7David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
discourse approach emphasizes the multimodality of discourses. Forms and types of
communication can appear on several levels and in different modes. That means discourses
are anchored and existing in many different modes. The multimodal discourse approach
offers a way to explore how within and across these modes meaning is created (Kress, 2010,
p. 32). Therefore, this investigation approach is offering a suitable way to examine content
with several layers of meaning, like video footage. Furthermore, the critical discourse model
by David Machin and Andrea Mayr (2012) is deployed to investigate the textual parts of the
material. This method helps to find out how meaning is created through language. This
together with the theoretical findings of Norman Fairclough builds the methodological
framework for the text material. The general idea is that ideological convictions and social
norms originate in language. As Fairclough explains, language can be seen as a form of social
practice (Fairclough, 1993, p. 134). In that way, the critical discourse approach is applied to
find out how this social practice resonates in the news reporting on the Ukraine scandal.
Moreover, in the center of critical discourse studies lies the idea that content producers have
different word choices available. By looking into these word choices, specific understanding
about the values, convictions, and deeper-lying meaning can be gained (Machin & Mayr,
2012, p. 30).
1.1 Aim of the research
This research is designed to find out how realities of complex political issues are discursively
constructed in digital news media. The reality versions, which are constructed in 2 widely
consumed and ideologically very different positioned US online news outlets are analyzed, by
looking into the news reporting of the Ukraine affaire around President Donald Trump.
The gained results through the qualitative framework are interlinked with the theoretical
findings. In that way a profound understanding of the social construction of reality and power
structures in online news in generated.
1.2 Research questions
In the following, the two main questions are presented which motivate this study. Those
questions build the basis for the 5 operationalized research questions which are presented in
chapter number 4, Methodological Framework.
8David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
RQ1: How does the video content of the online news coverage about the Ukraine affaire
create reality versions for their audiences?
RQ2: What language components are used within the textual part of the news reporting about
the Ukraine Affaire to rephrase, frame, and describe the events taken place?
A sequence of pivotable moments is designed to create a frame for the material selection.
This time frame comprises the 4 following phases: the revelations of the scandal, the public
hearings and investigations, the process, and at last the debate around the aftermath of the
scandal. In that context from each news channel 1 segment of each phase was selected and
analyzed. Each segment contains a video, as well as a textual part. The videos were examined
through the multimodal discourse approach, for the textual parts the classical critical
discourse analysis was used.
Interestingly, this research delivers valuable insights into the way how both channels report
on the issue. Looking at CNN a special role emotionalization can be identified. In the case of
FoxNews, the narration of news through direct quotation is revealed. Both channels remain
within their partisan lines – FoxNews, republican and CNN democratic, and reflect these
ideological standpoints in their news coverage.
1.3 Motivation for this research
The decisive motivation for this research is to trace the reasons for a remarkably increasing
divide throughout the US American society. Traditional ideological lines, social values, and
common practices of political debate are nowadays fully distorted. Depending on what media
people are consuming, they have different understandings of the present political events. This
has led to the creation of deep divisions in voting blocks. The new factor is that those different
opinions and attitudes are not fought out based on discussion and debate. They originate in
fundamental objection towards the other, which creates what can be called a battlefield for
ideologies (AssociatedPress, 2016). People are constructing their realities through consuming
media. It is within the responsibility of the media studies to deliver explanations for why these
realities can be so contrasting.
For the communication studies, it is, therefore, crucial to find out, firstly, what role the media
are playing in this process of division. Secondly, what responsibilities media actors are
carrying with regards to their influential potential for meaning and opinion creation.
9David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
The digital publications of the two TV giants CNN and FoxNews are listed amongst the 10 most
influential news channels in the US (Feedspot, 2020). Both formerly classical TV channels,
publish nowadays news in the form of articles and stories, mostly in combination with video
material on their online platforms. They can both be allocated to the same media category,
covering news issues on a 24-hours basis. Ideologically they have very different standpoints.
CNN can be seen as more liberal and proclaiming democratic values. On the other side, we
find FoxNews, a media channel part of the Murdoch media complex, speaking to
conservative, more right audiences.
The different ideological standpoints create an interesting basis for a comparison, which looks
into how facts are conveyed and how reality is discursively constructed concerning a
controversially discussed and highly important issue. In other words, this analysis helps to
find out how two structurally very similar digital news outlets with alike reaches can create
realities for their audiences by reporting about a topic with a high level of complexity.
There is a reasonable amount of research existing dealing with topics that are related to the
investigated media channels. Their strong ability to influence public opinion and the potential
to lead political debates can be seen as one of the main reasons for the wide interest of the
media studies. Since these are traditionally TV news outlets, the main attention was given to
their television coverage. However, there is a lack of actual and adequate scientific knowledge
about how reality is constructed in the current digital news environment. Therefore, is this
research designed to fill this gap and delivers important insights into how 2 of the most
popular digital news destinations construct the events around a controversial issue with great
importance.
1.4 Limitation
The specific design of this research with its qualitative tools helps to gain scientific knowledge
about how online news media discursively construct realities for their readers. However,
since the results are not from quantitative nature, general conclusions are not possible.
Moreover, since the analysis looks into one particular case, it is important to point out that
other cases could deliver different results. Furthermore, relating the research intention to its
motivational origin, it offers answers to the question about America’s increasing polarization.
In this context, it is important to mention that this explanation must be viewed as one of
10David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
many. Digital news can play an important role in the public opinion creation process, but so
do many other media forms, like social media platforms for instance. Additionally, media
effects can be viewed as very controversial phenomena. Other studies can deliver divergent
results about the same topic. The comparative approach of the study is limited since the news
segments belong to different genres from article, over editorial, to opinion. Therefore, the
contribution of this project must be seen as only one part of the puzzle which explains the
media’s role and the environment, where reality construction takes place.
11David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
2. Background
The present section is designed to offer an overview of the thematical topic, insights about
the channels delivering the material, as well as important theoretical findings from the media
studies which are relevant for this research.
2.1 FoxNews
The 24-hours-a-day news channel was introduced to the US cable market in 1996 by Rupert
Murdoch. The news coverage is allocated more in the political right and conservative
spectrum (DellaVigna & Kaplan, 2007, p. 1191).
FoxNews is viewed as the polarizing media output for conservative and right anchored
opinions in the US. It is also very often brought in connection with promoting the agenda of
the Republican party. The channel itself describes it with the following words: “a 24-hour all-
encompassing news service delivering breaking news as well as political and business news.”
(Foxnews, 2020). Additionally, they refer in their description to several reports and polls
promoting their popularity and trustworthiness as a news outlet.
Research from 2020 published in the American Journal of Political Science found out that the
market entry of FoxNews in 1996 had a significant effect on congressional elections by
changing the entry calculations of the concerned politicians. Data shows that through the
emerge of FoxNews, more quality candidates of the Republican party were likely to run in
districts dominated by the Democrats. On the other hand, the results show that quality
Democratic candidates were less likely to challenge quality Republicans in their districts after
the go-live of the FoxNews cable channel (Arceneaux, et al., 2020). These findings
demonstrate what effects national news media can have on the political landscape and
deliver a great understanding of the partisan media system. However, it is important to
mention is that these findings are based on data from cable TV news consumption from 1996.
Therefore, the presented findings have limited validity today. For that reason, more precise
research is needed to gain understanding of the actual situation. Especially the role of digital
media sources should be elaborated more in detail.
Another project conducted by Clinton and Enamorado investigated the relationship between
elected officials and media effects on them in the period of FoxNews’ market entry between
1996 and 2000. The authors found out that there is no evidence suggesting that more
12David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
conservative politicians were elected due to FoxNews’ appearance. But that there is a positive
correlation shown between FoxNews and elected officials becoming less supportive of the
Democratic President Clinton (Clinton & Enamorado, 2014, p. 941).
The research project conducted by DellaVigna and Kaplan goes even further and ascribes
FoxNews the power to change elections. In their project, the authors studied the effects of
media bias on voting behavior. Interestingly, they found out that through the expansion of
FoxNews cable between 1996 and 2000, the elective behavior in certain areas where
FoxNews was available got shifted toward the Republican party. The study claims that towns
with FoxNews presence, showed a higher voting result on the Republican’s site in the 2000
presidential elections, compared to the previous election round in 1996. The authors
conclude that such a shift can be decisive in elections, which means in other words, FoxNews
would have the force to change the outcome of an election (DellaVigna & Kaplan, 2007, p.
1228). As reasons for this phenomenon, the authors name the ability of FoxNews to mobilize
particularly conservative voters in Democratic-dominated districts (DellaVigna & Kaplan,
2007, p. 1189). The results of this project must be regarded very critically since statistical
relationships can be misinterpreted and do not entirely offer conclusive explanations for the
identified media effect. On the contrary, they deliver interesting insights on the possible
influential potential of news media and suggest the phenomenon FoxNews, should be
investigated further.
FoxNews can on the one hand be seen as political power, with the potential to shift public
opinion and even results of general elections. On the other hand, FoxNews embodies a media
corporation, which operates in the same way as other national news channel and is subject
to the same economic laws of the media industry (Yglesias, 2018, p. 682).
2.2 CNN
By today, the TV channel founded in 1980 by Ted Turner can be seen as one of the most
important cable TV news channels, offering 24-hours news reporting. Historically, reasons for
the popularity of CNN can be found in the coverage of hot and actual high-level topics with
global importance, like the Gulf War in 1991, the Tiananmen Square protests, and the fall of
Communism (Ghasemi Tari & Emamzadeh, 2018, p. 78).
13David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
CNN is often mentioned together with the genre of 24-hours news reporting and its coverage
of international issues. It is associated with a high level of influential potential in both US
policy and society. News effects on politics and public opinion are often described with the
media phenomenon referred to as the CNN-effect. It means that the use of shocking and
emotionalizing images, mostly depicting humanitarian crises, can lead to shifts in public
opinion and policy. This phenomenon was firstly discovered in combination with the CNN
news reporting about the Gulf War in 1991 and further identified in other humanitarian crises
like Somalia, Haiti, and in the Balkan (Bahador, 2007, pp. 3-4). However, it is important to
mention that this media effect was theorized, but not fully proven. Other research suggests
that the media phenomenon must be viewed as limitedly effective (Robinson, 2002, pp. 121-
122).
CNN describes itself as the global leader in digital news and information and states their
mission as follows: “To Inform, Engage and Empower the World” (CNN, 2020)
The online segment, CNN.com, is believed to be one of the most popular news platforms in
the US and is rated globally as one of the most influential and widely consumed digital news
channels according to several sources (Medialandscapes, 2020); (Similarweb, 2020).
A notable research project which was published in the Journal of Politics and Law analyzed
CNN video news coverage about the 2016 election in combination with Tweets of Trump. The
study delivers relevant findings of the complex relationship between the presidential
candidate and the news channel (Ghasemi Tari & Emamzadeh, 2018, p. 79). It was shown that
the presidential campaign of Trump disregarded and ignored accusations and allegations
brought up through CNN systematically. Only issues which enjoyed wide popularity amongst
the US society were addressed by Trump and his team (Ghasemi Tari & Emamzadeh, 2018, p.
85).
From these findings, we learn that CNN as one of the main news sources in the US has a very
ambivalent relation to Trump. In the research, it is mentioned that the news network was
accused of focusing a significantly higher share of its coverage on issues related to Trump
(Ghasemi Tari & Emamzadeh, 2018, pp. 78-79). Trump’s allies like TV host Larry King, as well
as his opponents, aids to his competitors Jeb Bush, Ted Cruz, and Marco Rubio expressed how
one-sided CNN’s coverage was during the primaries of 2016 (Grynbaum, 2016). Additionally,
it is important to mention that during the 2016 election period, CNN reached its highest peak
14David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
in terms of viewership figures. Therefore, it is from crucial importance to look into how this
news giant constructs the events of a highly relevant topic concerning President Trump.
Summarizing the findings of CNN, the news channel presents itself as a media company
promoting and practicing journalistic values like transparency, accuracy, and truth. It became
widely popular through the news reporting on hot and explosive topics. Furthermore, its
relation to Trump can be seen as ambivalent, since it is one of his loudest criticizers, but lends
him through that a fair amount of attention.
2.3 The media environment and partisan lines in the US – theoretical findings
Farhi, a media specialist, presents in his article published in the magazine American
Journalism Review in 2003 interesting insights about the complex relationship between CNN
and FoxNews. The article advocates that the 2 channels, generally regarded as bitter rivals in
the TV news industry, are so fundamentally different in tone and style, that they are not
competing in the same genre. CNN with its long tradition and viewed as the inventor of the
24hours-news genre seemed to be outperformed by FoxNews, entering the market in 1996,
as part of the Rupert Murdoch media complex (Farhi, 2003, p. 32). The author calls both
channels as being “…separate solar systems in the same galaxy.” (Farhi, 2003, p. 32).
Important to mention is, those statements are not from scientific nature but help to better
understand the 2 media channels which are in the focus of this research. With it, we can try
to explain why the worlds which are constructed in both news outlets are fundamentally
different and why opinions are increasingly polarized. It maps out the way to further look into
the reasons for the bitter divide of the US society. It is within the responsibility of the media
studies to deliver scientific explanation, evidence, and possible solution approaches to this
phenomenon.
A notable research project published in The International Journal of Press/Politics (2012),
deals with the news coverage about the issue of climate change on the 3 major US cable TV
networks, FoxNews, CNN, and MSNBC. The research project follows the main goal to
investigate the hypothesis, which states that news consumption behavior affects beliefs and
opinions about climate change. The research draws back on findings of the partisan divide in
the US society. It was shown that great differences are existing on how the topic of climate
change is perceived between Democratic and Republican supporters (Feldman, et al., 2012,
15David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
p. 4). With the media as the main source for public information, it is critical to investigate how
different news coverage can influence, shape, extremize, and divide public opinions.
The 2012 research shows that different cable news consumption behaviors affect views and
opinions on the issue of climate change. The study demonstrated that more people tend to
watch FoxNews, the less likely they are to accept the fact that climate change is a human-
created phenomenon with severe negative impacts. On the contrary, the more people watch
CNN and MSNBC, they more likely they are to accept global warming (Feldman, et al., 2012,
pp. 22-23).
Interestingly, from this research, we learn that partisan lines and news consumption
behaviors play a decisive role in the understanding of complex political issues. The two most
important main conclusions to be found in this study postulate, on the one hand, that cable
news has the potential to influence public opinion and understanding. On the other hand,
and most importantly, different media channels can convey different views of reality. Those
can contain different opinions and understandings, which polarizes audiences (Feldman, et
al., 2012, p. 23). That means in simple words, FoxNews creates a different reality than does
CNN or MSNBC.
This project gives important hints and leads the way for further investigations. The
examination of the news coverage about controversial issues in TV news delivers interesting
insights and conclusions. With the growing usage of online news channels, comes the need
to investigate how such topics are presented in digital news. Online news media have become
one of the main sources of information within the last years, with more predicted growth to
come (Twenge, et al., 2019). For that reason, the analysis of reality construction in online
news delivers a relevant and actual subject.
In the past 2 decades, the media landscape has gone through an era of change. Nowadays,
the US society is offered a drastically increased variety of media content, in both television
and online. In consequence, this growing range of content variety leads to fragmentation of
audiences (Gil de Zúñiga, et al., 2012). In this context, for the media studies, the crucial
question emerges, which deals with the impacts of this fragmentation. There is a need to
investigate the reasons for why political opinions are driving apart from each other, why are
fundamental understandings of politics and society are becoming more extreme and what
are the origins of polarization and extremization.
16David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
A study published in the Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media (2012) investigates the
correlation between selective exposure to cable TV news and the viewers’ ideological
standpoints. In this study data sets of US citizens were analyzed, to look into the interlinkage
between selective TV news consumption, of either FoxNews or CNN and the audiences’
ideological convictions and the opinions towards a highly controversial issue – naming
Mexican migration. The main goal of the study is to examine the effects of “selective
exposure” and “ideological reinforcement” on the audience’s opinions towards the particular
social group and the politics concerning it (Mexican immigrants). In the study data from the
years 2008 and 2009 was collected and analyzed (Gil de Zúñiga, et al., 2012, p. 598).
The results of this project are worth mentioning. It was found out that the more conservative
a person is, the more likely they are going to consume FoxNews media content. On the other
hand, the data showed that the more liberal a person is, the more likely this person will watch
CNN and avoid FoxNews. Moreover, this research shows that ideological convictions play an
important role in dealing with controversial topics. Conservative people have more negative
attitudes towards Mexican migration than more liberal persons (Gil de Zúñiga, et al., 2012, p.
606). From this research, we learn that conservative Republicans tend to watch FoxNews and
in turn, Democrats with a more liberal mindset consume CNN content. Additionally, from
these findings, we learn about the so-called FoxNews-effect, which explains that people from
both political streams, Republican and Democratic, who consume FoxNews media content,
have more negative opinions on topics like migration (Gil de Zúñiga, et al., 2012, p. 610).
These findings help to understand the complex fragmentation of the US media environment.
However, on the other hand, they only deliver a simplified view of this fragmentation. The
classification into only 2 binaries, left and right, FoxNews and CNN, and democratic and
republican can be seen as limiting. Each binary contains large depths and variations in opinion.
Moreover, this research maps out the way for further investigations. Noting here, there is a
need existing to shine a light on the different ideological standpoints, which are interwoven
in the coverage about controversial issues, like for example the Ukraine affaire, in online
news, as we find it on CNN and FoxNews. It can be relevant to examine what different
ideological convictions are present and what are the underlying messages carrying these
ideologies. Additionally, it is worth investigating if the 2 news channels are reporting along
their predicted partisan lines, meaning FoxNews ‘pro-Republican’ and CNN ‘pro-Democratic’.
17David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
An interesting research project published in the journal Journalism Studies, analyses how
journalists at CNN, Fox, and MSNBC are making use of source networks for their media
coverage. As mentioned before, the US media landscape has changed drastically within the
last years. The 2 main characteristics are deregulation and technical progress, both fostering
the predominance of big media corporations (Conway-Silva, et al., 2020).
The article explains that cable news channels can be described as horizontal media. The term
horizontal aims on describing the level of content and opinion diversity. Horizontal diversity
means that variety does not exist within a given news outlet, but through the variety of
outlets, diversity is created. On the other hand, vertical outlets, mostly broadcast media,
typically have a greater variety of perspectives and tend to produce more objective content
(Conway-Silva, et al., 2020, p. 840).
This study explains that cable news in the US is communicating with highly fractured
audiences by using different actors to convey their messages. The most dominant messenger
role is found within the responsibility of prominent political actors. The study concludes, that
the reasons for the existence of fundamentally differentiating worlds and world views within
the US main news networks originate to a high level in the different voices which are heard
in them. Moreover, the authors conclude, that the news coverage of the analyzed material is
strongly branded with subjectivism, which stems from the partisan influence on the media
channels (Conway-Silva, et al., 2020, p. 852).
From these findings, we learn that it can be interesting to look closer into how political actors
are heard in the US mainstream media. This forms an important pillar of the examination of
reality construction in digital news media. The idea that politicians through statements, direct
quotation, or other multimedia contributions control the narration within news media builds
a critical issue, which needs to analyzed closer.
By today, CNN and FoxNews are listed as the leading digital news networks in the US. In the
Digital News Report of 2019 from the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, CNN is
listed on place number 2 followed by FoxNews under the category top online news brands in
terms of user figures (Jenkins & Graves, 2020). As of February 2020, Statista ranks CNN on
number 4, with 95 million unique visitors and FoxNews on place number 6, with 65 million
unique visitors, as the most popular news websites in the US (Statista, 2020). Additionally,
data from SimilarWeb shows that CNN has higher traffic numbers, but more traffic coming
18David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
from other countries than the US. FoxNews users tend to visit 2,7 pages on average and stay
about 7 minutes on site. Users of CNN remain 3,5 minutes on-site and browse 1,9 pages.
Those user figures suggest that both digital media channels have similar influential potential
in the USA. The usage numbers of CNN are higher, but with more traffic coming from other
countries. FoxNews users on the other hand tend to stay longer on the site and visit more
pages (SimilarWeb, 2020); (SimilarWeb, 2020).
Therefore, both media channels are very suitable for comparative investigation. They have a
similar reach in the United States and can be categorized into the same schemata of TV and
digital media hybrid, publishing, and covering stories in the same structural way.
2.4 The Ukraine affaire
To begin with, it is important to mention that this present study does not seek to assess the
legal or ethical aspects of the Ukraine affaire. The following briefly describes the background
of the thematical input that relies mainly on media reports and claims no scientific
completeness. The news coverage of the Ukraine affaire was chosen since it delivers a
controversial and highly important issue for the US public and beyond.
The Ukraine affaire, by today also known as President Donald Trump’s impeachment process,
deals in general with allegations against Trump in terms of abuse of power and obstruction
of Congress by pressuring a foreign government to investigate a political rival.
In the center of the story lies an anonymous whistleblower complaint, which made the
accusations against Trump public matter. In August 2019, an unknown intelligence official
expressed concern about a phone conversation between Trump and Volodymyr Zelensky,
president of Ukraine. In the phone call, Trump urged Zelensky to investigate former Vice-
President Joe Biden and his son Hunter. Mr. Biden, the frontrunner of the Democratic party
for the 2020 election, can be seen as Trump’s direct political rival. Importantly, the phone
conversation took place shortly after US military aids for Ukraine was blocked through Trump.
Members of the Democratic party argued that Trump broke the law by pressuring a foreign
nation to investigate his political opponent through withholding essential military support.
Trump and the White House denied this and alleged on the contrary Biden, by stating that he
abused his power to prevent possible investigations against his son during his Vice-
Presidency. The revelations were followed by a period of fact-finding and closed-door
19David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
investigations, which lead to public hearings, in which multiple government officials testified
in the House of Representatives.
The from the Democrats dominated House impeached Trump on two charges – abuse of
power and obstruction of Congress. A process in the Republican-controlled Senate was the
consequence. In the end, the Senators voted to acquit Trump of all charges. The issue marks
the 3rd impeachment trial in US history. (BBC, 2020) (Seung Min, 2020) (McCarthy, 2020).
2.5 Political scandals in the US: a long tradition
Political scandals have a long tradition in the United States. The media has been an important
player in revealing and discussing illegal and immoral events happening in US politics. To
name 2 of the most popular issues, which have been branded into the collective memory of
American history, we find the Watergate scandal and the Clinton-Levinsky affair.
In 1972 it became public that President Richard Nixon and his team were trying to cover up a
break-in at the Democratic National Committee office in the Watergate complex in
Washington. Members of the Nixon re-election campaign tried to steal sensitive material
from their political opponents. When the story went through the media, the people were
shocked. Nixon resigned before he could be impeached. This scandal changed US politics and
the way how Americans see elections fundamentally (Waxman, 2018); (Stezano, 2018).
In 1998, the news broke that President Clinton had a sexual affair with White House intern
Monica Levinsky. Clinton firstly denied, but later were the allegations found to be true. The
mediated response was characterized by sensationalism and absurdity. The accused
President was impeached for perjury and obstruction of justice but finally acquitted of all
charges (Stezano, 2018).
These events help to understand the meaning of political scandals concerning US presidents.
It provides a historical background and allows us to understand what explosive topics are
startling the US public. Parallels can be drawn to the Trump-Ukraine affair.
November 8th, 2016 when Donald Trump got elected as the 45th President of the United
States, marks the ultimate day of a new political era. Old, long-established habits, norms, and
values were thrown overboard. As new President got a man elected who against all odds won
an election which was characterized through populism and absurdity. While with it the
question emerges, asking for the reasons of the phenomenon Trump: How could this unusual,
20David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
largely criticized man, whose leadership qualities were questioned widely become the official
elected President (Kivisto, 2017, pp. 2-3)? The answers might not be simple and explained
through several phenomena. However, this present research looks into how mass media,
particularly digital forms, are dealing with the aftermath of this development.
21David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
3. Theoretical framework
This section is designed to offer a theoretical framework for this research to answer the
questions posed previously. It marks a combination out of several established theoretical
approaches explaining the different thematical layers, this research is touching onto. In that
way, it functions as the theoretical backbone explaining and elaborating the results of the
empirical analysis.
3.1 Reality: a social construction
The ideological starting point of this research project is the assumption that reality is
something that is socially constructed. Therefore, the ultimate goal which arises from this
philosophical discussion is to find out, how this reality creation process is done.
Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann discuss in their classical work “The Social Construction of
Reality” the terminology ‘sociology of knowledge’. With it, the authors refer to an analytical
process that not only looks into the diversity of knowledge in different societies. They are
concerned with how several elements of knowledge come together and will be socially
established as ‘reality’ (Berger & Luckmann, 1966, p. 15). In other words, what the authors
refer to as the ‘sociology of knowledge’, means a process to deal with and to examine these
construction efforts. A process that is concerned with “the analysis of the social construction
of reality” (Berger & Luckmann, 1966, p. 15).
One further, for this research relevant, socio-philosophical understanding of the concept of
knowledge is mapped out by Paul A. Boghossian. In his work with the title “The Social
Construction of Knowledge” (Boghossian, 2010), he tries to find answers to fundamental
questions about how knowledge can be socially constructed. For this research project, this is
relevant with regards to the anchoring of knowledge within our socially constructed reality.
Boghossian explains the main cognitive activities, that are responsible for the process of
knowledge creation. Firstly, he notes that believing can be seen as a mental state of mind. In
this context, it is crucial to mention that beliefs are built out of propositional content. This
proposition allows us to access beliefs, for example as true or false, justified or unjustified or
as rational versus irrational. Important to mention is that propositional content is built out of
concepts (Boghossian, 2010, p. 11). To give an example, for someone being able to believe
that the sky is blue, one must have the concepts sky, being, and blue. It is possible to postulate
22David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
that concepts are used to construct and assemble knowledge. Concerning this present
research, it is important to find out how such concepts are shared from individual to individual
and from many to many.
For the question asking about, what it means that something is socially constructed, we firstly
must declare what it means, to construct something in general. In simple words, to construct
something means that we built something together with some level of intention. Following
from this, we can conclude that something which is constructed does not exist already and
cannot be found or discovered, the distinctive factor is the intended creation process involved
(Boghossian, 2010, p. 16).
The theory of constructivism is foremost concerned with the construction of facts, rather than
the construction of material things. Facts come into existence and receive their meaning
through mutual agreement. To give an example, ‘money’ can be viewed as a social
construction. In that way, a piece of paper becomes a specific value ascribed, which then can
be traded universally in several ways. That only becomes possible because there is mutual
agreement existing about the value and the meaning of money (Boghossian, 2010, p. 17). The
same rules can be applied to the construction of social knowledge. Knowledge within a certain
society can only exist through shared ideas. In addition to that, to call something a social
construction it is necessary that facts are and can only be constructed collectively through
society (Boghossian, 2010, pp. 17-18).
3.2 The role of language
Within capitalist and what we call developed societies, power structures are predominately
enforced through ideological products and guidelines which regulate our living together,
rather than through physical forces. It is our cultural nature that determines the production
and reproduction of the social order, to which we align our behavior. The role of language is
in this interplay of significant importance. Through discourse, we establish ideologies,
practices, and meanings. Our knowledge, the values we commonly agree on and our identities
originate in discourse. In a debate, it is, what allows us to reach consensus and gives us the
possibility to learn. Interestingly, the mass media can be seen as the first and premium social
institution, impacting and enabling communicative processes transmitting discourse
(Fairclough, 2010, p. 531). Therefore, by understanding what media do with language and
23David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
what discourses can be found in their messages, we can understand one of the most
influential forces shaping social opinion and belief.
By analyzing the discursive elements of media content, the role of language must be
determined. Within the critical discourse studies, the phenomenon of linguistic determinism
plays an important role. In its most extreme interpretation, linguistic determinism states that
all our thinking is determined by the language we use. That means we do not only use
language to describe the world we see. Moreover, language delivers us the components with
which we construct our view of the world (Machin & Mayr, 2012, p. 16).
The first attempts to get a hold on these thoughts can be found in the theories of Saussure.
The idea was to study language features, the lexical and grammatical choices, referred to as
building blocks. These building blocks can be viewed as systematic choices reflecting specific
ideological standpoints and convictions. With regards to the relationship between language
and meaning, we can view language as a form of code, on which user terms we commonly
agree on. Characteristically for the distinction between the different forms of code is their
relational nature. Words for example stand in no direct relation to the things they describe.
They inhabit meaning, but this meaning comes into existence through the distinction, or more
precisely their difference to other words, rather than their similarity to the actual object they
are referring to. Therefore, it does make sense to study language according to its use. In that
way, it is possible to extract the underlying systems of the language components we analyze,
for both textual and visual elements (Machin & Mayr, 2012, p. 17).
Another noteworthy perspective on the use of language offers the social semiotic theory of
communication. Its core message defines language as a set of resources. In this context, it is
mainly interested in finding out how semiotic resources are used for both visual and language
communication. The availability and choice of semiotic resources are decisive in this interplay.
This approach ultimately aims on revealing what people are doing with the set of semiotic
choices available to them. The multimodal semiotic approach, evolved from the social
semiotic theory, reaches even further, it is not solely interested in the choices, moreover, it
is concerned about what these choices are and how they are expressed (Machin & Mayr,
2012, p. 17).
This knowledge lets us conclude, that the way how we use language, determines how we
speak and think about something. It builds the very basic fundament of how we perceive and
understand the world and will finally be reflected in our actions. What people do with
24David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
language allows us to conclude how they think and act in general. Therefore, if we can encode
language use in media and create systematic patterns out of that, we learn about how
language enforces power and what impact this power has on societies.
3.3 The social construction of news
The core interest of this research is to find out how media are constructing reality. Noting,
reality construction in this context, means the creation and interpretation of meaning. From
the philosophical and sociological theories described previously, it is possible to conclude that
those realities express their creators’ deepest opinions, interests, beliefs and can be
transferred into other realities, where they at a final stage are reflected in social actions
(Berger & Luckmann) (Boghossian) (Fairclough). The source of this meaning creation process
is the language that resonates in communication. Therefore, news delivers the components
for the realities of their readers, in the form of language. The goal of this project is to
determine and analyze those components adequately.
The answer to the question of why this is such an important issue delivers us the
acknowledgment that we humans are creatures, who are deeply concerned with meaning.
One of our main descriptive characteristics is our passion, combined with the need to create
and to interpret meaning (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, p. 301).
Referring to the study of news, the common predominant argumentation within the
communication theories is to regard news production not as a strategic, crafting practice,
with classical characteristics, comparable to other professions. It is rather viewed as a process
that creates, uses, and relates to meanings. Those meanings are already omnipresent within
the journalistic occupation, as well as the culture of the societies they are released into. That
means, news production is the reproduction of events resonating in the values and
convictions already existing in society (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, p. 306).
Berkowitz and Liu map out two approaches that explain the phenomena news thoroughly. On
the one hand, we find a sociological explanation, which views the topic news from the
perspective of the field of its origins. The organizational structures and ways of working in a
news organization, together with common journalistic strategies build the main thematical
aspects of this approach. On the contrary, the cultural approach is concerned with the
25David Jeremias Vogt – Stockholm University – Distorted Realities
professional culture and the society in which, and for which the phenomenon news is
produced (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, p. 310).
Journalism seen as an occupation is a field that is deeply impacted by its ideals of working and
the organizational structure around it. Tensions arise from the conflict journalists are facing,
created through competing factors given through moral and ethical norms and other internal
or external interests involved in the news creation process (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, p. 304).
For example, journalists need to consider what level of neutrality they need to apply by
retelling a story. Furthermore, journalistic work means to fulfill the specific ideals the
profession brings with it. These struggles, combined with the specific characteristics of the
profession, let sociologists suggest that reality in news is constructed (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014,
p. 304).
At the bottom of this discussion lies the question about how far news can reflect reality and
truth. From the sociological angle point, the main emphasis deals with the limitations of
journalistic work to create a coherent image of reality. Within this present work, the focus
lies more on the construction of reality through cultural and ideological means, rather than
on the examination of practical limitations of journalistic work. In that way, this present
project views the topic news more from the cultural perspective, although it also refers to the
sociological approach, especially with regards to the organizational structures of the media
outlets providing the sample material.
Regarding the construction of reality in news, we find 3 theoretical frameworks to explain the
cultural production of meaning. One particularly interesting phenomenon is explained by
Berkowitz and Liu with the so-called mythical narrative. This strategy embodies a way of
telling a story through foreseeable chains of action, recognizable frameworks of plots,
commonly shared cultural and moral values, and well-established ideas of characters – they
together form world views aligned to specific ideologies. It is possible to identify 7 main types
of mythical narratives in news reporting. Those master myths, delivering the templates for
storytelling in news are determined as follows: “the victim, the scapegoat, the hero, the good
mother, the trickster, the otherworld, and the flood” (Berkowitz & Liu, 2014, pp. 306-307).
Another way of telling news pointed out by the authors is the use of collective memory. This
strategy of telling events draws back on collectively aggregated memory, which is widely
agreed upon within a certain group or a society. By reporting a specific event, journalists scan
through their memories to find the right matches for rephrasing the new content. In that way,
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