Building starts at Braamhoek - January/February 2007 Volume 6 No 1 - Water Research Commission
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ISSN 0258-2244 January/February 2007 Volume 6 No 1 Building starts at Braamhoek
Water Institute of Southern Africa
Membrane Technology Division (MTD)
http://www.wisa.org.za/Divisions/membrane/mtd_index.htm
7th WISA-MTD Symposium and Workshop
18 – 20 March 2007
Mabalingwe Nature Reserve
Limpopo Province, South Africa
Limited to 150 delegates
Register early (before 15 February 2007)
INVITATION
Membranes are an important technology employed in a variety of processes. They play important roles in water treatment, chemical separation
and environmental management. The continued development and application of membrane processes are taking place at an ever-increasing
rate. The Committee of the WISA Membrane Technology Division is pleased to invite those with an interest in membranes to the 7th Biennial
Symposium and Workshop, to take place from 18 - 20 March 2007.
PROGRAM OF EVENTS REGISTRATION FORM – WISA MTD 2007
Sunday 18 March 2007 Surname .................................................................................................
16:30 – 18:00 Early Registration Title................. Name..............................................................................
18:00 – 19:30 Icebreaker Snacks and Cocktails Company ................................................................................................
19:30 Meet & Greet Dinner
Department .............................................................................................
Address ..................................................................................................
Monday 19 March 2007
7:30 Registration ..................................................................................................
8:30 Welcome and Opening Address Postal Code .......................... Country ....................................................
8:45 – 9:30 Plenary Lecture: International Speaker Vat Reg No. ............................................................................................
9:40 – 10:40: Session 1 Telephone ...............................................................................................
10:40 – 11:00 Short break Fax .........................................................................................................
11:00 – 12:00 Session 2 Mobile ....................................................................................................
12:00 – 13:00 LUNCH E-mail ....................................................................................................
13:00 – 15:00 Workshop1
15:00 – 15:30 AGM/Tea Break Registration (please tick)
15:30 – 16:30 Poster Presentations Non-WISA Member R1450 WISA Member R1250
16:30 – 18:30 Game Drive Student R300 Spouse R850
18:30 Symposium Dinner and Entertainment Late Registration add R200 (after 15 Feb )
Tuesday 20 March 2007 Payment to be made directly to WISA
5:00 – 7:00 Game Drive
8:30 – 8:45 Start of day’s proceedings Banking Details for conference registration:
8:45 – 9:30 Plenary Lecture: International Speaker Acc Name: Main WISA
9:40 – 10:40: Session 3 Bank: FNB
10:40 – 11:00 Tea Break Branch: BOULDERS BRANCH
11:00 – 13:00 Session4 Branch Code: 250 856
13:00 – 14:00 LUNCH Acc No: 620 4455 2710
14:00 – 16:00 Session 5 Ref No: Invoice no. (will be sent later)
MORE INFORMATION Special Dietary Requirements .................................................................
Marshall Sheldon: sheldonm@cput.ac.za
Tel: +27 21 460-3160 Signature ......................................................Date ..................................
Stephanie Marais: sdm.marais@eskom.co.za.
Tel: +27 11 800-4307 Please fax to Marshall Sheldon: +27 21 460-3854
Table of contents 3
LETTERS 4
UPFRONT 6
HYDRO-ELECTRICITY 14
Balancing power and water at Braamhoek
FRESHWATER CONSERVATION 19
Helping rivers fight for their lives
TRANSBOUNDARY AQUIFERS 23
Managing Southern Africa’s shared aquifers
CLIMATE PREDICTION 27
Locally-developed climate model verified
MINE-WATER POLLUTION 30
Solutions sought for SA AMD ‘hot spots’
WATSAVE AWARD 33
Cover: Engineers face tremendous SA irrigation innovation scoops international award
environmental challenges at the
construction of Eskom’s Braam- ESTUARIES 34
hoek Pumped Storage Scheme.
KwaZulu-Natal’s catchment keepers
See page 14.
WATER KIDZ 36
The power of water
THE LAST WORD 38
Excellent research rewarded
THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly magazine on water and water research published by the South African Water
Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in 1971 by Act of Parliament. Subscription is free.
Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the members of the WRC, and may
be copied with acknowledgement of source.
Editorial offices:
Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa.
Tel (012) 330-9031. Fax (012) 331-2565.
WRC Internet address: http://www.wrc.org.za
Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: laniv@wrc.org.za; Editorial Secretary: Rina Human, E-mail: rinah@wrc.org.za;
Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: driniev@wrc.org.za
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
4 Letters
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
Editor’s Letter
Bottled vs. tap debate rages on
T he Water Wheel received both praise and
criticism for its article on bottled water in
the September/October 2006 issue.
off by a discussion paper titled Bottled Water:
Understanding a Social Phenomenon by
Catherine Ferrier of the University of Geneva
advertised as a positive selling point for tour-
ist destinations, even WWF’s Eco-Safaris.
A third reason is that bottled water is a
One specific reader (who did not want (www.panda.org/livingwaters/pubs/bot- healthy alternative to other beverages such
her letter published) went so far as accusing tled_waterpdf). From this reasonable, as sodas, drinks with high sugar levels and
the magazine and its publisher, the Water balanced article a number of points made by beverages containing artificial sweeteners or
Research Commission of the “uncritical Ferrier have been taken and expanded upon colouring. It is a calorie-free thirst quencher
promotion of a commercial product, one to become various website and newspaper and now freely available in South Africa.
which is hardly environmentally-friendly”. articles. Of these, the most prominent one did Indeed, the huge rise in bottled water con-
The reader specifically mentioned the issues the e-mail rounds a year back (www.earth- sumption over the last 20 years is closely
around the environmental impact of the sector. policy.org/Updates/2006/Updates51.htm). linked to the way consumers face their nutri-
While the debate over the merits and The latter article picked out and expanded tion, i.e. the current trends for healthier eating.
disadvantages of bottled water rages on on just the two negative aspects of bottled Lastly, it is the convenience factor. Cruis-
internationally, the sector keeps on expand- water from the Ferrier article, namely that ing down the highway, or lying on the beach,
ing in almost every country, even in South bottled water is up to 10 000 times more having a bottle of water at hand is far more
Africa, which has always been thought to expensive than tap water, and the energy cost convenient than having to look for a tap. A
have some of the highest-quality tap water. associated with making the containers and sign of modern times is the bottle of water on
Even the country’s largest tap water supplier, transporting the finished product. The rest of the desk next to the computer. Our estimate is
Rand Water, is now entering the bottled water the Ferrier article was ignored. that more than half of those bottles will be tap
market in a bid to tap into new markets and There are various reasons why people water re-fills: Our view – great, so long as it
diversify its income streams. consume bottled water, as noted in Ferrier’s is water and not sugary cooldrink.
The Water Wheel asked John Weaver, article. Taste is high on the list. Tap water Bottled water versus tap water: we have
Chair of the South African Bottled Water Asso- with high chlorine levels, while being safe no argument with the tap water industry.
ciation) to respond to some of the criticisms (bacteriologically) to drink, is not nearly as These are two very different water markets,
against bottled water. He writes: pleasant as bottled water. with a small overlap. It would be a wonderful
“The original ‘highly controversial issue’ In a bottled water tasting organised world if the tap water industry could provide
around the bottled water industry was sparked by Men’s Health magazine 16 waters were safe water to all, but the overwhelming
presented to three tasters, including myself. reality is that the combination of inadequate
These were presented blind and one stood personal primary health training, human
out as having an off smell and taste, and we behaviour and social customs will continue
correctly identified it as tap water. to result in human deaths, despite the best
The next reason is for personal safety. efforts of water engineers, social workers
Bad quality water has given rise to many and water people. The bottled water industry
quaint phrases in the English language, such does not pretend to be able to solve these
as ‘Delhi belly’ and ‘Gyppo guts’. The travel- enormous problems. In emergencies, bottled
ler who has paid lots of money for air tickets water can be called upon, e.g. the Crypto-
and accommodation should never drink tap sporidium outbreak in Sydney, Australia, but
water, even in supposedly safe countries. it is not a long-term solution to the provision
Risking a few days being sick in order to save of safe drinking water.
the price of a bottle of water is a silly choice. An aspect of bottled water that was
One of my brothers was in West Africa, highlighted is the energy cost associated
and being confronted by a US$10 cost for with making the containers and transporting
bottled water in a five-star hotel, opted for tap the finished product. Packaging is one of the
water. The result: ten days down with ‘rumble unfortunate aspects of modern life, and is
in the jungle’. In fact, bottled water is often not something for which the bottled water
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
Letters 5
industry should shoulder all the blame, and I found your Water Wheel to be the most and progressively, allowing reservoir exper-
also cannot solve by itself. Yes, in South interesting and educative, and well managed. tise to degenerate to the extinction level.
Africa we really do need plastic recycling It is relevant in water technology and environ- Perhaps these questions will always remain
policy and legislation that will apply to all mental aspects and very informative. It is also largely unanswered, as the decision-making
plastic used in our daily lives, not just bottled keeping up to date with the modern world and players of the day have passed on, and the
water containers. with the future vision of water co-ordination of topic does not merit a national commission
The energy cost of transportation also both rural and urban centres, highlighting and of enquiry. I could offer a lengthy personal
adds to our energy cost. The Ferrier articles creating awareness on waterborne diseases. analysis which would cover themes such as
notes that 75% of bottled water is consumed Since I started receiving the journals I am politics, economics, institutional reorganisa-
locally, and advocates that this should be meeting with points tip with stakeholder tions, culture, personalities, the rise of the
increased. We have no argument with this. meeting with our small town in Kenya called river scientists – all of which contributed.
Indeed the sight of Italian bottled water on the Nanyuki. Keep up the good work. I would like This however is another subject.
shelves of some of our supermarket chains at to continue receiving your journal and It was predicted many years ago that the
prices lower than local water can be bottled conference invitations. focussed romance with river science would
for, is startling and a reflection of the crazi- John Sikote, Water Technologist, eventually play out, and at some stage South
ness of export subsidies. Kenya Africa would resuscitate its reservoir science
An important item in the Water Wheel base. Hopefully, the University of KwaZulu-
article is that South Africa now has legisla- Bring back reservoir Natal, my alma mater where I received my
tion governing bottled water. This legislation limnology early training, has produced a report that
which has been approved by the Minister of I have read with great interest the September leads to a revitalization of this science.
Health will come into operation in July. The 2006 issue of Water Wheel which contains However, it will take more than a report to
legislation covers both quality standards, an article on South African reservoirs and the reconstruct the pool of expertise that has the
and also the wording on the label so that the message of expectation that an extinct necessary intellectual capacity to serve South
origin, and treatment applied, and mineral science might be “revived through a report”. Africa’s reservoir science requirements. It will
content must be clearly stated. This legisla- For someone who was trained in South require the development of a similar type of
tion is in line with the international standards African reservoir limnology, and who expe- stakeholder-based reservoir science program
of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. rienced the indignities of the “extinction” of that was initiated more than 30 years ago. The
My final image I present is one of an reservoir science, it would be remiss to not support and leadership of the WRC is criti-
obese junk-foodie driving a fuel-guzzling pass comment on this article and the impli- cal on this, as it should have been when the
suburban SUV sucking a can of sweet cations it conveys to the leaders of South science was becoming extinct.
cooldrink, versus a gym-fit person driving a Africa’s water resource institutions. One final word of caution – beware of let-
fuel-litre car with a bottle of water in the pop- The pool of South African reservoir ting the pool of river science expertise follow
out tray. It is all about choices.” expertise in the 1970s and 1980s was indeed the same extinction process – in what seems
internationally renowned, as were the institu- to be an eternal global cycle of casualties
Ancient knowledge tions that housed the teams of scientists. in expertise – as managers and institutions
forgotten Today, those scientists have moved on, either chase the next “flavour of the month”.
The twelfth century king of Sri Lanka, through a process of retirement, to other Danny Walmsley (Former Coordinator
Parakramabahu I, officially decreed that not one topics, or to greener pastures elsewhere in of the CSIR Inland Water Ecosystems
drop of water should reach the sea without first the world. It took more than two decades to Program 1985-1990) Dartmouth, Nova
serving humanity. And his regulations of how attract and build up those teams, a process Scotia, Canada
water should serve humanity (and humanity that was achieved through a network of stake-
serve water) were far ahead of his time. holder-based cooperative scientific programs Bottled water article
Many of his wewas have since been with high-level governmental and institutional ‘fascinating’
rendered inoperable by encroaching jungle. support. The decline began in the mid 1980s This is an appreciative note to congratulate
Why have we, in Southern Africa, who have and was largely associated with the demise you on your outstanding editorship of the
followed western and scientific approaches to of eutrophication as a Department of Water Water Wheel and your significant personal
water usage have to deal with an encroaching Affairs priority issue, coupled to the quest contribution to its wide-ranging water-related
jungle instead? for assessing ecological water requirements articles.
Ben Dekker, Port St Johns (Ecological Reserve). You have raised the content and range of
With an arid landscape, reservoirs will the reporting to a new plateau of excellence.
Praise for the Water Wheel always be the backbone of the country’s Your article on bottled water in the issue of
It is high time to say a word of hallo to you water supply and therefore we need to ask the November/December 2006 is both timely and
all. I have been a subscriber of the Water questions of how, and why, the leadership of fascinating. Rand Water has recently joined
Wheel for many years since you enrolled me our water resource and research institutions the band wagon.
in your Water Wheel. committed the cardinal sin of collectively, AH Charnaud, Howick
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
6 Upfront
Choose loos
Lifestyle carefully, says
costing expert
made easy
with new M unicipalities should carefully weigh
all the options before selecting a
software sanitation technology.
So said David Still of Partners in
Development at the Water Institute of
Southern Africa’s Appropriate Technolo-
E ngineers and designers of bulk water
pipelines now have a tool available to
them to determine the most economical
functionality of the AQUA Hydraulic Utilities
program.
The program requires the user to enter
gies conference, held in Umhlanga towards
the end of last year. Still, who has been
investigating the cost of sanitation in a
solution for the complete design life of their the demands, design life, pipeline profile,
project funded by the Water Research
system. pipeline characteristics, laying details, rates
The software, named AQUA Hydraulic and costs of the proposed pipeline. It will
Commission, reported that many local
Utilities, is described in a new report avail- then determine the initial capital require- municipalities were still set on implement-
able from the Water Research Commission, ments, the annual maintenance and opera- ing full waterborne sanitation, even though
entitled Lifecycle Costing Analyses for tional costs and, in the case of a pumping at times neither the authority nor the users
Pipeline Design and Supporting Software. system, the energy costs. The program also could afford it.
The report, authored by Prof Fanie van provides a graphical representation of these Compared to ventilated improved pit
Vuuren and Marco van Dijk, both from the costs, as well as the hydraulic capacity of the toilets or urine diversion toilets, which cost
University of Pretoria’s Department of Civil ageing system. about R4 000 per unit, waterborne toilets
and Biosystems, is a guide to lifecycle cost- could cost about up to R30 000 per unit
ing analysis, limited to the design/analyses • The AQUA Hydraulic Utilities program can to install, including bulk sewer and waste-
of bulk pipelines. be downloaded from www.wrc.org.za or water treatment costs. “This is only con-
The guide introduces different lifecycle www.sinotechcc.co.za. struction costs, but what about long-term
cost elements to the design engineer, and • To order the report, WRC Report No operation and maintenance?”, Still asked.
indicates how these cost elements will 278/06, contact Publications at Tel: (012) The costs of on-site sanitation systems
affect the final decision. It also explains the 330-0340 or E-mail: orders@wrc.org.za fall well within local government finance
allocations, such as the Municipal Infra-
structure Grant and the Equitable Share.
More bulk infrastructure planned for SA Moreover, these systems often did not
require much operation and maintenance
D evelopment of bulk infrastruc-
ture remains top of mind for the
Department of Water Affairs & Forestry
of proposed developments. This
includes the feasibility reports for the
Mooi-Mngeni Transfer Scheme Phase
compared to waterborne sanitation.
“When waterborne sanitation does not
function properly, it cannot be considered
(DWAF), at least in the short term. II, which proposes the construction an improvement in service. Unmaintained
While this may be good news for of the Spring Grove Dam on the Mooi systems can be extremely hazardous to the
the construction industry it could con- River as well as the De Hoop Dam on health of communities, and have far-
cern ecologists and conservationists, the Steelpoort River. reaching environmental consequences,”
especially since the department’s Investigations into the construc- noted Still. He advised local authorities
latest annual report reveals that only tion of a dam on the Lower Orange not to even consider waterborne sanitation
28,2% of the rivers surveyed under river close to the border between if they did not have the necessary skills or
the River Health Programme to date South Africa and Namibia are also financial capacity to operate and maintain
remain in natural or good condition. going ahead. such a system.
Already 29% of the rivers surveyed In addition, pre-feasibility study In addition, the cost to the household
are in poor condition. reports were completed for the had to be borne in mind. “A household
Construction of bulk infrastruc- use of low-level storage at Vander- with waterborne sanitation will use about
ture projects such as the Berg River kloof Dam and viability of irrigation 10 kℓ more water per month than a family
Dam and the Vaal River Eastern Sub- schemes for resource-poor farmers without,” noted Still. “This means having
System Project are continuing at full in the Eastern Cape. The refurbish-
a flush toilet could cost that family about
steam. Pre-feasibility and feasibility ment of 20 dams has also been
R100 more per month in water bills.”
studies were completed for a number initiated across the country.
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
Upfront 7
Give private
sector a chance
S outh Africa needs the private sector
now more than ever to assist in rapid
services delivery.
So said Laila Horton, senior project
advisor in the National Treasury’s Public-
Private Partnership (PPP) Unit. She was
speaking at the Africa Water Congress,
held in Gauteng, in November.
The cumbersome legislative frame-
work, opposition from labour and the
persistent preference of public sector
provision have led to a decline in PPPs
in the South African water sector since
the 1990s. Other constraints include the Maguga Wins
limited capacity within the public sector as Rob Fraser of Ninham Shand won this year’s photographic award presented
well as the historically poor bankability of by the South African Institution of Civil Engineering for his photograph of the
these projects. Maguga Dam, situated in the Komati River in Swaziland.
According to Horton, current efforts
to meet the 2008 target for basic water
services and 2010 target for sanitation Water Diary
services would have to quadruple. “Private
sector investment can go a long way in WATER & SANITATION Germany. Topics include decentralised waste-
assisting municipalities to meet these FEBRUARY 12-24 water systems, non-conventional wastewater
deadlines for delivery.” International company Bushproof is offering treatment systems, economics, social aspects
At the time of writing, National Treasury an introductory course on water and sanita- and case studies, among others. Enquiries:
was in consultation with the Department tion technologies for development situations Peter Lambertz; Tel: 0049-(0)241-8026821;
of Provincial and Local Government to and emergencies in Fort Dauphin, Madagas- E-mail: lambertz@advancedsanitation.de
find ways of simplifying and streamlining car. Enquiries: Eric Fewster; Tel: +44 (7814)
present PPP legislation. 788 846; E-mail: ericfewster@bushproof. TECHNOLOGY
com; Visit: www.bushproof.com MARCH 14-16
The PPP Unit is also offering local
LabAfrica 2007, a showcase for suppli-
authorities financial assistance for Section
NUTRIENT REMOVAL ers of laboratory equipment and analytical
78 assessment and feasibility studies into
MARCH 4-7 instrumentation will be held at the Coca-Cola
possible involvement of private compa-
The Water Environment Federation, in coop- Dome, in Johannesburg. Enquiries: Tel: (011)
nies in water projects through its Project
eration with the IWA Nutrient Removal and 460-0247; Visit: www.labafricaonline.co.za
Development Facility. “Many a time, local
Recovery Group, US EPA and the Chesapeake
authorities only consider public delivery
Water Environment Federation will be host- DESALINATION
options, without even considering the
ing a Speciality Conference covering the MARCH 18-20
potential of a PPP,” noted Horton. latest research and experience in the design The Seventh WISA Membrane Technology
Possible suitable projects for PPP and operation of nutrient removal systems at Division Workshop will be held at Mabalingwe
involvement include those in areas with municipal and industrial wastewater treatment Nature Reserve, in Limpopo. Enquiries: Mar-
high-income users (for example, min- plants. The conference will be held in Mary- shall Sheldon, Tel: (021) 460-3160; Fax: (021)
ing companies and resort towns); as well land, US. Enquiries: Tel: +1 708-684-2400 460-3282; E-mail: sheldonm@cput.ac.za
as projects in water scarce areas which ext 7010 or E-mail: Nutrients2007@wef.org
require sophisticated technologies such WATER IN PROTECTED AREAS
as the establishment of desalination plants SANITATION APRIL 25-27
along the West Coast. Horton said cost MARCH 12-13 The IWA & UNESCO are hosting a the Second
saving endeavours (leakage reduction, The International Water Association and International Conference on Water in Protected
improved billing and collection) also the Institute of Environmental Engineering Areas in Dubrovnik, Croatia.
offered significant potential for private of RWTH Aachen University are hosting an E-mail: hdzv@voda.hr or Visit:
sector investment. Advanced Sanitation conference in Aachen, www.hdzv.hr
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
8 Upfront
Sanitation falls short of the grade
S outh Africa’s public sanitation assets
only managed an overall E grade in the
first Infrastructure Report Card for South
Africa, published by the South African
Institution of Civil Engineering (SAICE).
The report, a reflection of the present
state of the country’s built environment,
including water, sanitation, solid waste,
roads, rail, ports, airport, electricity,
hospitals and clinics, is based on the
expert perception of eminent professionals
in the civil engineering field, backed by
existing research. “While the South African
government has made significant strides
in addressing backlogs of the past, and
continues to invest at a rapid pace in infra-
structure to the previously disadvantaged,
significant challenges remain which are
threatening our nation’s support systems,” SAICE President Sam Amod at the launch of the Infrastructure Report Card.
noted SAICE President Sam Amod.
Two key themes emerged from the capacity. Another survey of 51 micro, small to do this and at the same time also main-
report. The first is the extreme shortage of and medium-sized wastewater treatment plants tain both old and new infrastructure, as well
skills and the terrible impact this is hav- undertaken in 2005/6 found that “immediate as upgrade or replace infrastructure that is
ing on planning, procurement, design, intervention” was required at about 30% of overloaded or has become obsolete.”
construction and care of infrastructure. The the works to avoid crisis situations such as an Commenting on the findings of the
second is the lack of adequate funding for outbreak of waterborne diseases. report, Fred van Zyl, DWAF Director:
the maintenance of the existing asset base Bulk water infrastructure scored a D+. Planning & Infrastructure, said it came as
and the new assets that come on stream The report noted with concern that some 150 no surprise, as most of the findings were
each day. “It is imperative that we do not of the Department of Water Affairs & Forest- based on surveys carried out by the national
continue to build only to permit decay. ry’s (DWAF’s) 350 dams have significant department itself. “Government faces
Neither can we continue the culture of dam safety shortcomings. On a positive note, massive infrastructure challenges, not the
‘patch and pray’ that typifies too many of a dam refurbishment programme is starting least being meeting the water and sanita-
our maintenance activities,” Amod said. during the 2006/7 financial year. tion targets of 2008 and 2010 respectively.
The challenges of skills and main- A further assessment of water sup- It is estimated that a 350% increase in the
tenance are most acute in the sanitation ply infrastructure owned by water services present rate of delivery is required to meet
sector, which scored the lowest ranking of authorities (mostly municipalities) and water the water target. We also need to increase
the public infrastructure graded. The report boards showed that while some water serv- present sanitation delivery from the esti-
pointed out that, while South Africa has ices institutions have exemplary practices in mated 100 000 units a year to
some very adequate sanitation infrastruc- place with respect to many of the aspects of 900 000 units a year.”
ture and service delivery, it has an increas- infrastructure management, gross shortfalls Investigations also showed that in
ing proportion of deteriorating infrastructure in management policies and practices exist in many local authorities, present infrastruc-
together with poor and often unacceptable many others. Most non-metro water services ture was not able to meet the increased
quality services. authorities are failing in their compliance with demand. According to Van Zyl, a series of
A nationwide sanitation sustainability the compulsory national standards for the intervention strategies have been launched
audit in 2004/5 to ascertain the functionality quality of potable water. by the national department to aid munici-
of sanitation projects completed since 1994 “Government should not change its palities in improving the management of
revealed that 28% of households’ sanitation focus from providing the new infrastructure new and existing infrastructure.
facilities have failed or are in the process to address backlogs from the past,” said Dr
of failing, and only 53% of municipalities Kevin Wall, past President of SAICE, and the • The report is available from SAICE’s
have adequate operations and maintenance main author of the report. “The challenge is website: www.civils.org.za
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
Global water science news 9
Sewage threatens With regards to water resources, the
report shows that freshwater species have
world’s oceans declined by 28%. The main drivers are habitat
destruction, over fishing, invasive species,
pollution and the disruption of river systems
for water supplies. It is reported that the
alteration and damming of river systems for
industrial and domestic use, irrigation and
hydroelectric power have fragmented more
than half of the world’s large river systems.
Water withdrawals worldwide amount to about
World population 4 000 km3 per year, equivalent to about 10%
running out of of global freshwater runoff.
Fragmentation and alteration of natural
resources
N early 90% of sewage entering coastal
zones in many developing countries are
river flows affect the productivity of wetlands,
flood plains, and deltas, disrupt the migration
estimated to be raw and untreated, according
to a new study by the United Nations Environ-
H umans are consuming natural resources
faster than they can be replaced, accord-
ing to the 2006 Living Planet Report by world
and dispersal of fish, and cause decline in
freshwater species. Some 83% of rivers’ total
ment Programme (UNEP). annual flow is affected – 52% moderately,
conservation organisation WWF.
This rising tide of sewage is threatening 31% severely – with Europe’s river flow being
The report notes that on current
the world’s seas and oceans, endangering the most regulated and Australasia’s the least.
projections humanity will be using two
human health, wildlife and livelihoods, the Worldwide, the amount of water stored in
planets’ worth of natural resources by
State of the Marine Environment report warns. reservoirs behind dams is three to six times
2050 – if those resources have not run
It is estimated that an additional US$56- the quantity contained in rivers.
out by then. It also confirms the trend of
billion a year is required to address the global According to the report, worldwide
biodiversity loss seen in previous Living
sewage problem. Mediterranean woodlands, deserts and xeric
Planet reports, produced biennially. “We
With regards to South Africa the report shrublands, temperate broadleaved forests,
are in serious ecological overshoot, con-
notes that untreated sewage does enter the and temperate, flooded and montane grass-
suming resources faster than the Earth
marine environment via informal settlements, land biomes all have more than 70% (by
can replace them,” said WWF DG James
and is cause for concern in larger coastal catchment area) of their large river systems
Leape. “The consequences of this are
cities such as Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and severely disrupted, primarily for irrigation.
predictable and dire.”
Durban. Contaminated stormwater runoff is
considered the major cause of any non-
compliance to bathing quality standards.
Other areas in need of attention are the School girls filling water
declining flows in many of the world’s rivers bottles at a water tap in
as a result of dams, over-abstraction and Nairobi, Kenya. Water is
global warming; new streams of chemicals; a threatened resource
Credit: WWF-Canon/Martin Harvey
the state of coastal and freshwater wetlands and with population
and sea-level rise linked with climate change. growth and expanding
Meanwhile, around 700 delegates from 15 urbanisation the pressure
countries attended an international confer- can only increase.
ence in Beijing, China, to combat sewage,
pesticides and other forms of pollution com-
ing from the land into the seas and oceans.
Killer spinach found in US
E . coli tainted spinach caused the deaths of
at least three people and sickened nearly
200 others in the US.
bacteria at a cattle ranch in California’s
Salinas Valley within a mile of spinach
fields, but were unsure how the bacteria
The produce company that processed
and packaged the spinach at the centre of
the outbreak investigation has repeatedly
It was the twentieth such outbreak in made its way on to the spinach. Agricultural asserted its factories are blameless, and
lettuce or spinach since 1995, reports runoff, irrigation water and the hygiene of pointed to the fields where the greens are
Associated Press. At the time of writing, farm workers as potential sources were grown as the potential source of the
investigators had found the same strain of being investigated. problem.
The Water Wheel January/February 2007
10 Global water science news
Most Polluted Places Named New report on
world water
T he World’s Water 2006-2007, published
by the Pacific Institute, is now available.
Produced biennially, the report identifies and
explains pertinent trends, and offers some
of the best data available on a variety of
water-related topics. Present worldwide water
issues covered include water and terrorism,
preserving and restoring instream water allo-
cations, desalination, growing risks of floods
and droughts, environment justice of water,
water risks facing industry, and bottled water.
Courtesy of Wikipedia
According to Editor Peter Gleick, there
have been some positive changes in the
world regarding water. There seems to
The encapsulated Chernobyl reactor.
be a growing public interest in water, and
increased involvement of communities. In
T he world’s ten most polluted places have
been named by independent environmen-
tal action group, the Blacksmith Institute.
In Dzershinsk, Russia, a significant
centre of the Russian chemical manufactur-
ing industry, the average life expectancy is
addition, there are new efforts at ecosystems
restoration.
The World’s Water describes more than
Sites in eight countries affecting a total 42 years for men and 47 for women. Until 50 incidents of water-related terrorism, start-
of more than ten million people were identi- the end of the Cold War, the city was among ing in the 1700s. Other interesting numbers
fied as the areas where environmental degra- Russia’s principal production sites of chemi- include the fact that there are more than
dation presents the worst long-term health cal weapons. It is reported that from 1930 to 10 000 desalination plants worldwide.
threats and, at the same time, an opportunity 1998, almost 300 000 t of chemicals waste The bottled water sector is expanding
to reverse the problems. “A key criterion in were improperly disposed of. The city draws fast, and is now a US$400-500 billion a year
the selection process was the nature of the its drinking water from the same aquifers into business. Despite its tremendous growth
pollutant,” said Richard Fuller, Director of the which these old wastes and unused products worldwide, it remains 1 000 times more
Blacksmith Institute. “The biggest culprits are were pumped. expensive than high-quality tap water. Inter-
heavy metals – such as lead, chromium and The effects of tannery waste, contain- estingly, the publication also notes that there
mercury – and long-lasting chemicals, such ing hexavalent chromium and azodyes, have been more than 100 official ‘recalls’ of
as persistent organic pollutants.” potentially affects 3,4 million people in bottled water in recent years.
Living in a town with serious pollution is Ranipet, India. The contamination of the soil The report underlines the fact that
like living under a death sentence, according and groundwater with wastewater, as well science is crucial to water policy. “The
to the report. “If the damage does not come as runoff from solid wastes has affected the integrity of science is key. We live in an
from immediate poisoning, then cancers, health, resources and livelihood of thousands increasingly polarised, critical, cynical world:
lung infections and mental retardation are of people. efforts to diminish respect for media, govern-
likely outcomes.” The selected polluted There are 23 tailings dumps and 13 ment, academics and science will diminish
places listed bear testimony to the severe waste rock dumps scattered throughout the chances of solving the remaining water
impact man has on his environment. Mailuu-Suu, Kyrgyzstan, home to a former problems,” noted Gleick.
While it has been 20 years since the Soviet uranium plant. An estimated 1,96
world’s worst nuclear disaster, Chernobyl, in million m3 of radioactive mining waste To purchase the report go to www.world-
the Ukraine, remains arguably the most pol- threatens the Ferghana valley, one of the most water.org or www.pacinst.org
luted place on earth. The 19-mile exclusion fertile and densely populated areas in Central
zone around the plant remains uninhabitable Asia. Due to the high rates of seismic activity
to this day. The reactor was enclosed in a in the area, million of people are potentially at
concrete casing after the accident to con- risk from a failure of the waste containment.
tain radioactivity within the plant. There are In April last year, about 300 000 m3 of mate-
concerns, however, that leaks in the structure rial fell into the Mailuu-Suu River.
have caused rainwater and fuel dust to form
a toxic liquid that may be contaminating the To access the report go to www.blacksmith-
groundwater. institute.org/top10/10worst1.pdf
The Water Wheel January/February 2007Global water science news 11
The world in brief More plants, Water by Numbers
• Trees that live in an odd forest in Oman,
more rain
• 8,3 km – The length of the new pipeline
in the Middle East, have found an
A statistical study of satellite images has being constructed from the Crocodile
unusual way to water themselves by ex- River in Nelspruit to White River, via
indicated that more plants make for more
tracting moisture from low-lying clouds. Rocky Drift. The pipeline is expected to
rain.
According to researchers from the Mas- be completed by mid-2007.
The study, published in Geophysical
sachusetts Institute of Technology the • R112-million – The Water Research
Research Letters, concludes that vegetation
trees have preserved an ecological niche Commission’s planned research funding
effects account for about 30% of annual
despite being surrounded by desert by for 2006/07.
rainfall variation in Africa’s Sahel region.
exploiting a wispy-thin source of water • R154-million – The profit posted by
This should assist scientists in understand-
that only occurs seasonally. Umgeni Water for the 2005/6 financial
ing rainfall patterns in the area, which is
threatened with increasing desertification and year. The previous year’s profit was
• The US government has partnered with periods of drought. “It gives us an additional R40-million.
two large non-profit organisations, the element of predictability: a bit of an edge in • 59% – The estimated proportion of
Case Foundation and the MCJ Founda- knowing where it might rain,” reports study people in the world that have access to
tion, to help bring clean drinking water co-author Peter Cox, Director of the Climate basic sanitation. Only 37% of people in
to millions of people in sub-Saharan and Land Surface Interactions Centre. sub-Saharan Africa have access,
Africa. The so-called Playpump Alliance according to the UN.
hopes to install 4 000 pumps in schools • R2,5-billion– The money to be spent by
and communities over the next few Rand Water over the next five years on
years. upgrading and refurbishing its distribu-
tion infrastructure. The company report-
• Members of the G-77 backed plans for edly spent R607-million on refurbishing
the establishment of the Consortium on and upgrading its infrastructure in the
Science, Technology & Innovation for 2006 fiscal year.
the South (COSTIS). COSTIS will focus • 25 million – The estimated number of
on organising South-South forums on ‘environmental refugees’ – people forced
developing appropriate and affordable to leave their homes due to increased
technologies in sectors such as energy water insecurity – according to inter-
and water. national NGO Tearfund. For example, in
Nigeria, thousands of square kilometres
• Ghana has finalised a US$600-million of land are converted to desert each year,
deal with a Chinese corporation to build forcing farmers and herdsmen to move to
a 400 MW hydro-electric dam in the
north of the country. US scientists the cities.
• 3 600 – The estimated number of
score big by international treaties signed since the last
• Australia’s worst drought in known
history has sparked an increase in the thinking small water war between two Sumerian city-
states 4 500 years ago.
number of water bandits who use crow- • US$81,8-million – The funds loaned
bars to crack open water tanks and steal
the contents. Farmers have been advised
R esearchers at the University of California,
in the US, have designed nanoparticles to
create a membrane that does not clog easily,
to Tanzania by the African Development
Bank for water and sanitation projects in
to lock their water stores. rural areas. The funds will be channelled
allowing water to be pumped through using
through the Tanzania Rural Water &
less energy.
• US scientists have identified a ‘new Sanitation Programme.
Sci-Dev.Net reports that in the new mem-
generation’ of byproducts of the disin- • R27-million – The value of the tender
brane, used in reverse osmosis, nanoparticles
fection processes used to purify drink- issued by the Limpopo government for
are designed to attract water, soaking it up like
ing water at municipal water treatment the repair of sewerage systems in the
a sponge, while repelling nearly all contami-
plants. They reportedly identified 28 Elias Motswaledi District Municipality.
nants that might ordinarily stick to the surface.
previously unreported so-called dis- • 93% – The percentage of the South
This creates a water purification process that is
infection by-products (DBPs), however African population who have access to
as effective as present methods, but may use
toxicity studies are still to be conducted basic water supply, according to the
half the energy, reducing the total cost of water
to determine the health implications of Department of Water Affairs & Forestry.
desalination by 25%.
these DBPs.
The Water Wheel January/February 200712 Company news
and 11 ℓ of water. The mechanism keeps the
cistern dry until needed. When it is flushed,
a pilot-operated diaphragm valve opens and
lets water flow into the cistern quickly.
When the water reaches the level of the
height-adjustable float, the flush valve is
automatically operated and the cistern
flushes. On flushing, the inlet valve is closed
so that, once the water empties the cistern
remains empty until the next time it is
needed.
According to Mitchley, conventional toi-
lets can easily be retrofitted with the leak-free
cistern. Local plumbers can also be trained
to fit the cisterns, creating valuable employ-
ment.
More than 1 000 of these cisterns have
Two successes for turnkey firm already been fitted in the Mangaung munici-
pal area, in the Free State, with positive
V WS Envig has completed two large
projects involving the construction
of water recycling plants for SAPREF and
a final stage where the water is polished
with a mixed bed to meet the required
specifications. The company supplies all
results.
For more information, contact Ray Mitch-
ley at Tel: (031) 701-3185 or e-mail:
ImproChem at the Chevron Refinery. the chemical requirements to the automated bobcat@intekom.co.za
The SAPREF reverse osmosis (RO) plant, and has a service contract to maintain
plant was designed, built and commis- a smooth operation.
sioned by VWS Envig. Water from the In turn, the Chevron/Improchem project CSIR part of EU
Durban Water Recycling Plant is directed to in Milnerton involved the design, construc- solar project
the RO plant where it undergoes carbon fil- tion and commissioning of an ultrafiltration/
tration to remove impurities such as odours RO plant. Domestic and industrial effluent
and organic compounds. The water then
goes through two stages of RO followed by
from a nearby wastewater treatment plant is
directed to the water recycling plant.
C SIR is representing South Africa in an
international, multi-partner programme
aimed at demonstrating the solar disinfection
(SODIS) of drinking water as an appropriate
intervention against waterborne diseases.
Software helps demands for each node proportionally to the The programme, which has been
lengths of the adjoining pipes. awarded a €1,9-million research grant from
water demand In certain cases, certain parts of the the European Union, is being undertaken
planning network can have different per area demands. under the auspices of the EU Sixth Framework
This is the case with low-income suburbs Programme. SODIS is reportedly a low-tech,
located next to a high-income area. In
C ivil Designer’s Water Module allows affordable method of improving water qual-
users to establish water demands accu- these instances, total demands should be ity. It involves placing contaminated water in
rately and efficiently. established individually for each part of the transparent bottles, then placing it in direct
In residential areas, demands can be network and the appropriate pipes and nodes sunlight for six hours. The method has been
established according to stand areas, while should be selected. approved by the World Health Organisation.
reticulation pipelines are fairly evenly dis- For more information, contact Knowledge The three-year SODISWATER programme
tributed along the area. When demands are Base at Tel: (021) 701-1850 will be carried out by nine research groups in
distributed in the Water Module, it is only Ireland, Spain, UK, Switzerland, South Africa,
necessary to establish total demand in the Leak-free toilet Zimbabwe and Kenya. The multidisciplinary
team will investigate the health benefits of
network using a number of people and per
capita demand, or measured consumption saves water using solar-disinfected drinking water in
for existing networks using the menu option developing countries, the factors which
‘Adjust Demands’ in the Data menu.
Choose the option ‘Demand to Distribute T oilet leaks, which often go undetected,
can waste large volumes of potable water.
The Akuvuzi leak-free cistern, supplied
influence communities to adopt or reject
SODIS, whether the basic technique can be
(ℓ/s)’ and enter the appropriate amount. improved or whether there are any major
The program will now automatically assign by Ray Mitchley, is one solution to frequent waterborne diseases that are not susceptible
toilet leaks. The Akuvuzi can hold between 6 ℓ to the technique.
The Water Wheel January/February 2007Company news 13
New nozzles for New magflow meter introduced
CT plant
T he new Safmag Beta Meter is the latest
edition in the Safmag range. The meter
The meter delivers accuracy of about
0,5% using the non-intrusive principle of
T he City of Cape Town has purchased
55 000 nozzles and 10 000 sockets to
replace the nozzles in the rapid gravity sand
is reportedly cost-effective, easy to use, and
install, while providing accurate and reliable
electro-magnetic induction, has no moving
parts and introduces zero head loss.
flow measurement. According to supplier, Readings are independent of density.
filters at the Wemmershoek Water Treatment Flowmetrix SA, the product is available with
Plant. wetted parts to suit all potable water and For more information, contact Flowmetrix
The filtration plant was commissioned in effluent applications. SA E-mail: enquiries@flowmetrix.co.za or
the late 1960s, and has a design capacity of Visit: www.flowmetrix.co.za
318 Mℓ/day. The original nozzles were report-
edly supplied by Jeffrey Manufacturing and
had a 1’’ BSP thread.
The new polypropylene nozzles were
manufactured locally by Isekeni Trading.
To match the thread and the municipality’s
design requirements, which included a
detachable head with 0,45 mm, new tooling
was required.
In brief
• Rand Water has reportedly estab-
lished a bottled water unit to explore
ways of entering this lucrative market.
• Dr Shadrack Ralekeno Moephuli has
been appointed the new President
and CEO of the Agricultural Water on the Web
Research Council (ARC). He joined
the ARC from the Department of http://www.fao.org/landandwater/iptrid/ promoting an increased awareness of the
Agriculture where he was the Chief index.html importance of disaster reduction as an
Director responsible for Agricultural This is the official website of the International integral component of sustainable develop-
Production. Programme for Technology and Research in ment.
• Johannesburg Water is working Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID), an inde-
with the City of Johannesburg to pendent multi-donor trust-fund programme www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.
provide 20 households in informal hosted by the United Nations Food and Agri- php?id=705
settlements with ventilated improved culture Organisation. This website contains This is the website of the World Water
pit toilets and improved water sup- information about IPTRID’s strategy, projects, Council to promote international reflection
plies through communal standpipes publications, database and news. to enhance the effectiveness of the right to
through Project Thonifho. water. A project has been initiated to analyse
• International company Coca Cola www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/~cen6ddm/ how several countries are dealing with the
has signed an agreement with This is the personal website of Prof Duncan right to water. This site provides information
UNESCO-IHE for a four-year co- Mara from the School of Civil Engineering, on the project, among others.
operation aimed at improving the University of Leeds, UK. It contains free-to-
water and environmental sectors. It use video and audio PowerPoint mini-lectures www.blacksmithinstitute.org
includes training programmes for and supporting material on sanitation and This is the website of the US-based Black-
Coca Cola staff members, with the water supply topics. smith Institute whose objectives are aimed at
first group of 40 receiving training on developing and implementing solutions for
advanced water treatment technolo- www.unisdr.org pollution-related problems in the develop-
gies, groundwater treatment and risk This is the website for the International ing world. The NGO is most well known for
management in Johannesburg earlier Strategy for Disaster Reduction, which aims its Polluted Places Initiative to address most
this year. to build disaster resilient communities by severely polluted sites around the world.
The Water Wheel January/February 200714 Hydro-electricity
Balancing Power and
Water at Braamhoek
It might be situated in the Little Drakensberg Escarpment, but the R8,9-billion
Eskom Braamhoek Pumped Storage Scheme is certainly not a small project.
In addition to economic and social considerations, the project faces tremendous
environmental challenges. Lani van Vuuren visited to site to see how the needs
of power generation and water are being balanced.
I
t has been almost 20 years since in KwaZulu-Natal, and Bedford farm, regards to implementing the latest
the construction of South Africa’s located some 23 km east-north-east pumped-storage technology.
last pumped storage scheme, of Van Reenen, in the Free State. The
Palmiet, near Grabouw in the Western pumped storage station itself will be BCJV Resident Engineer Michael
Cape. Braamhoek will not only be the located in KwaZulu-Natal. Neumann explains that the scheme
most modern pumped storage facility basically comprises two reservoirs
in South Africa but, with a capacity of MAIN FEATURES situated about 6 km apart, with
1 332 MW, also certainly the largest. an elevation difference of 470 m
Pumped storage schemes are said Development of the Braamhoek between them. Unlike the Drakens-
to be desirable, as they reportedly do Pumped Storage Scheme started berg Pumped Storage Scheme,
not require much water, as the water in earnest following the Record of Braamhoek is designed solely for
is being continuously recycled. The Decision in 2002. Main consultants, the purpose of generating peak-time
main water losses stem from evapo- Braamhoek Consultants Joint Venture electricity, and will not be used for the
ration from the reservoirs. (BCJV), comprising Knight Piésold, inter-basin transfer of water. There-
Stewart Scott International and Arcus fore, the dams will be relatively small,
The site straddles the Klein Drakens- Gibb, started basic design in 2004. with an active capacity of approxi-
berg escarpment and spans over the Various other local and international mately 22 million cubic metres each.
farms Braamhoek and Zaaifontein, specialist sub-consultants are assist- Water will only be drawn from the
some 40 km north-west of Ladysmith ing in the project, especially with rivers to top up the reservoirs.
The Water Wheel January/February 2007Hydro-electricity 15
The reservoirs will be connected by (NGO) first opposed the pumped “Without focused attention brought
underground waterway tunnels, an storage scheme, but later withdrew about through the Braamhoek
underground powerhouse complex, its objection. “As a conservation project, the area would never have
and access tunnels. Access roads organisation we could see that inter- received the attention it requires,” the
and a new substation also form part vention was required to prevent it NGO states on its website.
of the project. from degrading even further.”
Three years ago, the Braamhoek
RESPECT FOR THE The Middelpunt Wetland Trust, which Partnership was established between
ENVIRONMENT was created a few years ago with Eskom, Birdlife South Africa and the
the sole aim of protecting the white- Middelpunt Wetland Trust. This is
Conservation organisations initially winged flufftail, confirms this. reportedly the first time in the power
opposed the construction of Eskom’s
latest pumped storage scheme at
Braamhoek. Sparsely populated, the
8 500 ha site features mainly grass-
lands with wooded gulleys along
the mountain streams. Yellowwood
forest predominate in the ravines of
the escarpment (none of which will
be affected by this project). This is
reported to be the third-largest com-
plex of this forest type in KwaZulu-
Natal.
However, closer inspection revealed
that while the area offers huge con-
servation potential, overgrazing and
historically poor land management
have resulted in severe erosion and
a loss of biodiversity in the surround-
ing veld. Invading alien plants, most
notably black wattle, are widespread
All water from the tunnel is pumped to a holding dam before being treated and
in the area.
released back into the river system. Solid waste is also strictly controlled.
The biggest bone of contention was
the 240 ha peat wetland situated in
the Bedford catchment. This wetland
is home to a number of bird species
that are either critically endangered,
near endangered or at risk, includ-
ing the elusive white-winged flufftail.
About 5% of the total wetland area
will be covered by the upper reservoir.
Following negotiations, leading to an
amended Record of Decision, Eskom
and various conservation organisa-
tions are now working together to
improve biodiversity in the area. As
BirdLife SA Executive Director Prof
Gerhard Verdoorn points out, much
of the land in the area of the marsh
was degraded and in poor condi- An aerial view of the present construction site. The entrance to the exploration
tion prior to the start of the project. tunnel is on the left. Unlike the Drakensberg Pumped Storage Scheme, no
The non-governmental organisation permanent construction village is planned for the site.
The Water Wheel January/February 2007You can also read
