UNDERSTANDING HORSE BEHAVIOR - HORSE PROJECT PB1654
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
4-H MEMBER
GUIDE Agricultural Extension Service
Institute of Agriculture
HORSE PROJECT PB1654
UNIT 8
GRADE 12
UNDERSTANDING
HORSE BEHAVIOR
1
CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Planning Your Project 3
The Basics of Horse Behavior 3
Types of Behavior 4
Horse Senses 4
Horse Communication 10
Domestication & Behavior 11
Mating Behavior 11
Behavior at Foaling Time 13
Feeding Behavior 15
Abnormal Behavior / Vices 18
Questions and Answers about Horses 19
References 19
Exercises 20
Glossary 23
SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE TO BE ACQUIRED
• Improved understanding of why horses behave like horses
• Applying basic behavioral knowledge to improve training skills
• Learning to prevent and correct behavioral problems
• Better ways to manage horses through better understanding of horse motivation
OBJECTIVES
To help you:
• Be more competent in horse-related skills and knowledge
• Feel more confident around horses
• Understand the applications of basic knowledge to practical problems
REQUIREMENTS
1. Make a project plan
2. Complete this manual
3. Work on this project with others, including other 4-H members, 4-H leaders,
your 4-H agent and other youth and adults who can assist you in your project.
4. Evaluate your accomplishments
2
cover photo by Lindsay German
UNDERSTANDING
HORSE BEHAVIOR
Prepared by: Warren Gill, Professor
Doyle G. Meadows, Professor
James B. Neel, Professor
Animal Science Department
The University of Tennessee
INTRODUCTION
T
he 4-H Horse Project offers 4-H’ers opportunities for growing and developing interest in horses. This
manual should help expand your knowledge about horse behavior, which will help you better under
stand why a horse does what it does. The manual contains information about the basics of horse
behavior, horse senses, domestication, mating behavior, ingestive (eating) behavior, foaling-time behavior and
how horses learn.
Some of the topics are advanced, and are for senior level members, but all 4-H’ers might find parts of this
manual interesting. Activities at the end of the manual, however, are designed for older members. The focus of
this manual will be on behavioral characteristics that have management and training implications for 4-H’ers who
want to improve their knowledge of horse behavior.
PLANNING YOUR a brief overview of horse senses. Several things make a horse
PROJECT Horses have unique and fascinating unique in the animal kingdom.
behavioral characteristics which • Horses are strongly social. They
Planning is an important part of
have contributed to their develop- are herd animals, which are at a
any 4-H project. After you have
ment, survival and present-day higher comfort level when they
looked through this manual, take
value as a companion to people. maintain a visual contact with
the time to think about what you
The successful 4-H Horse Project other horses.
would really like to learn or do in
member should learn to understand • Horses are herbivores. They eat
this phase of your horse project.
horse behavior, and apply this plants. They rely on grazing
For example, do you want to
knowledge to all facets of interac- grasses and leaves for feed.
improve your knowledge of horse
tion with horses. • Horses typically show a tendency
behavior so you are better able to
Ethology is the scientific study for imitation between young and
care for and train your horse, or is
of animal behavior. Technically, old.
your primary goal more related to
ethology is the study of animals in • Horses are seasonal breeders and,
your future career objectives (or
their natural habitat, but most as a consequence, foaling patterns
both)? Use the “4-H Project Plan”
behaviorists agree that the behav- occur.
form at the back of this manual as a
ioral traits of domestic horses are • Males tend to form a separate
tool for insuring you have the best
relatively similar to horses before male sub-group structure at
possible experience in this 12th-
domestication. certain times of the year.
grade project.
Behavior can be defined as the • Horses are considered prey
animal’s response to its environ- species within the animal king-
THE BASICS OF HORSE ment. Because domestic horses dom.
BEHAVIOR exist in a relatively controlled • Horses are capable of strong pair-
Because horses use their senses environment, their response is fairly bond relationships.
to interact with their environment, predictable.
this section includes definitions and
3
Much of what makes a horse Eliminative Behavior - behavioral Dominance is generally established
behaviorally unique is related to activities associated with defecation through agonistic behavior, and
being a herbivore (plant-eating and urination. may be extremely violent (such as
animal) and a prey species. To fighting between stallions) or as
understand this, consider a how Sexual Behavior - behavior related simple as threatening looks (ear
horse’s feeding behavior differs to mating between males and pinned back, squeals, sudden moves
from a carnivore’s (meat-eating females. in the direction of the submissive
animal) feeding behavior. Carni- animal). If the lower-ranked
vores spend a greater proportion of Epimeletic Behavior - behavior (submissive) animal has room to
their time stalking food and less related to giving care and attention, escape, there will often be no
time consuming food. Horses spend most common between a mare and contact, and the hierarchy is there-
a greater proportion of their time foal, but also between other horses, fore established or maintained with
consuming food and less time such as horses standing together little or no fighting.
searching for food. Carnivores under shade and “switching” flies
typically must attack and subdue from one another.
their food before consuming it; HORSE SENSES
horses merely graze and browse. Allelomimetic Behavior - behavior The senses are an important part
These and many other feeding related to mimicry; contagious or of what makes horses behaviorally
behavioral traits can be logically infectious behavior such as when distinct. Animals share the five
assumed to provide a basis for one horse copies the behavior of basic senses: vision, audition
much of what makes horses differ- another. If one horse starts running, (hearing), olfaction (smell), gusta-
ent from carnivores. Carnivores are for example, others are likely to tion (taste) and touch. The senses
aggressive, horses passive. Carni- join in. This may be a defense are the tools that an animal uses to
vores are anatomically suited for maneuver that is typical of wild interact with its environment. As
killing other animals; horses are horses. such, the senses can be considered
anatomically ideal for grazing and starters of behavior.
browsing. Carnivores can kill Investigative Behavior - behav- There is a temptation to relate
horses. Horses are less likely to kill ioral activities associated with human senses to horses, but horses
carnivores and are more likely to curiosity; the exploration of the and people have basic differences in
try to escape from a carnivorous surroundings or objects. Horses are how they see, feel, taste, smell and
threat. noted for using all their senses to hear their environment. We do not
thoroughly “check out” any new completely understand horse
item, horse or place with which senses, but the things we have
TYPES OF BEHAVIOR they are presented. learned have greatly added to our
Animal behaviorists have horse knowledge. A review of this
classified the social behavior of Agonistic Behavior - behavior information can be helpful in
horses (and other animals) into the associated with conflict or fighting, understanding horses.
following categories: including anger, aggression,
submission and flight from conflict.
Contactual Behavior - behavior Sometimes behaviorists separate
related to seeking affection, protec- this into two categories (aggression
tion or other benefits by contact and fearfulness).
with other animals. Communication
behavior (see the section on com- Dominance \ Submission - behav-
munication) is sometimes consid- ioral activities often referred to as
ered as a separate category. “pecking order,” because the early
behavioral work in this area was
Ingestive Behavior - behavioral done with poultry. Dominance
activities associated with eating and hierarchies are extremely prevalent
drinking. in the social order of horses.
4
size provides a built-in wide angle
lens effect which is further en-
hanced by the placement of the
visual receptors in the retina. The
total effect is better side (periph-
eral) vision. The horse can see
movement very well.
Does the horse sacrifice visual
accuracy to get a wider field of
vision? In general, yes, but the
answer to the question is not clear.
Current thought is that, while the
horse sees practically all the way
photo by Richard Maxey
around its body, the image is not as
clearly defined as what humans see,
especially within four feet. This,
plus the fact that a horse cannot see
Horses have a very large eye and a very large pupil. directly below its head, may
explain why horses often raise their
VISION
Did you ever look at a horse eye to eye?
If you have, you probably noticed a few
things. First, they have a very large eye and a
very large pupil. Second, the eyeball is placed
more to the side of the head, which gives
horses a wider field of vision.
Predator species, such as dogs and coy-
otes, have eyes placed toward the front of
their head. This narrows their total field of
vision but it increases their binocular (using
two-eyes) visual field. Binocular vision gives
the predators better depth perception and a
more concentrated field of vision. Prey
species, such as horses, sheep and cattle, have
a much wider visual field. With only slight
head movement, horses can scan their entire
surroundings. If there is a threat, the behav-
ioral response is generally to flee.
Much of the width of the visual field that
horses see is observed with only one eye.
This is called monocular vision. When a
horse sees an object with its monocular
vision, it will tend to turn toward it so that
both eyes can see it (with binocular vision),
and the ears can better hear it. There is
sometimes a brief visual shift as the horse
photo by Richard Maxey
switches from monocular to binocular vision,
which sometimes causes an unexplained
“spooking” of the horse.
The size of the pupil improves the ability
of a horse to pick up movement. The large A horse will turn toward an object so that both eyes can see it
(binocular vision).
5
head to observe close objects.
Conversely, a horse tends to lower
its head to observe faraway objects.
In spite of the wide field of
vision, there is a “blind spot”
directly behind the horse. People
should avoid approaching a horse
from behind, because their presence
may not be detected until they are
close, and this could startle the
horse. Some horses may instinc-
tively kick in this situation. If
approaching a horse from the rear
photo by Richard Maxey
cannot be avoided, make a soothing
noise to announce your presence.
Do not “sneak up” on a horse from
behind.
Another question often asked is A horse can amplify and pinpoint sound with its ears.
do horses have color vision? For
many years it was believed that
both horses and cattle were color
blind. If horses can distinguish
colors, it is unlikely that horses’
ability to see color is equal to other
species, such as humans.
HEARING
In spite of its importance, there
is limited information about the
auditory (hearing) sense of horses.
We know horses are sensitive to
high-pitched noises and the release
of stress-related hormones in
response to sudden loud noises such
as firecrackers or barking dogs.
Horses become nervous and diffi-
cult to handle when stress hormones
are elevated, so it may be useful to
avoid loud or shrill noises when
handling or moving horses.
The horse can amplify and
photo by Lynne Scott
pinpoint sound with its ears. Sound
arrives at each ear at slightly
different times, which allows the
horse to use sound as a means to
tell where the sound came from. A horse can rotate its ears independently from front to side to pinpoint a sound.
The horse can then move its ears,
head or its entire body to tell more
about the source of the sound. This
skill is probably as important as
sight and smell for keeping the
horse, as a prey species, alive.
6
SMELL
The horse’s sense of smell
(olfactory) may be the most diffi-
cult for humans to understand.
Horses have a more highly devel-
oped sense of smell than humans,
and they use their ability to distin-
guish different odors more in their
everyday lives.
Horses use their sense of smell
in a number of ways. Horses use
smell to identify other horses,
particularly when a mare uses smell
to pick out her foal from a group.
Another common use of smell is
during mating. The stallion con-
stantly checks mares to detect the
photo by Richard Maxey
ones in heat (estrus). The classic
head-raised, lip-curling behavior of
the stallion (bulls and rams, also) as
he smells females is called the
Flehmen response. This trait, The raised-head, lip-curling behavior usually displayed by stallions during
which may be occasionally ob- mating is called the Flehmen response.
served in females, is due to a
special organ (vomeronasal organ) Horses will use their sense of
above the roof of the mouth, which smell to select fresh feed in prefer-
humans do not have. ence to spoiled feed. The next time
Horses probably use their you are tempted to dispose of
olfactory sense to locate water and moldy feed or hay by feeding it to a
identify subtle or major differences horse, try smelling it yourself. Then
between pastures and feeds. Smell remember, if it smells bad to you, it
also triggers behavioral responses. may smell worse to the horse. (This
There are, for example, horses that may not always work, however,
do not like the smell of tobacco because some molds, such as highly
smoke or may react negatively to poisonous aflatoxins, cannot be
the odor of certain medications. detected by humans.)
Some people believe that horses
can sense when a person is afraid
— which is probably true — and
this is often referred to as horses’
ability to “smell fear.” It is possible
that the horse can smell some small
change in the fearful human, but it
is equally likely that the horse can
sense the human nervousness via
other senses.
7
TASTE
The sense of taste in horses is
probably not as important as the
sense of smell, and it is difficult to
separate behavioral responses that
are due primarily to taste from
responses caused by the olfactory
sense. Using their sense of taste,
however, is part of why horses can
tell one feed from another. When
presented with a variety of feeds,
horses will select certain feeds over
others. In practical situations, such
as under grazing conditions with
multiple forage species present, the
photo by Richard Maxey
horse will select different types and
species than either sheep, goats or
cattle.
There have been experiments to
determine if animals have “nutri- Horses enjoy special treats, such as carrots or alfalfa cubes.
tional wisdom.” This is based on
the premise that horses will attempt
to eat feeds that provide them with
the nutrients needed. In most cases,
however, horses are unlikely to
balance their own ration when
provided a variety of feeds. If
possible, they will consume feeds at
a level far higher than necessary to
provide essential nutrients. For
example, salt is often provided to
meet horses’ requirement for
sodium; however, horses will often
consume many times the amount of
salt needed to meet the requirement.
Fortunately, there is no evidence
that over consumption of salt will
cause health problems if adequate
water is available. photo by Richard Maxey
Placing a salt-lick in a paddock will help a horse satisfy its sodium requirements.
8
TOUCH
The sense of touch is certainly
well developed in horses, and is one
of the most important senses in
terms of human interaction with
horses. The nose, lips, mouth and
possibly the ears are the most
sensitive areas to touch and, conse-
quently, most readily lend them-
selves to feeling behavior. Although
hooves do not respond to touching,
they should not be regarded as
without feeling. In fact, various
parts of the hoof are able to feel
touch, as anyone who has shod
horses or trimmed hooves can
relate.
Other areas of the body are also
sensitive to touch. The flanks for
example, are particularly sensitive,
and can pick up a light signal from
the rider. The ribs are also sensitive,
as are the withers and back.
Understanding the degree to
which horses are sensitive to touch
photo by Lynne Scott
can be valuable to the trainer. For
example, knowing that horses can
feel the slightest touch with their
lips underscores the importance of
A rider’s position is very important, because horses can feel the slightest shift
developing “a light touch” on the
of weight in the saddle or pressure from the rider’s leg.
reins, and making certain that
bridles be correctly fit to the horses electric fences. Anyone who has This is not a horse training
head and mouth. Knowing that the used electric fences with a variety manual. There are a number of
horse can feel the slightest shift of of grazing animal species knows training publications, often devel-
weight in the saddle illustrates why that horses are very sensitive to oped by breed organizations or
the rider’s position is important as electricity. To use electric fences successful trainers, which can
the mount is guided toward a jump with horses, the wire should be provide more detailed information
or other maneuver. Poor position, placed approximately at nose about how to train your horse.
exaggerated movement or excessive height. High-quality, well-grounded However, understanding the
force are confusing to horses and chargers should be used, and horses behavioral basis that the horse has
result in poor performance. should be trained to the fence by for recognizing cues through its
The sense of touch is undoubt- introducing them to a well-con- senses can be helpful in training.
edly important in interaction structed permanent electric fence The basic steps for using senses
between animals. Foals seek bodily for their first experience. in training are:
contact with their dams (mothers), Stimuli - The trainer / rider initiates
and mares respond to the touching The Role of the Senses a cue, thus providing a stimulus to
behavior of their foals in various in Training the horse.
ways, including milk let-down in The horse must rely on its senses Sense - The horse “senses” the
response to the nuzzling/suckling in order to perceive the signals stimulus
stimulus of foals. (often called cues) that the rider is Response - The horse responds to
Another example of horses’ giving. Touch and sound are the the stimulus with an action
sensitivity to touch is related to primary senses which are used. Reinforcement - The trainer
9
“reinforces” in a positive way by
rewarding the correct response and
in a negative way by discouraging
an incorrect response.
Good trainers recognize that each
horse has its own “combination”
and will develop at its own pace.
Intelligence, individual energy level,
previous experience and many other
factors may affect response. Pa-
tience, repetition and building in
small increments of success will
give the best results. Over-use of
negative reinforcement may yield a
photo by Richard Maxey
horse that is prone to nervousness.
Use positive reinforcement more
than negative if long-term develop-
ment is desired. Do not expect
reasoning powers that are beyond Horses can often display aggressive behavior when being fed.
the powers of the horse to give.
An extremely well-trained horse
that was trained by a professional is
likely to “come untrained” when
ridden by a novice if reinforcement
schedules are not maintained.
HORSE
COMMUNICATION
Horses communicate in many
ways, including visual displays,
sounds and even through smell
(Heird, 1998). Understanding how a
photo by Richard Maxey
horse communicates is important to
the 4-H Horse Project member for
three important reasons:
1. Diagnosis of medical problems - Unfamiliar situations such as boarding a trailer can make horses
Learning how a horse behaves when jumpy and nervous.
it is sick is important not only so
you will know it needs attention, 2. Assessment of Emotional State reacting to the presence of another
but also because certain behaviors or Temperament - As your animal, or it can be related to
are linked with specific problems. experience and skill in assessing something as simple as the weather.
Naturally, a veterinarian or other horse behavior increases, you will 3. Safety - Horses usually commu-
experienced person may need to be find that you can “read” a horse’s nicate a warning before they cause
called upon for more detailed emotional state. This knowledge harm. Learning the communication
information, but it is never too soon can be applied when assessing how signals — ears back, head lowered,
for a young person to start learning “friendly”a new or unknown horse teeth bared, turning into a “kicking”
to tell the difference between is, or it can be used to tell if a horse position, tail swishing, etc.— that
normal, healthy behavior and the you ride every day is in an unusual warn of danger are important in
behavior of sick animals. mood or is experiencing emotional avoiding harm. Nervous or “jumpy”
difficulty. Sometimes a horse is behavior can possibly be as danger-
10ous as aggressiveness. Learn to certain features with occasional MATING BEHAVIOR
recognize the signals that could mating to wild forms. Behavior is an important aspect
result in harm, whether it comes • The gradual intensification of the of reproduction, and an understand-
from the horse you are riding or one development of different breeds ing of the basics of reproductive
that is being ridden by someone with desirable economic charac- behavior can lead to management
else in your vicinity. teristics. applications that can improve
These steps occurred over thou- reproductive success. In this
Learning by Application: Write a sands of years with the bond segment, the complex behavioral
short story about something related between man and horses being patterns related to mating will be
to horse senses or basic horse gradually strengthened with each addressed.
behavior that applies to your horse, generation.
a horse belonging to a friend or a Genetic selection during the
Puberty
horse story you have read. If process of domestication led to the
possible, share this experience in a development of breeds. There is Puberty is the attainment of
4-H meeting. considerable variability in behav- sexual maturity. In fillies, this can
ioral traits between breeds. For be as early as nine or 10 months,
example, certain breeds tend to be but is usually 12 to 15 months.
Stallions are 15 months or older
DOMESTICATION more active, while others are more
before they can successfully breed.
AND BEHAVIOR docile. The Thoroughbred, is
known as a breed with a strong Behaviorists have noted that both
Horses and humans have been stallions and fillies (less frequently)
tendency to be alert, even nervous.
closely associated for a long time. may exhibit sexual display before
Other breeds, such the Tennessee
Horses were probably the fourth or the reproductive tract is physiologi-
Walking Horse, are known for
fifth species to be domesticated. cally mature. Therefore, pregnancy
being calm. Quarter Horses and
Man’s best friend, the dog, was the cannot occur. Conversely, some
Morgans are intelligent, while
first species to be domesticated, fillies may cycle, but not exhibit
Shetland ponies are protective.
with sheep and goats approximately estrus.
Behavior, as related to the utility
tied for second in the domestication
of the breed in question, has been
race. Horses were not far behind, Estrus (Heat)
selected for as certainly as size,
and have proven to be a worthwhile
muscling, skeletal structure Estrus, or heat, is the period of
addition to the human-animal
or speed. the reproductive cycle when the
family.
Horses may have behavioral mare ovulates and, if bred, is likely
It is difficult to know exactly
problems, but most of these are to conceive. A behaviorist would
when domestication occurred, but
preventable or correctable with define estrus as the “behavioral
domesticated horse remains have
some understanding of horse state when the female seeks and
been dated to some 6,000 years ago.
behavior. In reality, properly accepts the male.”
By 3,000 years ago, the domestic
trained horses present few behav- The average length of the estrus
horse had spread to Europe, Asia
ioral problems. In fact, horses are cycle, or the period from heat to
and North Africa.
so gentle that they are outstanding heat, is 21 days, but can vary from
It is clear that domestication of
companions for 4-H youth. Thou- 19 to 26 days. The duration of the
the horse is a complicated story
sands of young people show horses estrus period is typically a week
about the development of a com-
each year with little chance of (actually about 6 days), but varies
plex, elegant relationship. Experts
injury by an aggressive animal. from two to 10 days. The foal heat,
have proposed the following stages
Most accidents are not due to or postpartum estrus, typically
in the process of domestication of
aggressive horses, but are more occurs six to nine days after foaling,
horses:
likely related to an improper or but may be as early as five days or
• Loose ties of animals with man,
unusual action by the handler. The as late as 15.
but no controlled breeding.
large number of young people who It is important for the mare
• Confinement and breeding in
ride horses every day is probably owner to recognize the behavioral
captivity, with separation from
the best “proof” of the high degree signs of estrus. Some signs are
wild horses allowing a distinct
to which the horse has been domes- general, including restlessness,
domestic race to develop.
ticated into the human pack/herd. hyperactivity, less time devoted to
• Selective breeding by man for
eating and resting and more time
11“running the fences.” Other signs, Courtship and Mating Dominance Effects
such as frequent urination, strad- Mares will cycle several times Dominance patterns are very
dling (squatting) posture and during the breeding season if they much a part of horse breeding
clitoral “winking” are more specific are not bred or if they fail to behavior, particularly in natural
and are often not as obvious in early become pregnant. The heat period environments. One stallion will
stages of estrus. (mentioned previously) is about a typically dominate the breeding of a
Some mares are more likely than week, but the most intense estrus band of mares and competing
others to exhibit overt signs of behavior, when the mare is most stallions will be banished to form
estrus. Older and more experienced sexually receptive to the stallion, is their own separate band — until
mares are more likely to exhibit about three days. one of them become old enough,
clear signs of estrus. Maiden mares Mares in heat may actively seek brave enough or tough enough to
are considerably more likely to out and attempt to stay in the defeat the dominant stallion.
cycle without visible signs of heat. vicinity of the stallions. There may In modern breeding establish-
The presence of stallions in- be few other signs of estrus early in ments with numerous, separately
creases the behavioral display of the heat period. As the heat period stalled breeding stallions, all the
estrus in mares. People who keep progresses, the mare may become stallions are used for breeding.
only one or a few mares often have more active in her courtship behav- Dominance, nevertheless is in
difficulty in identifying the onset of ior. During the peak of estrus, the evidence. Most breeding barn
estrus. Sometimes such small mare may sniff, lick or nuzzle the managers can tell you which
operations may benefit from having stallion. A mare in heat is likely to stallion is dominant or “the boss.”
a single stallion (sometimes a pony urinate frequently, particularly if a
is preferred) around as a “teaser,” to stallion is investigating. She is also Libido
stimulate estrus display. The use of likely to raise her tail and assume a Libido is the term which is used
a teaser stallion in larger breeding breeding stance. A mare may to denote sexual drive or the degree
operations is routine to stimulate exhibit the urination response to the of sexual urge of animals. A stallion
mares into a receptive state before stallion whether she is in heat or with a high libido will exhibit an
the introduction of the breeding not; however, if she is not in heat, eagerness to mount and attempt to
stallion. she will usually leave the vicinity of breed a mare. In natural situations,
the stallion or turn on him with stallions exhibit a wide range of
Seasonal Breeding Behavior threat behavior. If she is in heat, she libido levels, from zero activity to
Horses exhibit seasonal breeding may passively accept the attention the extremely aggressive stallion
patterns. In general, they are of the stallion, occasionally turning who sacrifices all other pursuits in
referred to as “long-day breeders,” her head to observe the stallion’s favor of searching for and breeding
because as the days increase in activities. The classic behavioral estrus females. Either extreme may
length in the spring, they come into display of the stallion when it cause problems, and young stallions
heat. Mares are also called “season- “checks” a mare is to lift its nose are more likely to exhibit extremely
ally polyestrous” because they have into air and curl its upper lip. This low or high libido.
multiple cycling periods. The most is called the “Flehmen” response. Older stallions are likely to
likely breeding season for horses is Stallions exhibit certain addi- decrease the intensity of sexual
the spring or summer. Since light is tional stereotypical display patterns. display behavior, but are often more
a factor in controlling the seasonal They will often be impatient, alert, efficient in mating. Impotence is
breeding pattern, horses are some- hyperactive and restless. Vocaliza- frequently observed in older
times called “increasing-light” tion is common. The stallion will stallions, but may be caused by
breeders. Most studies have indi- frequently nudge the mare, appar- factors other than age (such as
cated a tendency toward anestrus ently to signal readiness and to injury).
(not cycling) in the winter months; assess her “firm stance” response.
however, some mares may cycle In addition to nudges, some stal- Learning by Application: Write a
during this time as well lions may smell and bite over the short story about something related
. mare’s body. Most behaviorists to this section that applies to your
consider the display as being more horse, a horse belonging to a friend
important in the courtship process or a horse story you have read. If
than odor recognition. possible, share this experience in a
4-H meeting.
12BEHAVIOR AT shown a range of gestation from crouching position, and they may
315 to 387 days, with an average of urinate frequently. When the mare
FOALING TIME about 341 days. There is evidence starts expelling fluid, she may
Behavioral traits associated with that smaller breeds tend to have exhibit the Flehmen (lip-curling)
the birth process (parturition) are shorter gestation periods. One reflex.
deeply rooted in the ancient devel- study, for example, found ponies The second stage of parturition,
opment of animals. A basic as- had a gestation of 336 days. actual birth, is usually shorter in
sumption is that animals have The foaling date can be deter- duration than the first stage. Shortly
evolved behavioral strategies that mined from a combination of a before the foal is born, the mare
insure their survival. During the calendar estimate of gestation and may sweat profusely, especially
birth process, both the dam and her by watching for physical signs of around the flanks. If she is dis-
offspring are in a weakened state, approaching gestation, such as turbed, the mare may temporarily
and are susceptible to attack by distended udder, swelling of the delay the birth process. This is why
predators. Steps are taken to vulva and teat secretions. Behav- observers of the foaling process are
increase their safety. In general, ioral changes in late gestation are cautioned to keep interference to a
these steps may include location of generally minimal, and may not be minimum as long as the birth
safe sites for the birthing process, observed until shortly before birth. process is proceeding normally. The
quickening the process, protecting The first sign that can be mare may be standing or laying
the process, minimizing evidence of observed — but not always — is down as contractions begin, but she
the process and achieving rapid the tendency for the mare to isolate usually is flat on her side by the
recovery. herself from the rest of the herd. time heavy straining is initiated.
There are few things more One study conducted with free- The foal is usually born within 12
disappointing than the death of a ranging horses showed that mares to 18 minutes of heavy labor.
foal. Most of these losses occur may separate as far as three miles First-foal mares are more likely
during or shortly after parturition from the herd, while another study to have labor that extends over an
(foaling). Many of the causes of in a desert environment found that hour, but handlers should be ready
foal death are related to behavior. many of the mares foaled near the to assist if it goes much longer than
Researchers have studied many herd. Younger mares were less an hour. If mature mares are in
aspects of horse behavior before, likely to seek isolation. Mares labor for more than one-half to
during and after foaling. The foaling in pens or stalls will often three-fourths of an hour, assistance
serious student of horse ethology, seek a corner or an area that offers may be needed.
for example, can find studies that the most privacy. After the foal is born, the mare
detail behavioral traits of the fetus. will continue to lie on her side for
The following information should Mare Behavior another 15 to 20 minutes. This time
help the 4-H member have a better at Foaling Time is important for the mare to rest and
understanding of the behavior of the Mares prefer privacy at foaling to serve as a period for the blood
mare prior to giving birth. This time. If possible, mares will delay from the placental tissues to pass
information includes the behavior birth until human observers are not into the colt. A mare who is dis-
of the mare before foaling, the around. Mares generally foal at turbed during this period may rise
behavior of the mare at foaling night. One study, for example, prematurely and sever the umbilical
time, the behavior of the mare after indicated that approximately 80 cord. This is why it is wise to avoid
foaling and the behavior of the foal percent of foals were born between disturbing the mare for at least 15
during the period after birth. midnight and 6 a.m. minutes after a normal delivery.
Mares become restless during Handlers should also be aware
The Behavior of the the first stage of foaling. They will that a normally gentle mare is likely
Pre-Parturient Mare not eat, they may walk in circles, to become nervous and protective
4-H’ers who have a number of look back toward their flank, and during the first hours after giving
mares should learn to recognize the switch their tails. Some mares lie birth. The mare may, in her protec-
behavioral patterns that are charac- down and stand up repeatedly. This tiveness, become aggressive enough
teristic of a mare that is about to restless period is usually shorter for to be dangerous to people.
give birth. Mares will generally foal older mares. As labor progresses,
after an 11-month gestation, but this mares may assume a straddling,
is highly variable. Studies have
13Mare Behavior After Foaling that interferes with her companion- its first meal. Teat-seeking behavior
The post-foaling period is often ship with her new best buddy. is persistent, although somewhat
called the third stage of the birth Mares can identify her foal random — the foal does not
process. If there has been a normal within hours of birth. Odor is the “know” exactly where the teat is
birth, mares will stand some 15 to primary recognition factor. The located. However, with the gentle
20 minutes after the birth of the foal most significant identification is assistance of the mare, the foal will
and begin to nuzzle and lick. This usually made when the mare smells find the teat, quickly understand its
period, referred to as the “critical the rear area of the foal. purpose and “know” how to suckle.
period” by behaviorists, is an Suckling behavior is instinctive in
important time for establishing the Foal Behavior after Birth mammals.
dam/foal bond. The foal may stand as soon as 30 The experienced mare will orient
The licking and cleaning behav- minutes, usually after several failed her body so that her udder is
ior, which usually starts at the head, attempts. As soon as it is steady on available to the foal. She may even
serves to stimulate the foal while its feet, often within an hour of shift the orientation of her hind legs
also drying it. The cleaning is birth, the foal will start looking for to further assist the foal.
probably also part of the initial
bonding process, and is typically
accompanied by vocalizations and a
thorough visual and olfactory
examination of the foal by the mare.
New-born offspring learn to recog-
nize their dam by her voice.
The process by which the
newborn foal learns to recognize its
dam is called imprinting. The
cleaning/licking is also accompa-
nied by nuzzling, which appears to
assist the foal in learning to stand.
The mare usually starts the licking
at the head, so that by the time she
has reached the rear, she is able to
assist the standing process by the
nuzzling.
The mare normally remains
close to her newborn offspring.
This is in contrast to other common
livestock species. Cattle, for
example, tend to find hiding places
for calves while the cow seeks food.
Sheep and goats tend to place their
offspring in play groups while
grazing nearby. The mare and foal
tend to remain in close proximity at
all times.
The afterbirth is usually expelled
within an hour or two after birth.
Another contrasting characteristic
photo by Lindsay German
between mares and other livestock
is that mares are not typically
interested in consuming placental
tissues. Again, the mare is truly
focused on her new foal. The mare
A mare will remain close to her foal at all times.
is likely to not appreciate anything
14Within the first two hours, foals grow older, the frequency and FEEDING BEHAVIOR
start breathing (within seconds), duration of the suckling sessions At the beginning of this publica-
lift their head (within 5 minutes), decreases, probably because they tion it was mentioned that the
attempt to rise (within 10 minutes), become more adept at suckling and behavioral definition of a horse
actually stand (within 55 minutes), less dependent on the mare. Foals includes reference to the fact that
vocalize (within 45 minutes), will stay close to the mare in the the equine is a grazing animal. In
defecate meconium (within 30 first weeks of life, but will gradu- other words, the way the horse eats
minutes), first suckle (within 1 ally begin exploring and developing is an integral part of what makes a
hour), first walk-run (within 90 social groups. By the end of the horse a horse. Since the horse is an
minutes) and take their first nap third month, they will spend ungulant, it is predictable that much
(within 2 hours). approximately 60 percent of their of the behavior that is demonstrated
Understanding normal behavior time with others. They will also is related to the consumption of
helps 4-H’ers understand abnormal start consuming feed or pasture at forages.
behavior. If, for example, colts an early age, as early as two weeks. Behavior has direct effects on
haven’t defecated their meconium By the time they are three to four consumption patterns, feed avail-
within the first few hours, they months of age, they may be obtain- ability and the selection of feeds.
should be given an enema or their ing as much as 50 percent of their Horses devote more time to eating
lives could be endangered. nutrient intake from sources other than to any other behavioral activ-
Occasionally, there is abnormal than their dam. ity. Feed and forage are generally
maternal behavior that may result in By five to seven months, over 75 expensive items in the budget.
management problems. One prob- percent of their nutrients may come There is probably no other single
lem is the rejection of the foal by from non-milk sources. This is one factor as important to the well-
the mare. The mare may butt or of the reasons that it is generally being and productivity of the horse
kick the foal or move away to recommended that foals be weaned than the feed and forage it con-
prevent suckling. The 4-H’er should at about six to seven months of age. sumes.
make certain there is not a physical
cause responsible for the rejection, Learning by Application: Write a
Basic Feeding Behavior
such as an udder infection. Often it short story about something related
is simply desertion, in which the to this section that applies to your Horses have to consume feed
mare shows no interest in the foal horse, a horse belonging to a friend and water in order to survive.
and wanders away from the birth or a horse story you have read. If Beyond survival, consumption of
site. Whether the desertion is possible, share this experience in a the correct amounts and proportions
temporary or permanent, it creates a 4-H meeting. of feedstuffs allow horses to thrive
management problem. Temporary and be productive. In this section,
rejection can result in the failure of
the foal to consume colostrum (first
milk), which is desirable because
the antibodies which colostrum
contains are absorbed only during
the first hours of the foal’s life.
Intervention by the owner is
recommended. The owner should
gently restraint the mare during
suckling until the foal is accepted.
Foals suckle frequently during
the first few weeks. Estimates range
from one to two times per hour,
photo by Richard Maxey
with each session lasting as long as
three minutes. Anyone who has
ever bottle-fed a healthy foal will
testify, a young equine can suckle
with considerable vigor. As foals
Horses spend approximately five to 10 hours per day grazing.
15we will review the relationships number of factors. Grazing time cantly alter grazing patterns.
between nutrition and behavior, as depends primarily on: (1) type and Most estimates of time spent
well as feeding/grazing patterns and availability of forage, (2) consump- grazing fall between five and 10
feedstuff selection by horses. tion behavior, and (3) the level of hours per day. In general, horses
nutrient demand. spend less time grazing good
Relationship Between If feed is limited — during quality pasture, but this is not
Nutrition and Behavior periods of drought or when horses always true. For example, although
Feed consumption is motivated are fed a restricted feed allowance horses may graze poor quality
by hunger, but the methods and — the horse will eat when feed is pasture longer to meet nutritional
patterns of feeding are governed by present or can be found. When requirements, horses on high
behavior. Mare nutrient require- abundant feed is available, horses quality pastures may consume
ments, for example, increase during will develop patterns of consump- forage for much longer than is
late pregnancy and lactation; tion behavior. These patterns of necessary to meet needs. Over-
therefore the demand for consump- eating are developed in response to grazing can lead the problem of
tion of feed is higher (assuming daylight/darkness cycles and other horses becoming over-conditioned
there is no change on nutrient environmental cycles, and are (fat) on pasture, because they are
density of the ration). Horses also apparently influenced by learned consuming more than they need to
demonstrate increased appetite behavior as the horse grows and meet their nutrient requirements.
when work load increases. The develops. The problem of over-weight
horse compensates for this increase Most studies indicate that horses is most likely to occur when
in demand by increasing the rate of heaviest grazing will occur in the nutritional demands are lowest,
eating. hours around dawn and in the late such as in early pregnancy or when
If the quality or quantity of afternoon, near sunset. Night a working or show horse is “turned
available feed is low or horses are grazing also has been observed, and out to pasture.” It may be neces-
being worked hard, the horse often is likely to increase in the summer. sary to restrict access to pasture if
cannot increase the rate of con- Temperature can alter grazing horses are becoming over-condi-
sumption enough to meet demand. times. When daylight temperatures tioned.
This is where human management become extremely warm, horses
plays an important role. The owner start and stop their grazing earlier in Other factors influence
should compensate for the imbal- the morning on hot days. Cold grazing time
ance and increase the feed and/or weather alone apparently has little Feeding concentrate supple-
improve the feed quality. effect on daily grazing patterns; ments, for example, may reduce
It would be a mistake to however, heavy rain, strong wind forage consumption. Thin horses
oversimplify the relationship and/or snow cover may signifi- may consume more than fat horses,
between nutrition and behavior. For
example, there have been numerous
attempts over the years to attribute
“nutritional wisdom” to horses and
other livestock. This is based on the
idea that a horse will select a diet
that is more nutritionally correct.
Unfortunately, this is often not the
case. The horse selects a diet based
upon a variety of factors (discussed
in a later section), with nutritional
value being of little importance in
the food selection process.
photo by Richard Maxey
Time allotment for ingestive
behavior
The time that horses spend
consuming feed is governed by a
Horses need clean water available to them at all times.
16and this is at least partially ex- If an abundance of pasture is Sight, touch, taste and smell are
plained by increased grazing time. available, horses will be very used by the horse in selecting the
Typically, horses do not drink selective. As the amount of avail- forage species it will consume.
water frequently — hence the old able forage decreases, the degree of Taste is the sense that is most likely
saying “you can lead a horse to selectivity will decrease. If a to influence selection. Indications
water but you can’t make it drink.” number of different varieties of are that odor plays a relatively
In natural environments, grazing forages are available, horses are minor role. Sight is probably used
patterns are often set to allow more likely to demonstrate marked primarily to recognize conspicuous
access to water once or twice per selectivity. However, if only one forage species and to orient the
day. When horses do drink, they forage is available or if there are approach to those species, but sight
tend to take in a considerable only a few species available and apparently is not important in
amount, often in some 15 to 20 these are of similar acceptability to influencing selectivity. Horses eat
large swallows. the horses, there will be little leaves in preference to stems and
selectivity. green, succulent material in prefer-
Selectivity It is interesting that some ence to dry, coarse material. Hunger
Horses have a relatively large excellent forages are not preferred tends to decrease selectivity.
mouth and remarkably flexible by horses, and may be the last to be
lips. They typically harvest the selected when others are available. Grazing Patterns
portion of the pasture plant they are One such example is alfalfa. Many A number of factors can affect
interested in consuming by biting it reports indicate that when horses the grazing pattern. The location of
off between their upper and lower are provided a choice between grass water, for example, can have an
incisors. They are able to graze and alfalfa, they will often select important effect on grazing pat-
close to the ground and are also the grass first, even though alfalfa is terns. In arid zones, the water
able to comfortably adapt to nutritionally superior. However, source is the center of grazing
browsing — picking the leafy when other forages are exhausted, activity and the primary determi-
material from bushes or other the horse will quickly adapt to the nant of grazing the grazing area.
plants. These anatomical/behavioral alfalfa. Some researchers speculate The area near the water may
combinations result in the ability of that boredom or a desire for change become overgrazed, even damaged
horses to be selective about what is the reason why horses are occa- and eroded, because of the influ-
they consume. The horse will often sionally observed selecting clearly ence of the water source on grazing
select the most tasty part of the hay inferior forage in the presence of pattern. Social factors, such as the
and leave the stems and undesirable abundant superior forage. development of a home or territorial
portions. area can inhibit movement of horses
on large ranges. The social rank of
the horses can determine which
horses obtain the choicest grazing
sites or best access to supplemental
feed or water.
Learning by Application: Write a
short story about something related
to this section that applies to your
horse, a horse belonging to a friend
or a horse story you have read. If
possible, share this experience in a
4-H meeting.
photo by Richard Maxey
In the winter it is important to provide supplemental forages, such as alfalfa
for good nutrition.
17ABNORMAL • Stall-kicking. This behavior in stall or allowing more pasture
involves a horse habitually time will help.
BEHAVIOR/VICES kicking or pawing the walls and/or Cribbing is even harder to
Do you have a bad or irritating floor of its stall. This behavior correct, but more important to find
habit, such a nail-biting or snapping often intensifies near feeding time. the solution. Sometimes, a cribbing
your gum? Horses also pick up bad • Weaving, circling or head strap placed around the throat will
habits, which are usually referred to bobbing. Weaving is the shifting make swallowing difficult enough
as vices. Animal behavior experts of the horse’s body from side to that it curbs the habit. It also is
often refer to vices as stereotypies, side. Circling and head bobbing possible to muzzle the horse with a
because they are often rooted in the are self-describing. All of these, special device that allows grazing
behavioral nature of the animal. and other habitual movements and drinking but prevents cribbing.
Understanding that vices are may simply be annoying or can Horses are social animals. If part
behaviorally based, stereotyped become so persistent that they of the problem is boredom due to
behavior may assist in preventing actually result in a tired and lack of companionship, it is
and/or treating these problems. listless animal. possible that providing a
Common vices include the Correcting behavioral vices can companion animal might help. A
following: be difficult. Punishment is almost variety of companion animals, from
• Wood-chewing. This occurs with never effective, and may result in chickens to goats, have been used.
both stabled and pastured horses, worsening the condition. Try to Sometimes horses that are
and can be due to a lack of fiber in determine the basis for the problem. developing a tendency toward
the diet, or it can be due to For example, if the animal is weaving, circling or other repetitive
boredom. chewing the planks on the stall movement vices will cease the
• Cribbing. This term is sometimes because of a lack of fiber in the behavior simply by getting more
confused with wood-chewing, but diet, simply feed more hay, possibly exercise, or by being turned out
is more serious. Cribbing actually of a slightly lower quality, with periodically in an open paddock or
involves the grasping of a surface more fiber. If the animal is chewing pasture.
(often wood) with the teeth and because of simple boredom, Occasionally drugs are used to
swallowing air. This behavior can providing additional stimulus may curb vices. This solution is often
cause horses to lose weight, and it decrease the wood chewing. Also, only temporarily successful, and
makes them more prone to colic. it may be helpful to put a barrier, may be prohibitively expensive for
Cribbing is sometimes incorrectly such as wire or metal flashing, over long-term use. However, success
referred to as wind-sucking, but the favorite chewing place, or put a has been reported in some
“wind-sucking” is a problem of deterrent, such a hot pepper sauce, situations. Discuss this option with
mares when air is pulled into the on the wood. Sometimes, a change your veterinarian.
vagina.
ELIMINATIVE BEHAVIOR
Horses generally prefer to stop
whatever they are doing to defecate
or urinate. Riders should become
sensitive to this and make
allowances. Horses will often
establish an elimination area within
a paddock. If possible, they are
likely to avoid grazing near that
area.
Learning by Application:
photo by Richard Maxey
Write a short story about something
related to this section that applies to
your horse, a horse belonging to a
friend or a horse story you have
Horses often chew wood because of boredom, and they can do considerable read. If possible, share this
damage to stalls and fences. experience in a 4-H meeting.
18QUESTIONS AND Why do horses herd together? becomes their natural cooling
Part of the explanation for the mechanism, especially during
ANSWERS ABOUT herding instinct is that it is a periods of activity.
HORSE BEHAVIOR protective mechanism. Many horses
Following are some frequently are not equipped with the skills that Will horses choose fight or flight
asked questions related to horse allow them to effectively fight large when confronted with a threat?
behavior. predators, so they will normally flee To understand whether a horse
from attack. The odds of successful will fight or flight, it is important to
Why are some people, such as escape are directly proportional to understand a horses’ “flight zone.”
experienced trainers, able to the horses’ ability to detect the This is the space around the horse
handle horses with such ease? attack as quickly as possible. which, if entered by a perceived
It is a combination of Increasing the number of threat, will cause the horse to react.
experience and an understanding of individuals in the group increases If the horse has a choice, it will
horse behavior. This, coupled with the opportunity of early detection choose flight. If an untamed horse
the trainers experience, skill and and successful escape. Also, it is is cornered or penned, and cannot
confidence, allows them to handle more likely that older or crippled escape by flight, and a dog or a
horses with deceptive ease. horses will be apprehended by a person penetrates their flight zone,
predator in an attack on the herd. the horse will become nervous or
Are horses dumb animals? These horses happen to be the ones even highly agitated. Panic can
It depends on how intelligence that are less important to the cause them to leap fences or
is defined. It is doubtful that there survival of the herd. stampede. Usually, simply
has ever been a horse that would There are also social benefits to the removing the threat from the flight
score very well on an intelligence herding instinct. Being a part of a zone will calm the horse.
test that was designed for humans. herd, guarantees horses access to Horses that are handled more
On the other hand, horses have mates. They are also supplied with frequently are not as sensitive about
survived as a species when others companionship and a defined social their flight zone. Loud noises or
have disappeared. The horse has hierarchy. There is, of course, a frenzied activity can increase the
precisely the correct amount of requirement for horses to sacrifice a effective size of the flight zone.
intelligence it needs to allow it to large portion of their individuality This is why someone with a calm,
function within the grazing/prey in return for the advantages of confident manner is more effective
niche that it inhabits (horses don’t being part of the herd. Individuality, as a horse handler than a nervous,
need to be Einstein). Therefore, however, apparently returns very noisy person.
when the question is examined as readily under training conditions,
the amount of intelligence present, almost exactly as soon as humans References
relative to the amount needed, it give the horse a name. Banks, E.M., 1977. Animal
would be unfair to characterize Behavior. Educational Methods.
them as “dumb.” Do horses prefer to drink running Chicago.
The negative use of “dumb” or water or still water?
“stupid” as applied to horses Horses will pick still water Diamond, J. 1992. The Third
implies “dull,” and horses have too when they have a choice. In fact, Chimpanzee. Harper Collins
many interesting facets to their based on field reports, they may cut Publishers, New York.
behavior to deserve being labeled as back on water consumption if
dull. Sometimes a rider is tempted running water is all that is available. Fraser, F. F. 1992. The Behavior of
to call a horse stupid because the the Horse. CAB International,
horse does not react in the manner How do horses stay cool in the Wallingford, UK.
the rider thinks it should. However, summer?
a properly trained horse reacts in a Horses will often seek shelter Harper, F. And D. Spitzfaden.
very predictable manner, and the from the sun in dark places. A cool 1994. “Stereotypies in Horses: a
failure of the horse to behave barn, a rock overhang or a grove of new look at old vices.” Horse
according to the rider’s desires trees will provide the relative cool Express Vol. 13, No. 4. University
may, in fact, reflect the rider’s lack that the horses are seeking. Plenty of Tennessee Agricultural
of perception rather than the of cool, clean water also helps. Extension Service.
horse’s. Horses also perspire, which
19You can also read
