The Iberian lynx LynxpardinusConservation Breeding Program
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190 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198
DOI:10.1111/j.1748-1090.2007.00036.x
The Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus Conservation
Breeding Program
A. VARGAS1, I. SÁNCHEZ2, F. MARTÍNEZ1, A. RIVAS1, J. A. GODOY3, E. ROLDÁN4,
M. A. SIMÓN5, R. SERRA6, MaJ. PÉREZ7, C. ENSEÑAT8, M. DELIBES3, M. AYMERICH9,
A. SLIWA10 & U. BREITENMOSER11
1
Centro de Crı́a de Lince Ibérico El Acebuche, Parque Nacional de Doñana, Huelva, Spain,
2
Zoobotánico de Jerez, Cádiz, Spain, 3Doñana Biological Station, CSIC, Sevilla, Spain,
4
National Museum of Natural Science, CSIC, Madrid, Spain, 5Environmental Council,
Andalusian Government, Jaén, Spain, 6Investigação Veterinária Independente, Lisbon,
Portugal, 7Centro de Crı́a en Cautividad de Lince Ibérico La Olivilla, Jaen, Spain, 8Parc
Zoológic, Barcelona, Spain, 9Dirección General para la Biodiversidad, Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente, Madrid, Spain, 10Cologne Zoo, Cologne 50735, Germany, and 11IUCN Cat Specialist
Group, Institute of Veterinary Virology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
E-mail: centrolinceav@oapn.mma.es
The Iberian Lynx Conservation Breeding Program fol- INTRODUCTION
lows a multidisciplinary approach, integrated within the
National Strategy for the Conservation of the Iberian
lynx, which is carried out in cooperation with national, Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus wild populations
regional and international institutions. The main goals of have undergone a constant regression through-
the ex situ conservation programme are to: (1) maintain a out the last century. The decline has been
genetically and demographically managed captive popu- especially abrupt in the last 20 years, with more
lation; (2) create new Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus free-
ranging populations through re-introduction. To achieve than an 80% reduction, mostly owing to the
the first goal, the Conservation Breeding Program aims to dramatic decline of wild rabbit Oryctolagus
maintain 85% of the genetic diversity presently found in cuniculus populations, the lynx’s prey base.
the wild for the next 30 years. This requires developing According to the last census (Guzmán et al.,
and maintaining 60–70 Iberian lynx as breeding stock.
Growth projections indicate that the ex situ programme
2002), o200 Iberian lynx (only half of them
should achieve such a population target by the year 2010. considered to be adults with reproductive po-
Once this goal is reached, re-introduction efforts could tential) survive in nature. The last two remnant
begin. Thus, current ex situ efforts focus on producing populations, Doñana and Sierra Morena, are
psychologically and physically sound captive-born indi- located in Andalusia, southern Spain. This
viduals. To achieve this goal, we use management and
research techniques that rely on multidisciplinary input dramatic population decline has brought the
and knowledge generated on species’ life history, beha- species to what is known as an ‘extinction
viour, nutrition, veterinary and health aspects, genetics, vortex’. The small size of both populations
reproductive physiology, endocrinology and ecology. makes them highly vulnerable to stochastic
Particularly important is adapting our husbandry schemes
based on research data to promote natural behaviours in
events, such as natural disasters (e.g. forest
captivity (hunting, territoriality, social interactions) and a fires, flooding), disease outbreaks, genetic and
stress-free environment that is conducive to natural demographic problems, etc., that could com-
reproduction. pletely wipe out a remnant population within a
very short period of time (Delibes et al., 2000).
Key-words: adaptive management; applied research;
conservation breeding; ex situ; genetics; husbandry; The species is listed as Critically Endangered
Iberian lynx; outreach; re-introduction; reproductive by The World Conservation Union (IUCN,
physiology; veterinary science. 2006).
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of LondonIBERIAN LYNX CONSERVATION BREEDING PROGRAM 191
Owing to the precarious situation of the make pairing recommendations based on
Iberian lynx in the wild, conservation mea- genetic distance between breeders, etc. One
sures need to be implemented effectively and of our goals is to minimize the use of
efficiently, integrating efforts and working potentially invasive methods while simulta-
tools (Heredia et al., 1999; MIMAM, 1999). neously enhancing the trust between the
Iberian lynx conservation could be conceived lynxes and their keepers to assist in securing
as a puzzle whose pieces should fit together information on animal body mass and gesta-
adequately. Primary efforts should be direc- tional status. Over the past 3 years, eight
ted towards in situ conservation, which in- pregnancies have resulted in the birth of 19
cludes (1) maintaining and expanding offspring, of which 11 survive to date (Vargas
remnant populations, monitoring, managing et al., 2007). While describing various orga-
prey (wild Rabbit) populations, protecting nizational aspects of the Iberian lynx Con-
and restoring habitat, promoting agreements servation Breeding Program, this paper will
with land owners, minimizing non-natural also emphasize how results from multidisci-
causes of mortality and connecting, from a plinary life-science research can be integrated
genetic standpoint, the two remnant popula- into an adaptive management approach to
tions, and (2) preparing habitat for creating help recover the world’s most threatened felid
new free-ranging populations. Another piece species.
of the puzzle is ex situ conservation, which
includes, among other activities, captive THE IBERIAN LYNX EX SITU
breeding, preparing animals for release, re-
CONSERVATION PROGRAM
search in different areas, management of a
Biological Resource Bank (BRB), genetic The Iberian Lynx Ex Situ Conservation Breed-
management of all lynx populations (wild ing Program follows a multidisciplinary ap-
and captive) as a single metapopulation, as proach, integrated within the National
well as training staff, education and outreach Strategy for the Conservation of the Iberian
efforts (Vargas, Sánchez et al., 2005). lynx, officially endorsed by the Spanish
Current Iberian lynx conservation-breed- National Commission for the Protection of
ing efforts focus on producing psychologi- Nature. National, regional and international
cally and physically sound captive-born institutions collaborate with the Program,
individuals. For this purpose, we use manage- which is currently implemented through a
ment and research techniques that rely on ‘multilateral commission’ that involves the
multidisciplinary input and knowledge, gen- central governments of Spain and Portugal,
erated on the life history of the species, together with the autonomous governments of
behaviour, nutrition, veterinary and health Andalusia, Extremadura and Castilla-La Man-
aspects, genetics, reproductive physiology, cha, Spain. Portugal, where no Iberian lynx
endocrinology and ecology. Particularly im- populations were detected during the last
portant is adapting our husbandry schemes 2002–2003 census, has developed its own ex
based on research data to promote natural situ conservation action plan, prepared in
behaviours in captivity (hunting, territoriality, coordination with the Iberian lynx captive
social interactions) and a stress-free environ- breeding committee (Serra et al., 2005; see
ment that is conducive to natural reproduc- also Vargas, 2006).
tion. Some relevant research areas include: The main goals of the Iberian Lynx Con-
determining faecal hormone profiles for adult servation Breeding Program are twofold: (1)
and subadult lynxes, studying reproductive to maintain a genetically and demographi-
behaviour and cub development, determining cally managed captive population that serves
the reproductive health of < and , breeders, as a ‘safety net’ for the species and (2) to help
developing a non-invasive pregnancy test, establish new Iberian lynx free-ranging po-
establishing sound biosecurity and biomedi- pulations through re-introduction pro-
cal protocols, genotyping all founders and grammes. Because the extraction of large
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of London192 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD
number of lynxes from the last two remnant
populations could compromise their viability,
the most viable way to create new popula-
tions is through the re-introduction of indivi-
duals born in captivity. To achieve the latter
goal, the Conservation Breeding Program
must be integrated with in situ measures, such
as the conservation and restoration of poten-
tial Iberian lynx habitat in areas of historical
presence of the species (Andalusia, Castilla-
La Mancha, Extremadura and Portugal)
The Iberian Lynx Program encompasses
management and applied research strategies
in the following six areas.
1. Genetic and demographic management of
the captive population The best genetic man-
agement of threatened captive populations is
achieved through rapid population growth
until the established number of individuals
required to maintain genetic variability for
the species in question is reached (Lacy,
1994). Afterwards, population size should be
stabilized. In order to implement this ap-
proach, the production of new individuals
must be planned properly to meet both re-
introduction and breeding programme needs,
because the latter will gradually require the Plate 1. Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus , and cub which
replacement of older individuals past their are part of the Iberian Lynx Conservation Breeding
reproductive prime. Genetic and population Program in Spain. Iberian Lynx Ex Situ Conservation
management must be accompanied by proper Program, Ministry of the Environment, Madrid, and
Environmental Counsel of Andalusia (MMA-CMA).
husbandry, which involves stimulating natur-
al behaviours in captive-born individuals
from early developmental periods in order to
improve their potential for survival in the 5 year period. Wild-born founders should be
wild (Plate 1). selected from large litters (of three or more
Based on recommendations provided by siblings), because the extraction of such in-
the IUCN Conservation Breeding Specialist dividuals will have a lower impact in the wild
Group, in collaboration with the Iberian lynx population (Lacy & Vargas, 2004). The main-
in situ conservation managers, the actual tenance of genetic diversity over 30 years
situation of this species will allow for the will, therefore, require a group of 60 (30.30)
conservation of 85% of the current genetic breeding animals (comprising the original
variability for a period of 30 years (Lacy & founders plus individuals born in the Con-
Vargas, 2004; Godoy, 2006). Captive popula- servation Breeding Program). As a basic
tions that maintain o85% genetic variability strategy for maintaining genetic variability, it
are considered to be dangerously inbred. is important to achieve rapid population
In order to achieve the established genetic growth over the first 10 years of the Program,
goals, four wild-born cubs/juveniles (foun- until it reaches its ‘capacity phase’, estab-
ders) must be incorporated into the Breeding lished at 60 breeding individuals. Efforts
Program each year for 5 years consecutively. should also be made to ensure equal repre-
Thus, 20 cubs/juveniles are needed within a sentation of founders, which should all
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of LondonIBERIAN LYNX CONSERVATION BREEDING PROGRAM 193 provide a similar number of offspring to the Center has developed a standard operational- Program. procedures manual that details the various 2. Captive husbandry Captive husbandry is protocols that are applied to its breeding based on multidisciplinary input from a vari- population (see Vargas, Martı́nez et al., ety of animal-care fields, such as nutrition, 2005). Detailed protocols based on experi- behaviour, genetics, physiology and veterin- ences at the ‘pilot facilities’ will help smooth ary medicine, together with the systematic the way towards unified practices across ex use of the scientific method. Over the past situ lynx breeding centres as new centres two decades, a great deal of knowledge and open. experience has been gained in the manage- 3. Health and veterinary aspects The health ment of wild felids in captivity. The Associa- considerations involved in captive breeding, re- tion of Zoos and Aquariums Felid Taxon introduction and translocation programmes are a Advisory Group has compiled a Husbandry source of great concern to conservation biologists. Manual for Small Felids containing useful For instance, mycoplasmosis in Mohave desert information on, for example, health, repro- tortoises Xerobates agassizi (Jacobson, 1991), duction, nutrition and facilities (Mellen & equine encephalitis in Whooping cranes Grus Wildt, 1998). Many European zoos have americana (Dein et al., 1986), diaphragmatic broad-ranging experience in breeding wild hernias in Golden lion tamarins Leontopithecus cats in general and lynxes in particular. These rosalia (Bush et al., 1993) and herpes virus in a documents and experiences have been and large list of captive-bred avian species (Viggers continue to be a very useful reference to the et al., 1993) are just a few examples of health Iberian Lynx Captive Breeding Program problems associated with small, threatened popula- (Vargas et al., 2006). tions. There have been various cases in which One of the Program’s key husbandry chal- captive-bred animals re-introduced into the wild lenges is to strike a balance between fostering have transmitted infectious diseases to wild popu- natural behaviours in captivity (hunting, ter- lations; for example, tuberculosis in reintro- ritoriality, social interactions, etc.) and creat- duced Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx (Viggers ing a stress-free environment where animals et al., 1993). Also, wild-caught individuals are more prone to mate. In order to obtain have occasionally infected captive populations important information about the animals with potentially lethal diseases [e.g. canine (such as their body mass or determining distemper in Black-footed ferrets Mustela ni- whether or not the ,, are pregnant), certain gripes (Williams et al., 1988)]. It is generally training techniques are being used. Some of felt that most of these conservation pro- these include obtaining regular body-mass grammes were lacking sufficient information measurements by encouraging the lynx to on: (1) disease distribution and risk in captive step onto a measuring scale. Such techniques populations; (2) disease incidence, distribution are designed to avoid using invasive meth- and risk in wild populations; (3) quarantine ods, which would stress the animals, and they systems to prevent disease transmission; (4) a also serve as a way to strengthen the bond system to track and detect pathogens ade- between the animals and their keepers. quately. The animals’ behaviour is also being care- Because relatively little is known about the fully observed by a round-the-clock video- diseases affecting lynx, actions to improve surveillance system, which provides a great our knowledge of the main diseases affecting deal of information on the species that could the species are imperative. The Iberian Lynx not be learned easily through observations in Conservation Breeding Program has a Veter- the wild. Based on the experience acquired at inary Advisory Team dedicated to diverse the ‘El Acebuche’ Center and at the Jerez aspects of veterinary and research manage- Zoo, together with information obtained from ment, as well as protocol development. To programmes established at European and tackle the understanding of the various dis- American zoos, the El Acebuche Breeding eases that potentially affect the species, the Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of London
194 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD
Program’s main lines of action involve the searched at the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife
establishment of preventive disease protocols Research in Berlin (Jewgenow et al., 2006).
for the captive populations, and research on The non-invasive techniques described above
general veterinary science (Martı́nez, 2006). provide a great deal of information, while
Projects are now under way to determine minimizing the disturbance of the animals
the incidence and prevalence of infectious under study. Assessment of reproductive
pathogens in captive and wild lynx popula- health by trans-rectal ultrasound has also been
tions (Meli et al., 2006; Millán, 2006), deter- applied to study physiological changes in <
mination of normal vs pathological blood and , Iberian lynx (F. Goeritz, unpubl. data).
values (Muñoz et al., 2006; Pastor et al., This knowledge has been essential to assess
2006) and research on potential renal disfunc- the reproductive soundness of the captive
tion (Jiménez et al., 2006). The results of population of Iberian lynx and it is regularly
research, protocol developments and standar- used to make management decisions regard-
dization efforts, coupled with dissemination ing the pairings of captive animals.
and sharing of knowledge and experience In order to assist breeding and maintaining
among veterinarians working in the pro- gene diversity, the Iberian Lynx Ex Situ
gramme, are all contributing to more consis- Program collaborates with the maintenance
tent diagnosis and treatment. For further of a Biological Resources Bank for conserva-
information, see http://www.lynxexsitu.es/ tion of biomaterial gathered from wild and
aaveterinaros/aaveterinarios.htm captive Iberian lynx populations (León et al.,
4. Reproductive physiology Reproductive 2006; Roldán et al., 2006). In order to
physiology studies and associated technolo- conserve the maximum possible genetic di-
gies increase the success rate of any captive- versity, samples of < and , gametes, as well
breeding programme and are important in as different cells or tissues, are being kept.
helping with the conservation of wild felids The conservation of gametes allows us to
in captivity. Reproductive technologies are extend future options without the limitations
available for three major purposes: (1) asses- of space, or the risk of disease transmission.
sing fertility and monitoring reproductive Also, the cryopreservation of gametes and
status; (2) assisting in breeding and mainte- embryos allows for the opportunity of
nance of gene diversity; (3) learning more prolonging the possibilities of reproduction
about reproductive mechanisms of the Criti- for individual animals after their death. The
cally Endangered Iberian lynx. preservation of somatic cells (or undifferen-
An important outcome of Iberian lynx tiated germ cells) could give individuals who
reproductive physiology studies is the devel- have died before reaching sexual maturity a
opment of non-invasive techniques that aid in reproductive opportunity, or extend the repro-
captive population management. Over the ductive potential of other individuals.
past 2 years, work carried out to define Iberian The Iberian lynx BRB is presently being
lynx < and , hormonal profiles has helped us maintained at two locations: the National
gain a clearer perspective on the length of Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid
breeding periods, and the potential use of (Roldán et al., 2006) and the Miguel Hernán-
hormonal metabolites in faeces as a non- dez University in Elche, Alicante (León et al.,
invasive gestation predictor (Jewgenow 2006). Although the Museum of Natural
et al., 2006; Pelican et al., 2006; see also Sciences specializes principally in reproductive
Schwarzenberger, 2007). While faecal hor- samples and the University MH specializes in
mones do not seem to be the best diagnostic multi-potential somatic cells, both banks pre-
tool, they have proven to be extremely useful serve tissue, blood, serum and other biological
to understand better the year-round reproduc- materials. The storage of these samples means
tive activity of < and , Iberian lynx. Another that materials will be available for future
gestation diagnostic technique, based on ana- analysis whenever needed, which is a valuable
lyses of relaxin in urine, is now being re- resource for potential retrospective studies.
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of LondonIBERIAN LYNX CONSERVATION BREEDING PROGRAM 195
5. Re-introduction As mentioned above, joyed by conservation-breeding programmes
the two current small populations of free- is their ability to gain public attention, parti-
ranging Iberian lynxes are highly vulnerable. cularly if the animal in question is charismatic
Thus, it is imperative to create, as soon as and attractive to the broader public. The
possible, new wild populations (while simul- Iberian lynx is one such case and raising
taneously increasing numbers in the existing public awareness of the need for habitat
ones). conservation to guarantee survival of the
Before any re-introduction/translocation, a species in the wild is one of the Program’s
detailed viability study is required (see IUCN primary objectives. It is important to empha-
Guidelines for Re-introductions: IUCN, size that breeding and keeping lynxes in
1998). It is important to determine whether captivity, with no hope of ever returning them
the cause or causes that brought the species to to the wild or of recovering the natural
extinction in the specific area have been population, would be a pointless exercise.
eradicated and, if so, whether there is admin- The breeding programme encourages, coop-
istrative and local population support for the erates with and supports media interest in the
Program and whether the habitat is prepared Iberian lynx, while taking every opportunity
to support a viable population of the species. to remind the public of the primary impor-
All re-introductions and translocations must tance of in situ conservation work.
be performed using scientific support and We also share on-line information on the
the Iberian lynx should be no exception Iberian lynx web page (http://www.lynxexsitu.
(Palomares, 2006). Such conservation techni- es), featuring monthly newsletters, pictures and
ques require an interdisciplinary approach, videos of all ‘captive’ lynxes, along with
with input from experts in ecology, veterinary general interest and scientific articles, and
medicine, physiology and behavioural scien- descriptions of the Center’s protocols and
ces, as well as support from socio-political working methods. An English-language ver-
and information sciences. All stages of pro- sion is currently in production, to further
gramme development and implementation expand the scope of communication and
must have well-defined protocols that docu- awareness efforts. The Web page also contains
ment the objectives, methodology, responsi- an area only accessible to managers, research-
bilities, as well as the accountability of the ers and technical personnel working directly
organizations and individuals involved. with the Program, for restricted database access
The greater the number of captive-bred and other information exchange. As part of its
lynxes produced and trained to maximize their training efforts, the Acebuche Center Breeding
potential for post-release survival, the lower Program organizes on-site internships for re-
the number of wild lynxes that must be cap- cent college graduates interested in acquiring
tured to establish new populations, or to re- first-hand knowledge within an endangered
inforce the existing ones (Simón & Cadenas, species conservation programme.
2006). Re-introduction and translocation each
pose advantages and disadvantages. A com-
CONCLUSION
parative study is required to determine which
option, or combination of options, is most Besides offering an insurance against extinc-
appropriate for the conservation of the Iberian tion, the Iberian Lynx Conservation Breeding
lynx. Program emphasizes how results from multi-
6. Communication, awareness and training disciplinary life-science research can be
Awareness, education and scientific training integrated into an adaptive management ap-
are essential to all conservation-breeding pro- proach to help recover the world’s most
grammes. Education and awareness efforts threatened felid species. The ultimate goal of
should be focused on changing prevalent the ex situ Program is to offer sound support
attitudes that contribute to habitat destruction to in situ conservation efforts by providing
and species extinction. One advantage en- healthy Iberian lynx for future re-introduction
Int. Zoo Yb. (2008) 42: 190–198. c 2007 The Authors. Journal compilation c 2007 The Zoological Society of London196 THE DEVELOPING ZOO WORLD
projects. In addition, the Program carries out ings: 59–60. Sevilla: Fundación Biodiversidad; Madrid:
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. http://www.lynxexsitu.es/
a communication plan aimed at preparing documentos/comunicacion/simposios/cursoexsitu06/Iberian
professionals for working with threatened- %20Lynx%20Ex-situ%20Conservation.pdf
species conservation as well as sensitizing GUZMÁN, N., GARCÍA, F., GARROTE, G., PÉREZ DE AYALA,
the general public and decision-makers about R. & IGLESIAS, M. (2002): El lince ibérico (Lynx pardinus)
the importance of conserving habitat for the en España y Portugal. Censo-diagnóstico de sus pobla-
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help protect large areas of Mediterranean ciones de lince Ibérico (Lynx pardinus). Apple Valley,
forests and scrubland, thus benefiting a wide MN: IUCN SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist
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Gland and Cambridge: IUCN/SSC Re-introduction Spe-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS cialist Group. http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/publica
The authors would like to thank all the institutions (and tions/policy/reinte.htm
associated staff) that presently collaborate in the Iberian IUCN (2006): 2006 IUCN red list of threatened species.
Lynx Conservation Breeding Program, including the Gland and Cambridge: IUCN. http://www.iucnredlist.
Spanish Ministry of the Environment, the governments org/
of Andalusia, Extremadura, Castilla-La Mancha and JACOBSON, S. (1991): Evaluation model for developing,
Portugal, the Life-Nature Project for Iberian Lynx Con- implementing and assessing conservation education pro-
servation in Andalusia, the International Union for the grams: examples from Belize and Costa Rica. Environ-
Conservation of Nature (Cat Specialist Group and Con- mental Management 15: 143–150.
servation Breeding Specialist Group), the National Scien- JEWGENOW, K., DEHNHARD, M., FRANK, A., NAIDENKO, S.,
tific Research Council (Doñana Biological Station, the VARGAS, A. & GÖRITZ, F. (2006): A comparative analysis
National Museum of Natural Sciences, and Almeria Arid of the reproduction of the Eurasian and the Iberian
Zones Station), the Seville Diagnostic Analysis Center, lynx in captivity. In Iberian lynx ex-situ conservation
the Autonomous University of Barcelona, the Miguel seminar series book of proceedings: 116–117. Sevilla:
Hernández University, the Complutense University of Fundación Biodiversidad; Madrid: Ministerio de Medio
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Cordoba, the University of Zurich – Vet Clinical Labora- nicacion/simposios/cursoexsitu06/Iberian%20Lynx%20
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Research, Berlin (Germany), the Smithsonian Institution JIMÉNEZ, M. A., SÁNCHEZ, B., GARCÍA, P., PÉREZ, M.,
(USA), the Jerez Zoo, the Terra Natura Foundation, the CARRILLO, M. E., MORENO, F. J. & PEÑA, L. (2006):
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QUEZ, A., RODRÍGUEZ, J. M., VÁZQUEZ, E., LÓPEZ, J. & 2 October 2007; accepted 23 October 2007
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