The Captagon Threat A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities - Newlines Institute
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
INTELLIGENCE BRIEFING
The Captagon Threat
A Profile of Illicit Trade,
Consumption, and Regional Realities
April 2022
The Captagon Threat
A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption,
and Regional Realities
By Caroline Rose and Alexander Söderholm
Contents
Foreword ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3 Captagon Use in the Levant,
Persian Gulf, and Emerging Markets ���������������������������������� 20
Executive Summary ���������������������������������������������������������������� 4
Syria and the Levant�������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Policy Recommendations �������������������������������������������������������5
Gulf and Mediterranean Destination Markets ������������������ 22
Captagon’s Evolution �������������������������������������������������������������� 6
Market Trends������������������������������������������������������������������������ 22
Captagon’s Tenure as an
Over-the-Counter ‘Smart Drug’ �����������������������������������������������6 Seizure Statistics�������������������������������������������������������������������� 22
Captagon as an Illicit Drug�������������������������������������������������������6 Sophisticated Smuggling Methods ������������������������������������ 25
The Levant: Captagon’s Production Capital�������������������������6
Captagon’s Future������������������������������������������������������������������ 26
An Ever-Shifting Formula���������������������������������������������������������7
An Uncertain Picture�������������������������������������������������������������� 26
Methods of Production�������������������������������������������������������������9
The Syrian Government’s Drug Policy�������������������������������� 26
Captagon’s Health Risks�������������������������������������������������������� 10
Health Care Practices and Drug Treatment ���������������������� 28
Filling A Vacuum�������������������������������������������������������������������� 10 The Durability of the Captagon Economy�������������������������� 28
Why Syria?�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
Policy Recommendations ���������������������������������������������������� 29
Syria’s Black-Market Trends�������������������������������������������������� 10
A Challenging Landscape������������������������������������������������������ 29
Laboratory Locations and Smuggling Routes������������������ 11
Improving Data Collection���������������������������������������������������� 30
Captagon’s Implicated Actors���������������������������������������������� 12
Investment in Mental Health
A Booming Illicit Trade���������������������������������������������������������� 12 and Drug Treatment Services���������������������������������������������� 31
The Nexus of Captagon, International Programs and Institutions���������������������������� 32
Militant Warfare, and Jihad�������������������������������������������������� 13
A Proactive U.S. Policy on Captagon���������������������������������� 33
Syrian State Involvement������������������������������������������������������ 15
The Fourth Division and Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 34
Regime-Affiliated Shabiha Networks���������������������������������� 17
Appendix:
Assistance from Hezbollah
Notable Captagon Seizures, 2015 to 2022 ������������������������ 36
and Other State-Backed Proxies ���������������������������������������� 19
Other Non-State Actors �������������������������������������������������������� 20 Endnotes �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
The content and views expressed in this intelligence briefing are those of the authors and should not be
taken to reflect an official policy or position of the European Union (EU), the European Monitoring Centre
for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) or the New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy.
COVER: Plastic oranges filled with captagon tablets and hidden in fruit shipments were intercepted by Lebanon’s customs
and anti-drug brigade at the Port of Beirut, Lebanon, on Dec. 29, 2021. (ANWAR AMRO / AFP via Getty Images)
2 April 2022
Foreword and practitioners across
disciplines, and media reports
This project began in and investigations, this report
January 2019, when the both synthesizes the available
amphetamine-type stimulant information and presents new
known as captagon had intelligence about the captagon
largely fallen out of the focus trade, identifying some of the
of states and international actors that have come to rely
institutions. While the drug had upon it as a key means for
briefly achieved notoriety for expanding their economic and
its supposed links to violent Captagon pills seized in Beirut political capital. These actors
extremism, little was still in June 2010. have been key in facilitating
(JOSEPH EID / AFP via Getty Images)
known about the captagon the trade’s expansion. The
trade, including its actors, report additionally assesses the
associated with jihadism. The
production, and markets. potential impacts the captagon
authors of this report began
This lack of research and market may have on the future
to investigate the veracity and
understanding was the impetus of Syria, particularly as state and
strengths of these claims, and as
for this project, which aims to non-state actors use the trade
the project developed, it became
explore the nexus between the as a tool of financial and socio-
evident that there is much more
captagon trade and actors within political leverage in Syria’s power
to the captagon trade than what
Syria’s power vacuum. is signaled by the so-called vacuum, raising a series of policy
“narco-terrorist nexus.” Today, recommendations for the region
Following the Islamic State and the U.S. government.
the captagon trade involves
group’s rise in Iraq and Syria,
a diverse set of participants,
there was intense speculation The report asserts that
including state actors, non-state
of a strong captagon-jihadist while captagon’s traditional
groups, and warlords. The trade
association. Particularly also affects a large number destination markets have been in
following the 2015 Paris attacks, of civilians traumatized by the Persian Gulf, recent seizures
when false claims spread that conflict and violence. point to southern Europe and
ISIS perpetrators had consumed North Africa as new transit
captagon prior to committing Working within the limits of points and sites of interest.
the atrocities, terms such as substantial information gaps, More importantly, the report
“narco-terrorism,” “chemical this report traces captagon’s identifies the captagon trade as
courage,” and “Jihadi drug” were evolution from a legitimate a concerning health risk in the
quickly disseminated by the pharmaceutical commodity into region as well as a geopolitical
media and policymakers in an a sprawling illicit economy and risk to the U.S. and its partners’
attempt to describe the drug and the foremost illicit drug trade in regional security interests. The
its users. Reportage, analyses, Syria. Contemporarily, this has trade’s role as a revenue source
and even some peer-reviewed elevated the captagon trade to for state and non-state actors
research about captagon a Mediterranean-Persian Gulf such as the Syrian government,
further fanned sensationalist zone challenge. Drawing from an Hezbollah, and state-affiliated
assumptions about captagon by array of sources in peer-reviewed militias has fueled malign
drawing on sporadic data and academic journals, white activities that have exacerbated
seizure statistics that enabled papers, open-source intelligence, insecurity, encouraged
stereotyped narratives about field research, interviews corruption, and empowered
captagon being exclusively with subject-matter experts authoritarian behaviors.
3 April 2022
Executive Summary
The forecast for the impacts of
the captagon trade is serious;
the expansion of production
and trafficking, coupled with the
Syrian government’s intransigent
treatment of people who use
drugs and lack of public health
provisions, paints a poor picture
of Syria moving forward. This
special report reveals new
insights about captagon’s
production, consumption,
trafficking, and destination
markets that have affected the
Levant, Mediterranean, and Gulf
security landscape:
■ Captagon production patterns
have shifted in Syria from
smaller, fragmented operations
in rebel-held areas to industrial,
containerized operations in Tablets are displayed at a Turkish customs warehouse after 6.2 million
territories held by the regime tablets were seized at the Port of Hatay.
(Burak Milli / Anadolu Agency via Getty Images)
of President Bashar al-Assad.
Smuggling operations are
becoming more sophisticated, logistical support in captagon intended transit areas for other
and new overland and maritime production and trafficking. markets or if they are emerging
routes are being identified, as new consumer markets.
posing a severe challenge to law
■ As affiliates of the Syrian Regions beyond are also
enforcement agencies in the government and other actors potentially at risk for increased
region and internationally. seek to export captagon, they captagon trafficking from Syria
exploit governance deficits in the and neighboring states. This
■ Elements of the Syrian region by collaborating with a requires continued monitoring,
government are key drivers broad range of criminal networks, especially as traffickers
of the captagon trade, with militant groups, mafia syndicates, adopt more sophisticated
ministerial-level complicity in and autocratic governments. methods of smuggling.
production and smuggling,
using the trade as a means for ■ While the Gulf continues to ■ While some of captagon’s
political and economic survival be the main destination market, health effects have been
amid international sanctions. this report shows that North exaggerated in an attempt to
The Syrian government appears Africa and southern Europe link its use solely to militants,
to use local alliance structures have also been targeted by this report regards widespread
with other armed groups such captagon traffickers, although captagon consumption as
as Hezbollah for technical and it remains unclear if these are a potential serious public
4 April 2022
health threat in Syria and
“ converge
beyond due to the lack of
adequate public health and
The U.S. and its partners need to
drug treatment services and on a strategy that seeks to
the ever-changing chemical disrupt the criminal networks involved
composition of the drug.
■ The captagon trade is a rapidly
in the captagon trade. ”
growing illicit economy in the
Middle East and Mediterranean.
While the trade had an estimated report identifies a series of policy of seizures to develop a
value of $3.46 billion in 2020, solutions to mitigate captagon’s database that could link
based on large-scale seizures malign effects, bolster regional individual batches to specific
alone the potential value of the law enforcement cooperation, production sites in Syria
retail trade in 2021 is estimated enhance health care sector ► Forecasting how captagon
at over $5.7 billion. responses, and undercut actors’ stakeholders, particularly state
production capacity: actors such as the Syrian
Policy Recommendations government, are preparing
■ There is an increasing need for long-term development of
The illicit production, for a regional Mediterranean- the trade and how the trade is
trade, and consumption of Gulf forum, law enforcement impacted by port development
captagon has become deeply agencies, and researchers to projects, collaboration with
embedded into Syria’s wartime design a coordinated response organized crime networks,
economy – an indication of to illicit captagon production and and the exploitation or use
weakening institutions and an smuggling that addresses: of private-sector entities
exacerbated power vacuum. ► Containerized shipments to handle the logistical
The decade-long civil war of captagon on maritime arrangements of trafficking
has enabled the profiteering commercial routes in ■ The U.S. and its partners need
of various illicit markets by response to the potential to converge on a strategy that
armed actors including violent expansion of the captagon seeks to disrupt the criminal
and organized crime groups, trade into new areas, such as networks involved in the
a dynamic similar to other Africa and Europe
captagon trade. Simultaneously,
contexts such as Afghanistan, ► Identifying key nodes — licit partners should seek to address,
Brazil, and Colombia. This report channels, informal maritime where possible, the drivers
identifies the captagon trade in and overland routes, and of the trade by approaching
Syria as a multifaceted market, major ports of entry — of it as a human security and
facilitated and administered by captagon trafficking to
health challenge.
a diverse array of actors — local improve law enforcement
warlords, foreign terrorist monitoring for interdiction ■ The U.S. specifically needs to
organizations, paramilitary ► Tracking street-level
assess an internal, interagency
fighters, state-sponsored proxy interdiction of captagon process that can conduct a
organizations, and a range in transit and destination thorough review of the captagon
of Syrian government and countries to monitor trade’s participants and assess
government-affiliated officials the emergence of new how to approach the trade
— perpetuating a trade that will consumer markets and in the context of its existing
outlast Syria’s civil war. This systematic forensic profiling sanctions campaign.
5 April 2022
Captagon’s Evolution international scheduling, cessation Captagon®’s chemical and tableting
of fenethylline production, and process, creating cross-country
Captagon’s Tenure as an depletion of global fenethylline production lines.
Over-the-Counter ‘Smart Drug’ stocks globally by 2009,4 all
substances branded as Captagon® In the late 1980s and early 1990s,
Captagon has a nuanced history, no longer contain any fenethylline. captagon and other synthetic
both as a licit pharmaceutical As such, to differentiate from the drugs grew in popularity. Bulgarian
substance and as an illicit drug. It fenethylline-containing “original” factories shifted export cycles to
first emerged in Germany, produced Captagon® tablets produced sustain illicit deliveries to the Middle
and patented by Degussa Pharma until the 1980s, and drawing East while continuing to supply the
Group in the early 1960s under inspiration from authors such as domestic and Eastern European
the trade name “Captagon®.” Laurent Laniel,5 in this report we market.8 The U.N. Office on Drugs
The drug was prescribed by use “captagon” to denote the drug and Crime (UNODC) reported
primary care physicians and as it is known currently: an ATS that during this period, Bulgarian
psychiatrists for treating a wide with a series of variable cutting chemists and their production
range of conditions, such as agents. Captagon pills vary widely skills were dispersed across
attention-deficit hyperactivity in terms of their composition, Eastern Europe and the Levant,
disorder, abulia, brain injuries, which adds to the complexity of indicative of the rise in ATS-related
depression, and narcolepsy.1 The monitoring the drug’s production, production and trafficking
drug contained fenethylline, an trafficking, and use. offenses in states such as Turkey,
amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS), Czechoslovakia, and Serbia.9
and metabolized into a combination Captagon as an Illicit Drug
of 13.7% theophylline and 24.5% The decline in demand for ATS
amphetamine in an oral dose.2 It Following Captagon®’s international in southeastern Europe started
was legally marketed as a “smart scheduling, counterfeit tablets in the late 1990s, causing large-
drug,” with supposedly lower gained popularity eastward. While scale production of captagon in
side effects and abuse potential the drug’s scheduling halted Bulgarian factories to give way to
than other drugs available on the a majority of pharmaceutical smaller-scale, mobile laboratories
market at the time. production processes, factories in the Middle East.10 The collapse
and laboratories in Serbia, of the Soviet Union and the
Fenethylline was a widely embraced Slovenia, Montenegro, and Balkan governments’ transition to
treatment largely until the 1970s, Bulgaria continued illicit captagon democracy led to a series of law
when reports arose of the drug’s production and trafficked the enforcement crackdowns during
negative side effects and addictive drug to emerging destination the mid-1990s, causing chemists,
qualities and pharmaceutical markets in the Arabian Peninsula laboratory production staffers,
alternatives emerged on the through Turkey and the Levant, and traffickers to reduce their
market. Throughout the 1970s, possibly using up leftover stocks domestic activities and relocate
governments incrementally placed of fenethylline at the outset.6 their operations.
controls on the drug. Fenethylline’s, Bulgaria in particular was a key
and thus Captagon®’s, time on the country producing Captagon® after The Levant: Captagon’s
legal market ended in the 1980s. the state-owned pharmaceutical Production Capital
In 1981, fenethylline was listed company, Pharmachim, received
as a controlled substance, and in a license by the Commission for Following the decline of Bulgarian
1986 it was scheduled under the Permission of Medical Drugs production, Syria and Lebanon
U.N. Convention on Psychotropic in 1981, using Soviet facilities proved to be natural successors
Substances (1971), which was for state-regulated production.7 in the mid-2000s. Throughout the
followed by a rise in counterfeiting State-affiliated pharmaceutical 1990s, Bulgarian pharmacists,
activities in Europe and the companies coordinated to chemists, and black-market
Middle East.3 Since Captagon®’s develop production technology for entrepreneurs and organized crime
6 April 2022
“ Lebanon’s
Additionally, following the Israel-Lebanon war in 2006 and
civil war, factions became desperate for alternative revenue
sources, expanding the space for the illicit drugs trade. ”
groups knowledgeable about susceptible to corruption and captagon use, and as such these
production established a series collusion with criminal networks. studies need to be viewed with
of contacts in the trade’s primary caution. Nevertheless, captagon
consumer market, the Middle East, Syrian state-affiliated actors’ foray has frequently been cited as a key
with close ties in Syria in particular. into the illicit drugs trade did not factor in an emerging abuse crisis
In a report by the Global Initiative begin with captagon. Throughout in the region, with its use coinciding
Against Transnational Organized the 1980s and 1990s, the hashish with modernization reforms,
Crime (GIATOC), experts noted trade in Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley growing youth unemployment,
that Bulgaria and Syria established thrived under the auspices of and, crucially, within a context of
a unique scientific and technical Hezbollah networks, with complicit limited harm reduction and drug
partnership, where Syria pursued involvement from the Lebanese treatment services.17
technical collaboration by sending state and later Syrian armed forces
chemists to study in Bulgaria in during their occupation of Lebanon An Ever-Shifting Formula
return for large Bulgarian exports.11 the early 2000s.14 Additionally,
The relationships between following the Israel-Lebanon One of the most challenging
state-affiliated Bulgarian and war in 2006 and Lebanon’s civil aspects in tracking the patterns
Syrian pharmaceutical companies war, factions became desperate of captagon production,
paved the way for an for alternative revenue sources, smuggling, and use is assessing its
exchange of technical and expanding the space for the precursors and constantly shifting
scientific expertise and the illicit drugs trade. chemical formula.18 While drugs
establishment of clandestine in tablet form often have varying
labs in Syria and along the Both Syria’s and Lebanon’s levels of purity and adulterants
Lebanese-Syrian border.12 penetrable political systems and (such as MDMA pills produced in
fragmented law enforcement Europe or even methamphetamine
Law enforcement and drug agencies presented an opportunity pills produced in the Golden
control organizations such as the for illicit drug producers to exploit Triangle), the contents of captagon
UNODC also noted that production the potential for trafficking routes tablets seemingly have an even
patterns primarily shifted to Middle closer to consumer markets in the higher variability. While most often
Eastern and North African states Middle East and Persian Gulf.15 these pills contain amphetamine,
in the mid-2000s, with drastic Since the early 2000s, captagon’s methamphetamine has also been
decreases in seizures across target consumer market has identified in tablets, in addition to
Europe after 2004 and the first transitioned from southeast Europe various other adulterants described
recorded captagon facility raid to wealthy youth in the Gulf, such below. This variance has caused
in Lebanon in 2007.13 Syria and as in Saudi Arabia, where some confusion in reporting seizures
Lebanon were closer to destination studies have estimated that up and monitoring the use of the
markets in the Arabian Gulf, which to 40 percent of people who drug. This variability is likely
reduced detection risks and use drugs consume captagon.16 influenced by the high volatility
transportation costs for producers However, given the cultural taboo in accessing precursors and
and traffickers. These states also and strict legal penalties of drug producers in Syria making use of
had fragile, developing economies use in the Persian Gulf, there is whatever chemicals they have at
and vulnerable political systems limited data on the prevalence of hand to make the pills. Indeed, by
7 April 2022
the mid-2010s, the UNODC and of reported pseudoephedrine that tablets contained between
other institutions raised alarms requirements is notable, surpassing 16.29% and 41.23% amphetamine,
related to the increase of captagon the United Kingdom, Saudi Arabia, along with significant levels
counterfeited with unknown Jordan, and Canada, and just of additives such as caffeine,
precursors, in combination with an under half that of Switzerland, lidocaine, diphenhydramine, and
array of additional substances and one of the world’s largest 8-chlorotheophylline.28 Some earlier
cutting agents due to low stocks of pharmaceutical and biotech lab analyses, such as studies
precursor chemicals.19 hubs, despite a lack of official and conducted by Greek and Dutch law
explicit reasoning for such large enforcement in 2016 and 2017,
Broadly, there are three forms of pseudoephedrine imports. identified tablets marketed as
illicit precursor supply channels for captagon manufactured with no
ATS: extracting them from legal In the early 2000s, producers amphetamine at all, just consisting
pharmaceutical products (e.g. in the seemingly predominantly sourced of concentrated caffeine,29
case of pseudoephedrine contained precursor substances from and a series of Saudi Arabian
in cold-and-flu pills); the importation Bulgaria and Turkey, as evidenced toxicological analyses found
of foreign manufactured by law enforcement seizures of toxic levels of zinc and nickel.30
precursors; and illicit domestic BMK and phenylacetic acid.25 Since The high doses of amphetamine
manufacturing.20 Acquiring then, the landscape has shifted, and identified in some captagon
or manufacturing precursor changing precursor availability has tablets create risks of dependence,
chemicals is a common challenge had a large effect on the content nerve damage, cardiovascular
for illicit drug producers, requiring of captagon tablets. The few challenges, muscular breakdown,
extensive financial investment, chemical profiling tests that have and neurotoxicity, while many
chemical knowledge, and access been conducted have determined of the additive compounds
to non-scheduled substances and that the drug most often have been associated with
equipment.21 Law enforcement includes amphetamine and other nerve-blocking, ventricular
agencies and international adulterants such as allopurinol, tachycardia and bleeding, affecting
institutions such as the UNODC paracetamol, diphenhydramine, neurotransmission, and other
and INCB have served as obstacles procaine, lactose, ephedrine, harmful side effects.31 Taken
for captagon and other synthetic metronidazole, theophylline, together, the high variability
drug producers searching for chlorphenamine, chloroquine, in the content of captagon
precursors such as phenylacetic acetaminophen, caffeine, quinine, tablets poses a high risk to the
acid, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, metronidazole, trimethoprim, health of the user, and public
alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile, and P-2-P methyl glycidate, and other health systems will likely be
benzyl methyl ketone (BMK).22 substances that could cause challenged to deal with the harmful
further harm to consumers.26 consequences of captagon use.
In 2016, international agencies Some tablets have also been found
flagged increased Syrian state to contain methamphetamine In the past two years, some
imports of precursor chemicals.23 rather than amphetamine, which evidence has emerged of the
This is worrying, considering the can have much more serious production of different captagon
link between state-affiliated actors health consequences, especially pills, potentially targeted at different
and illicit captagon production at higher doses. 27 markets and consumers based
(explored later in the report). In its on their perceived “quality” level.32
annual report, the INCB recorded Recent lab analyses have identified Currently, there are seemingly three
that as of Nov. 1, 2020, Syria an uptick in the production of main types of captagon pills: white
submitted an annual estimate of captagon with higher variability tablets, yellow-brown tablets, and
its legitimate precursor chemical in the purity of amphetamine. An pink tablets. Pills primarily exported
requirements of 2,000 kilograms October 2021 study that surveyed to foreign destination markets
of ephedrine and 50,000 kilograms captagon pills seized in Saudi exhibit a whiter color and are
of pseudoephedrine.24 Syria’s level Arabia’s Jazan region assessed considered better quality, reflected
8 April 2022
A Jan. 1, 2021, raid on a captagon laboratory in Boudai, Lebanon, by a Lebanese intelligence patrol resulted in several
arrests and seizures of tablets and production equipment. (Lebanese Army Command)
in higher prices. Captagon pills pills tend to be of lower quality deep pharmaceutical knowledge.40
produced and distributed inside compared to the white pills.37 There have been several identified
Syria — often sold at cheaper prices captagon production methods,
between 125 Syrian pounds ($0.50) Methods of Production through routes of nitropropene,
and 7,000 Syrian pounds ($2.78) in benzaldehyde, nitroethane, and
markets close to production sites — One of captagon’s most appealing the “Leuckart Synthesis.”41 Law
often are yellowish-brown or pinkish traits to illicit actors is its ability enforcement agencies have
in color,33 though there are some to be clandestinely synthesized
encountered the Leuckart Synthesis
in a variety of environments
reports of white tablets being sold method more frequently than
and conditions, with low-cost
for 15,000-20,000 Syrian pounds others, as it is popular due to its
procedures and materials that can
($5.97-$7.96) near production sites use of the BMK precursor.42
yield high profit margins.38 As there
in Latakia.34 The yellow pills, often
is high variability in the content of
referred to as “Ya Masharni,” “Capti,” Small-scale production can take
captagon pills, the drug’s chemical
and “0.1” on the streets in Levantine place indoors in residences,
composition can be very simple,
countries35 and “Zero One” in Iraqi and the techniques and tools uninfluenced by environmental
markets, are mealy and supposedly required for production are often conditions and out of sight of
decrease appetite and increase cheap and legally accessible.39 The law enforcement.43 While some
productivity and focus. The pink methods of captagon production captagon laboratories have been
pills are often called “strawberry” are similar to those of several other said to emit a unique smell that
and supposedly increase feelings synthetic drugs: often elementary has helped alert authorities, the
of sexual desire and invincibility.36 and non-labor intensive, with production process’ simplicity and
Based on eyewitness accounts, “cooks” not necessarily needing to mobility has helped producers
both yellow and pink captagon be experts in chemistry or possess avoid detection.
9 April 2022
Captagon’s Health Risks region that shed light on the effects played a tacit but important role
of captagon. In an investigation in Syria’s decade-long civil war,
Due to the high variability in the into Syria’s captagon trade by the perpetuating and exacerbating
content of captagon pills, it is pro-opposition outlet The Horan existing power vacuums, rule
difficult to map its health risks. Free League, an interview with a of law and public health crises,
Additionally, most studies on its user highlighted captagon’s ability and the fragmentation of human
health and side effects have been to stave off hunger and generate security. The trade has empowered
on the drug’s original fenethylline short-term productivity: “A quarter both state and non-state actors —
formula.44 However, a broad range of an hour was enough for ‘life’ warlords, paramilitaries, terrorist
of research exists on the most to return to his yellow cheeks organizations, state-sponsored
commonly found psychoactive to start long conversations … proxy networks, and elements of
compounds within captagon forgetting the sound of his stomach the Syrian government — while
as we now know it, mainly ‘gurgling’ with hunger.”46 deepening civilians’ trauma
amphetamine and to a lesser and the region’s ever-fragile
extent methamphetamine, which In another account, a Lebanese security landscape.
have been linked to changes in user described his experience,
brain function, increased risk of saying “You can’t sleep or even The ongoing war has allowed
stroke, increased blood pressure, close your eyes … whatever you captagon production to thrive and
and risk of dependence. The take to stop it … nothing can stop substance use to increase in a
harmful additives sometimes found it.”47 Delusion has been a recorded context lacking appropriate medical
in captagon tablets, such as nickel side-effect of captagon use, facilities and treatment programs
and zinc, have been linked with providing a sense of invincibility for drug use-related disorders.50
oxidative damage, neurological and inability to feel physical pain. In Amid civil disarray, breakdown
and developmental deficits, and a Reuters interview, a drug control of law and order, violence, and
decreased immune, lung, and officer in Homs recalled captagon’s economic deterioration, Syria
liver functions.45 effects on users: ”We would beat has become a major source and
them, and they wouldn’t feel the consumer of the drug.51 Lebanon
Captagon tablets’ high variability in pain. Many of them would laugh has served as an extension of
content is itself a health risk. Users while we were dealing them heavy the Syrian captagon trade, a key
are most likely unaware of the blows.”48 Users have also reported transit point for captagon flows,
contents of different tablets – and a sense of euphoria, as is common with Syrian government-connected
are thus unaware of whether they with ATS, with one saying, “I felt like Hezbollah leaders participating in
are consuming amphetamine or I own the world high … there was no the trade’s expansion. While small-
methamphetamine, for example. By fear anymore after I took captagon,” scale captagon laboratories have
extension, risks such as overdosing and that “with one pill, we could been detected in Lebanon, Syria
are heightened. In Syria, these dance all weekend.”49 stands as the hub for industrial-
health risks are likely exacerbated sized production that has come to
as users among marginalized Filling A Vacuum define the country’s illicit outflows
communities experience in the past two to three years.
converging health crises related to Why Syria?
trauma and mental health disorders Syria’s Black-Market Trends
stemming from the ongoing civil While captagon has been
war, within a context of extremely consumed in Syria for nearly 40 Since 2013, captagon production
limited public health and drug years, its role within the Levant’s and trafficking by Syrian criminal
treatment services. underground markets, amid organizations have increased
unravelling regional political exponentially. In Syria and the
In lieu of consistent peer-reviewed stability, has recently expanded greater Middle East region, the drug
medical findings, there have been and prompted international is marketed under the street name
reports from users in Syria and the concern. The captagon trade has “captagon” or “Abu Hilalain” — a
10 April 2022reference to the “father of the two for distributing captagon by facilities that can accommodate
crescent moons,” with interlaced Syrian producers. This includes industrial-scale production.
‘C’s representing crescents AlphaBay, Agora, Valhalla, and
typically impressed upon captagon Hansa (some of which have now Corruption, state complicity, and
yellow-brown and white tablets. In been dismantled by international fragmented border enforcement
addition to its signature crescent law enforcement agencies) and have enabled producers to acquire
moon imprint, the drug has also illicit online pharmacies such as controlled and non-controlled
been branded with the logo of the Anonymous Pharmacy.60 With chemicals and find smugglers
luxury car manufacturing division the rise of informal, unlicensed to transit captagon shipments
Lexus — a name that has also been pharmacies in Syria and the while diversifying routes toward
commonly used for higher-quality fragmentation of rule of law,61 destination markets.65 Seizure data
captagon pills with higher purity.52 there has been some evidence analysis of captagon and precursor
Occasionally, there have been that captagon can be obtained chemicals has shown that the trade
seizures of captagon contained over the counter, such as in remains aimed toward Persian
in plastic bags branded with a Aleppo and other government-held Gulf destination markets, although
counterclockwise swastika, the provinces.62 However, the majority it has grown more transnational,
majority seemingly originating of the underground captagon with emerging transit sites and
from small-scale laboratories in the economy persists via in-person potential consumer markets in
Lebanese-Syrian border region.53 illicit transactions between buyers, Europe, North Africa, and Southeast
dealers and traffickers, militias, Asia. Additionally, the trade
The drug is usually sold either to armed groups, and state officials. increasingly relies upon maritime
groups purchasing a large amount This makes it difficult to monitor, transit to reach sites in Europe, as
of tablets for retail distribution track, and identify patterns in Turkish intervention in the Syrian
or to consumers as individual the captagon trade. civil war has hampered northern
tablets or in a bag of around 200 overland smuggling.
tablets.54 Depending on production Laboratory Locations
source, location, delivery process, and Smuggling Routes Furthermore, recent seizures have
and quality of the drug, captagon illustrated smugglers’ adaptation
is usually sold for $3 to $7 per Captagon production labs in to recent trade constraints and
pill in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon55 Syria have evolved from smaller, political conflicts. Following the
and can run up to $25 per pill in makeshift, mobile laboratories Saudi Arabian ban on Lebanese
consumer markets such as Saudi to larger, industrial-sized, agricultural products in April 2021
Arabia,56 depending on the quality clandestine production facilities and ban on all Lebanese imports
of tablets.57 However, captagon is in state-controlled areas, in October 2021, there was an
reportedly sold at a cheaper price to commensurate with the shift in uptick in seizures of captagon
particular buyers, averaging around production from non-state to state along the Saudi Arabian-Jordanian
500 Syrian pounds (roughly $1.01) actors. Production is seemingly border at the Al-Haditha crossing.
for young students and soldiers, concentrated near ports and This indicated that smugglers
reportedly used by distributors as porous border crossings, as well as had decreased traffic through
a tactic for recruiting users to their in major populated areas such as Lebanon — particularly as the
forces.58 On the Syrian streets, in and around Damascus, Latakia, Lebanese government directed
users have frequently referred to East Ghouta, Aleppo, Al-Qusayr, more crackdowns on the captagon
the transaction of buying captagon and Homs governorates.63 Syria’s trade to build goodwill with
in Arabic as , or “ya former status as a regional Persian Gulf countries. Moreover,
mas-hrny,”59 meaning “something pharmaceutical hub in the early some evidence has indicated that
keeping someone up at night.” 2000s64 has proven helpful for many of the small-scale, mobile
state-affiliated actors involved captagon laboratories formerly
Recently, darknet markets in captagon production and concentrated in Lebanon’s Bekaa
have also served as a method smuggling, providing existing Valley region have been transferred
11 April 2022over the Syrian border to dodge Captagon’s media outlets seeking to pin
increased interdiction efforts in the trade’s expansion on their
Implicated Actors
Lebanon.66 As smugglers shift to adversaries. Initially, the data
new trafficking routes, seizures A Booming Illicit Trade that existed on the captagon
have indicated increased transit trade’s participants indicated
through alternative overland and The literature on the captagon indirect links with state actors,
underground routes in Jordan and trade’s participants is scarce where governmental officials tax
Iraq, intended to reduce suspicion and evidentiary data has been and facilitate illicit cross-border
and interdiction risks among challenging to obtain and verify shipments rather than participate
Persian Gulf law enforcement as since 2011. There are competing in production and trafficking.67
Saudi Arabian trade restrictions narratives in Syria between However, as the Syrian economy
with Lebanon continue. pro-government and opposition has deteriorated, there has been
12 April 2022increasing evidence of larger-scale, to a singular actor or organization use of the drug as a tool of jihad
direct participation from the Syrian active in production or smuggling to fuel its violent campaigns and
government in not only trafficking but to a plethora of manufacturers, territorial acquisition.78 As the
but also production.68 traffickers, middlemen, suppliers, organization has progressively
and dealers at different stages of lost territory in Syria and Iraq,
The captagon trade has taken the illicit supply chain. its leadership has searched for
a foothold in Syria’s declining sources of organizational funding
economy, serving as an alternative The rise of the captagon trade in black-market trades.79 Captagon
revenue source for both state and is an important case study for became identified within ISIS’
non-state actors. The devastated wartime black market trades, as micro-financial model, with experts
infrastructure, poor employment the rise of domestic production and noting that the trade enabled the
opportunities, and absence of trafficking has empowered local organization to raise funds for
sustainable livelihoods have Syrian organized crime groups, geographic mobility and resources
contributed to captagon’s status criminal actors, and insurgents for future transnational attacks.80
as a lucrative business. Trade of to accumulate wealth and power ISIS continues to be cited as one of
the drug comes with potential in a volatile environment that has the actors operating and shaping
high profits and low risks amid supported plausible deniability.73 Syria’s captagon trade, despite the
a struggling economy and large reduction in the organization’s
reconstruction efforts, estimated in The Nexus of Captagon, reach and resources and the
2019 to cost between $250 billion Militant Warfare, and Jihad curtailment of their territorial
and $400 billion.69 Meanwhile, control, as well as the growing
some estimates have claimed Illicit drug markets can be lucrative participation of other non-state
that captagon’s market value ventures for terrorist organizations and state actors.
transformed from nearly $1.8 billion to accrue political and economic
in 2017 to between $2.9 billion capital, providing employment Following the July 2020 captagon
and $3.46 billion in 2020 — more opportunities, livelihoods, and seizure at the Port of Salerno, the
than the country‘s licit exports economic regeneration to citizens, Guardia di Finanza, a financial
that year.70 Data compiled by the and expanding their local political crime and smuggling investigations
authors measuring the retail value allegiance.74 While there are some unit attached to Italy’s Ministry of
of annual captagon seizures reflect indications of terrorist organization Economy and Finance, claimed
a retail market worth at least $5.7 engagement in local illicit captagon ISIS was behind the millions of
billion in 2021.71 However, this production and smuggling shipped captagon tablets.81 Media
market estimate is extrapolated practices in Syria, verifiable data outlets and officials circulated
from somewhat limited data, on the extent of their involvement this message, despite evidence of
solely calculated from reported remains scarce.75 Institutions such the shipment originating from the
seizures (mostly large seizures, as the UNODC have suggested ISIS, Syrian government and Hezbollah,
thus excluding a large number the Free Syrian Army, and Al Nusra as well as the fact that ISIS most
of street-level seizures that go have had extensive involvement likely does not have the capacity to
unreported) and the average price in facilitating the smuggling of facilitate a drug shipment of this
per tablet in the region, indicating chemical precursors for captagon size given their lack of access to
that the total value of the captagon production.76 Despite the taboo of factories and seaport where the
trade could be much larger. While drugs in Islamic doctrine, some shipment originated from.
estimates of the retail market terrorist organizations have justified
can be useful in developing an captagon consumption under The precise nature of ISIS’s
understanding of the scale of shariah, branding use as a medical relationship to captagon production
the trade, the profit margins of necessity due to its productivity- and trafficking remains uncertain,
captagon producers and traffickers enhancing qualities.77 with differing reports about the role
in Syria remain unknown.72 captagon has played in the group’s
Additionally, the value of the retail ISIS has received the majority of micro-financial model. ISIS’s
market should be attributed not media attention for its reported magazine, Rumiyah, encouraged
13 April 2022Clashes Over Captagon Smuggling and Production
1. Aug. 13, 2020: Violent clashes erupted between
Lebanese Hezbollah and the pro-regime National
Defense Forces (NDF) in Qunaytirah governorate. The
clashes were sparked by a disagreement over drug
dealing in the region.
2. Nov. 27, 2020: Jordanian Armed Forces and
personnel in the Narcotics Control Department killed
"a number" of Syrian smugglers.
3. Feb. 19, 2021: Jordanian Armed Forces killed two
smugglers and arrested several others, seizing an
unspecified amount of captagon.
4. May 19, 2021: In a battle with 11 Syrian smugglers,
Jordanian Armed Forces killed three, injured and
arrested two before seizing 1,307,665 captagon pills.
The six other smugglers fled back into Syria.
5. June 2, 2021: Jordanian Armed Forces seized
377,000 captagon pills after a clash with
Syrian smugglers.
6. Aug. 2, 2021: A Lebanese Army Intelligence
Directorate force raided a captagon production
laboratory in Hor Ta’la in the Bekaa Valley,
resulting in one smuggler being killed and one 10. Jan. 16, 2022: Armed smugglers killed Jordanian
Lebanese soldier wounded. Armed Forces Capt. Mohammed Al Khadeirat and
7. Aug. 7, 2021: Jordanian Armed Forces killed one wounded three other Jordanian border guards during
smuggler and wounded several others on the a confrontation in which Jordanian forces seized
Jordanian-Syrian border. 5 million captagon pills.
8. Nov. 29, 2021: Jordanian Armed Forces killed one 11. Jan. 26, 2022: Jordanian Armed Forces killed
smuggler and wounded another as they attempted to 27 smugglers and wounded several others who
enter Jordan from Suwayda, Syria. were attempting to take advantage of a snowstorm
along the Syrian-Jordanian border to smuggle "large
9. Dec. 25, 2021: Jordanian Armed Forces fought an amounts" of captagon.
estimated 200 Syrian smugglers armed with machine Sources: The Syrian Observer, Shaabjo, Arab News,
guns entering Jordan between Syria’s Suwayda The Jordan Times, Al Arabiya News, North Press Agency Syria,
and Daraa provinces. The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights, The National News
© 2022 New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy
its members to capitalize upon as crude oil extraction and the There has also been concern in
opportunities in Ukrainian and sale of antiquities on the black the international community over
Syrian black markets in May 201782 market.83 While verifiable evidence individual fighters’ use of the
but did not specify illicit narcotic is challenging to obtain, the drug and the role captagon has
trades. On the other hand, a 2016 organization has likely participated played in the execution of terrorist
report by Benjamin Crabtree attacks. Many outlets have often
in some distribution of captagon
and the GIATOC stated that ISIS incorrectly reported that the
has strategically excluded itself to its fighters and facilitated 2015 attack in Paris, territorial
from captagon market activities cross-border smuggling, similar to campaigns in Iraq and Syria, and
in order to keep its ideological other actors in non-government- violence against Syrian and Iraqi
prestige, pursuing sources of controlled areas, rather than serving communities since 2012 were
income in alternative sectors such as a major producer and exporter.84 fueled by captagon’s effects of
14 April 2022“zombielike” detachment.85 In a with the illicit drug trade is complex, manufacturing warehouses.94 A
RAND Corporation review, Colin characterized by both strict paternal cousin of al-Assad, Samer
P. Clark referred to captagon as anti-drug policies and complicity Kamal al-Assad, has also been
“jihad pills” for terrorists’ reliance with pro-Assad criminal networks. linked to several manufacturing
upon the psychoactive effects During the 2006 Syrian occupation operations near the Port of
and dependency on trafficking for of Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley, state Latakia,95 particularly in the village
funding travel and operations.86 forces offered protection to hashish of Al-Basha and in the upper
However, a range of incorrect producers and reaped an estimated Qalamoun mountains under the
assertions regarding the union $500 million,90 and before the supervision of Maher Al-Assad’s
between captagon and terrorism Syrian civil war, the government Fourth Division. There, Assad and
have ignored other demographic fostered patronage networks patronage networks are involved
groups that use captagon for with a large network of pro-Assad in utilizing corporate entities,
a range of reasons, including industry moguls, businessmen development projects along the
state involvement in the trade, and merchants, peddlers, Syrian coast, and close connections
particularly following ISIS’s decline customs officials, smugglers, with local and Lebanese
in the region.87 Investigative and illicit actors.91 drug syndicates to facilitate
journalistic efforts and mapping smuggling operations.96
of seizure and production areas Reports indicate that state-affiliated
have shed light on the key state- and protected businessmen Outside of the Assad family, other
affiliated participants in a growing and government loyalists have stakeholders and businessmen
captagon trade, departing from been able to take leading roles in have seemingly participated
previous assumptions of ISIS captagon manufacturing due to in captagon production and
being exclusively associated with their access to state resources, smuggling processes, such as
the trade. With the organization’s infrastructure, and military Abdellatif Hamid, the owner of a
territorial defeat in Syria and Iraq, protection. Assad family members factory that the paper rolls used
an inevitable void in the Syrian like Wasim Badia al-Assad and in the huge 2020 Port of Salerno
warlord economy has emerged, state-affiliated business magnates seizure were traced back to.97 A
with taxation, cross-border such as Mohammad Shalish New York Times investigation also
smuggling, and transit facilitation and Taher al Kayali have been identified links between forces
services carried out by new actors. affiliated with drug operations in and prominent businessmen
Latakia, shell companies such as sanctioned by the U.S. such as
Syrian State Involvement Neptune Overseas Limited, and Khodr Taher, a merchant with
black market warlords in the Bekaa extensive access and influence over
State-level participation has Valley.92 These connections have Syrian Fourth Division checkpoints,
become a defining attribute of enabled them to situate production and Amer Khiti, a Damascus
the modern-day captagon trade,88 sites close to state-owned ports, livestock magnate and new
which has blossomed into a multi- use commercial transportation member of the Syrian parliament
billion-dollar industry through at methods for smuggling, and experienced in wartime smuggling
least ministry-level knowledge and make use of clientele networks in who has purchased real estate
complicity, using state-owned and local agricultural, pharmaceutical, in government-held areas and
controlled resources, personnel, and transportation industries.93 packaging facilities for captagon
and property to facilitate captagon’s Employees of the Al-Bustan trafficking with state backing.98
production and smuggling.89 charitable foundation (owned and
State-level participation in Syria’s operated by Bashar al-Assad’s In the early stages of the civil
narcotic trade is most likely a cousin, Rami Makhlouf), such war, captagon production was
means to an end: to consolidate as Waseem Omar Al-Masalma, scattered across the country.
power and ensure the survival of have also seemingly participated However, recently it has become
the political elite. The history of the in captagon production and concentrated in government-held
Syrian government’s relationship supply at government-sanctioned areas along Syria’s western coast,
15 April 2022Aleppo, Homs, and Damascus, and and Lebanon. Manufacturing
strongholds in the south where the facilities reportedly are located
government has a monopoly over in Serghaya, Rankos, Zabadani,
security and border crossings.99 Bloudan, Yabrud, Asal al-Ward,
The location of these large-scale al-Jebbeh, Talfita, Bakhaa, al-Tufail,
production facilities alone Madaya, Al-Basha, al-Sabboura,
indicates a degree of Syrian state and other areas in Syria’s Latakia,
involvement, supported by a range Aleppo, Homs, Daraa, and regime-
of further evidence as outlined in controlled points along the M4
this section of the report. international highway.104 As such,
nearly all of the identified major
Syria’s former role as the region’s captagon production facilities are
second-largest pharmaceutical located in Syrian government-
producer, with the majority of controlled territories, with at least
its state-affiliated production 15 estimated large-scale captagon
factories formerly concentrated manufacturing centers — located
in Homs, Aleppo, and Damascus, in hangars, empty large-scale
has allowed producers to use residences, warehouses, and
existing facilities and equipment abandoned factories105 — in
to increase supply.100 However, operation, supported by the Syrian
large- and small-scale production state’s security, intelligence, and
sites have been established in political apparatus and allied,
villas, residential compounds, Iran-aligned proxy forces.106 There
hangars, and other structures in Jordan’s Public Security Directorate is a virtual absence of reported
Latakia, Daara, Suwayda, and other seized 250,000 captagon pills in laboratory raids in these areas,
areas close to key transit sites such Jordan’s Zarqa Governate near the
and the few captagon traffickers
Syrian and Saudi Arabian border
as ports and border crossings.101 that are arrested reportedly bribe
on Dec. 27, 2021. (Jordan Public Security
In the mid-2010s, Levantine law Directorate) government officials for early
enforcement agencies tracked release.107 This raises questions
numerous organized crime groups’ as to whether the government
customs authorities in Jordan,
supply chains to the Homs area, controls the trade by clamping
Turkey, and Lebanon routinely seize
where the majority of former down on producers and traffickers
captagon originating from Syria,
state-affiliated pharmaceutical that are not aligned with the state
there has been a noticeable lack
factories are located.102 The while allowing those aligned with
pre-existing infrastructural system of seizures in Syrian government-
the political and economic elite to
of roadways, electricity, waterways, controlled sites such as airports, produce and traffic captagon as
and industrialized buildings in commercial maritime ports, long as they are paying their dues.
government-held provinces has and production hubs such as
facilitated the trafficking of the drug Daraa and Qunaytirah. The volume of recently intercepted
by state-affiliated actors.103 captagon consignments also
Major laboratories and supporting provides an indirect indication of
The absence of seizures in warehouses are concentrated state involvement. Before 2019,
government-held areas where close to key smuggling captagon seizures were often
industrial captagon production is chokepoints to accommodate small, ranging in the hundreds of
located provides further indication cheap transportation, near state- thousands of tablets, intercepted
that the state is allowing the controlled maritime ports along the by land, at airport customs, from
production and trafficking of large country’s Mediterranean coast as local drug dealers, and occasionally
volumes of captagon without well as crossings in the country’s containerized shipments. However,
interference. While cross-border south near its border with Jordan seizure data since mid-2019
16 April 2022collected by this report’s authors capitalizing upon users’ anxieties, Maher, and commanded by Maj.
has revealed new trafficking despair, frustration, and lack of Gen. Ghassan Bilal.118
patterns, with industrial-sized employment and educational
captagon shipments dispatched opportunities to increase captagon Some evidence points to elements
from state-controlled ports in Syria. dependency.114 Captagon of the Syrian Army, Fourth Division,
Of note, under the country’s 2006 consumption has been reported and an intelligence apparatus
Customs Law’s provision 38, the among Syrian Army personnel cooperating with loyal elements
Syrian Customs Administration is operating in Afrin and forces of Syria’s grain, livestock, poultry,
mandated to conduct inspections monitoring the Euphrates-Shield and pharmaceutical industries
on all outgoing goods.108 Over the zone, amidst poor supply lines, over protection, smuggling, and
course of 2019, 2020, and 2021, wage insecurity, and poor morale.115 distribution of captagon in and
investigative reports and law outside of Syria.119 These elements
enforcement systems identified Additionally, there is some evidence appear to be using military or
that many of the largest captagon that the Syrian armed forces have commercial vehicles to transport
interceptions have originated from used captagon, priced specially for captagon from distribution
sites that only can be accessed prime candidates, as a recruiting centers at militia headquarters
by Syrian Army personnel and tool.116 One Horan Free League and checkpoints under the
high-level government officials, interview with a Fourth Division guise of security missions or
members of the Assad family’s fighter revealed that captagon business activities.120
inner circle, and, as of recently, provision at a cheaper price was
the IRGC.109 This includes the July There is also some evidence
a prominent driver for military
2020 Port of Salerno seizure of 84 that Fourth Division officials
recruitment: “The main reason for
million pills,110 the August 2020 Port utilize a series of state-owned
my joining was to get narcotic pills,
of Constanta seizure of 4 million official and unofficial ports in
so I went on my motorbike through
pills,111 and the 2021 seizure of the Latakia and Tartus region to
the checkpoints in the area to the
14.4 million pills at Saudi Arabia’s dispatch captagon shipments,
town of Kharab ... I buy a quantity
Jeddah Port,112 which originated with bystanders reporting Fourth
of captagon for me and my friends
from the Port of Latakia, a Syrian Division personnel using speed
at a special price for the military.”117
state-owned port managed by boats to offload shipments onto
the Public Company of the Port larger vessels moored further
The Fourth Division and out in the Mediterranean Sea.121
of Latakia, and from the Port of
Tartus. While publicly available data
Regime-Affiliated Shabiha Government-related militia
about Syrian ports’ exports and Networks commanders have supposedly
imports have been inaccessible even been found to openly sell
since the start of the war in 2011, The Syrian government’s armed captagon at their residences and
the uptick in seized captagon forces have also seemingly distribute to villages along the
dispatched from Latakia and served as key agents in Damascus-Daraa highway as well
intercepted around Syria’s borders captagon smuggling and as facilitate shipments along the
— coupled with a lack of seizures distribution networks, especially Fourth Division-controlled towns of
within Syria113 — suggests an uptick in the government-controlled Dimas and Daraa, popular transit
in large-scale production. governorates of Daraa and destinations for captagon trafficked
Qunaytirah, a captagon from the Masnaa point along
There also is increasing evidence consumption and manufacturing the Lebanese-Syrian border.122
to suggest that certain officials hub. Particularly embedded within Further, Fourth Division personnel
and security organizations aligned the trade is Syria’s Fourth Division, have allegedly been used to
with the Syrian government an elite formation of the Syrian guard captagon production sites
have leveraged the country’s war Army made up of four brigades and themselves, such as the Fourth
conditions and civilians’ trauma predominantly Alawite, headed by Division’s 42nd Brigade, which have
to increase demand for captagon, Bashar al-Assad’s younger brother, served as guards for a captagon
17 April 2022You can also read
