SECURITY, PERCEIVED SAFETY, AND EVENT ATTENDEE ENJOYMENT AT THE 2003 RUGBY WORLD CUP
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Tourism Review Intemational, Vol. 10, pp. 257-267 1544-2721/06 $60.00 + .00
Printed in the USA. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2006. Cognizant C?~. Corp.
www.Cognlzantcornmumcation.com
SECURITY, PERCEIVED SAFETY, AND EVENT
ATTENDEE ENJOYMENT AT THE 2003 RUGBY WORLD CUP
TRACY TAYLOR* and KRISTINE TOOHEyt
*School of Business, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia
tDepartmem of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Management, Griffith University QLD, Australia
Abstract: International sport event organizers around the world have placed considerations of terror-
ism high on their planning and risk managementagendas since September II, ZOO I. Increased public
awareness about the threat of terrorism and associated safety concerns have led to increased security,
especially for large multicountry international events. To date there has been limited empirical re-
search on the relationship between sport event attendanceand the impact of terrorism, with the excep-
tion of the body of work on the 1972Olympic Games.In this article the authors outline the extensive
antiterrorism security measures taken at the ZOO3 Rugby World Cup held in Australia. To determine
the impact ofthese measures, event attendeeswere surveyed to determine the extent to which terror-
ism influenced event attendees' motivations,perceptionsof safety, and level of enjoyment. The results
indicate that security measures were perceivedas sufficientand attendees were generally not deterred
by the threat ofterrorism. The heightened security enhanced the event experience for some attendees,
with only a small minority reporting a negative impact on satisfaction. Suggestions for further re-
search and practice are discussed.
Key words: Sport event; Rugby World Cup; Mega-event;Terrorism; Security; Australia
Introduction of limited empirical investigation. To specifically
explore the relationship between sport event atten-
f~'The impacts of mega-events and hallmark events dance, terrorism, and spectators' enjoyment, a
r~typically measured on a multitude of indices in- scoping study was undertaken of the International
~t~ing economic, tourism, commercial, physical, Rugby Board (IRB) Rugby World Cup (RWC) 2003,
.; :ocultural, psychological, and political impacts held in Australia. As major sport events have been
er & Raybould, 1995). The influence of ex- touted as potential targets for terrorist activity
c.threats, such as terrorism on perceptions of (Toohey, Taylor, & Lee, 2(03) we wanted to explore
ty for mega-sport event spectators, is an area how event organizers dealt with the increased secu-
- ~spondence to Dr. Tracy Taylor, Associate Professor and Head, Graduate School of Business, University of Technol?-gy, _
Box 123 Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia. Tel: +61-2-9514-3664; Fax: +61-2-9514-3557; E-mail: tracy.taylor@uts.edu.au
257258 TAYLOR AND TOOHEY
rity requirements and the reactions of the attendees of ~sk control, as whe~ an ~t of to~st-related~
to the security provided. ronsm occurs the media will report It, compel.
Since the late 196Os, technological advances to the the event organizers to enact crisis management prO.~
media, especially satellite transmissions, have pro- cedures (Cavleck, 2002; Tarlow, 2002). Moreovet~
vided terrorists and other protestors with a global real- Tarlow (2002) noted that perceptions about an eveJj
time audience to publicize their message. Mega-sport- crisis can be almost as detrimental as the crisis it~
ing events, such as the Olympic Games and the FIFA self, commenting that, "the farther away one is from;
World Cup, have become much more likely to be a crisis location, the worse the crisis will appear to·
considered as terrorist targets due to this worldwide be and the longer the crisis will remain in the col-
audience (Toohey et al., 2(03). Tarlow (2002) cata- lective travel subconscious" (p. 2). Thus, diligence
logued a range of potential danger areas in the inter- and safety concerns have led to event organizers
face between mega-sporting events and terrorism, in- commissioning increased security planning precau-
cluding: spectator numbers and flows, which make it tions, resulting in escalating costs for events (Pantera
difficult to physically identify terrorists; the proxim- et al., 2(03).
ity of events to transportation hubs, allowing a quick The immediate and subsequent response, of sport
escape route; and the extensive use of event-associ- event organizers after 9/11 was to increase security
ated hospitality sectors (e.g., hotels and restaurants) measures to prevent terrorism activity and allay
that also have the potential to be affected, spreading safety concerns of players and spectators. The level
the reach and impact of an incident. The long-term of security measures was determined by government,
economic effect of terrorism on sport events can be sporting bodies, event organizers, and stadia, in re-
profound (Solberg & Preuss, 2(05). However, with sponse to both security concerns and insurance re-
the exception of the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, quirements. However, as security increased so did
studies into the interrelationships that exist between queues to get into sport grounds; bag and body
sport events and terrorism are rare, despite the fact searches were undertaken, limitations were placed
that sport has not been immune from terrorist activi- on items that spectators could take into stadiums,
ties (Wedermeyer, 1999). and spectator movements were restricted. By insti-
As mega-sport events are typically aligned with gating more extensive security measures many sport
tourism generation, the tourism-terrorism dimension event organizers were conscious of trying to attain
has particular relevance. Somnez (Coles, 2(03) pos- an appropriate balance without negatively impact-
ited that the major themes that unite terrorism to tour- ing on the spectator experience. As Frosdick (1997)
ism are "the impacts of terrorism and political insta- noted, the management and operations of sport sta-
bility on tourism; using tourism as a political tool to dia should provide patrons with "pleasurable expe-
advance the terrorists' agenda; the effects of politi- riences in an enjoyable and safe way" (p. 4).
cal and terrorist violence on destination imagery; To ascertain how successful mega-sport events
crisis management and recovery marketing efforts" have been at achieving the optimal balance between
(p. 176) Furthermore, Richter and Waugh (1986) security and attendee satisfaction, the situation of
noted that tourists from regimes that are considered the 2003 RWC in Australia was investigated. Scoping
to be hostile may be targeted by terrorists because provides the sport event management community
of their symbolic value. According to Guzman with case study data to review, which can then be
(Ryan, 1993), left wing terrorists have validated at- modified, accepted, or rejected for application to
. tacks on tourists because tourism is symbolic of capi- other situations. Responses and activities of the event
talism; tourists generally are citizens of developed planners and the impact of security measures on
countries; and state-sponsored tourism is symbolic event attendees were interrogated. Data gathered
of the government that supports it. encompassed government security reports, docu-
Since September 11, 2001 (9/11), the threat of mentation from the official event organizer, news-
terrorism has become an even greater planning pri- paper articles, and a survey of event attendees.
ority for hotels, airports, sport events, and other The study follows on from similar work that was
places where sport tourists congregate (Goodrich, completed at the 2002 FIFA World Cup (Toohey et
2(02). Additional preparation is an essential element al., 2(03). This study offers an approach for eventSECURITY, SAFETY, AND ATTENDEEE ENJOYMENT 259
managers to use in assessing their current and fu- monitored by both security personnel and electronic
ture vulnerability to disruption by terrorist threats. surveillance (Carey, 2004; Toohey et aI., 2003;
The findings also provide a basis for a full-scale study Whisenant, 2(03).
or planning process that major sport event organiz- The changes to security at major sport events af-
ers could use to address current and potential future ter 9/11 were clearly evident at the 2002 Salt Lake
security vulnerability. City Winter Olympic Games. Salt Lake City was the
largest city, with approximately 1.5 million people,
Terrorism and Mega-Sport Events to host a Winter Olympic Games and the event was
the largest Winter Olympic Games to date, with
It has been suggested that sport event tourists are 3,500 Olympic athletes, 70 sporting events, and 10
especially likely to avoid a destination because of Venues (United States General Accounting Office,
terrorism concerns (Solberg & Preuss, 2(05). This 2001). Soon after the 9/11 tragedy there was a re-
is in part as a function of the nature of mega-sports evaluation of the event's security procedures (Diaz,
events; they are often held in stadia with enormous 2001). A press statement released by the White
seating capacity; a mass of spectators are located in House outlined the new approach to Games secu-
a concentrated area, and this could be deemed as a rity as "highly visible equals highly secure" (United
suitable terrorists' target due to the high level of vis- States Office of the Press Secretary, 2(02). As part
ibility and vulnerability of the event and its attend- of the associated strategy, airport security was in-
ees (Whisenant, 2(03). Terrorism has a much greater creased and airspace restricted. The Organizing
psychologically negative effect on potential tourists Committee acquired 15,000 antianthrax tablets and
than many other forms of disasters, including natu- the Utah State government commissioned the de-
ral catastrophes (Cavlek, 2002). As Pizam and sign and implementation of health monitoring sys-
Mansfeld (1996) note, attendance at sport events, as tems to detect and manage possible incidents of
a form ofleisure tourism, is a discretionary activity. bioterrorism. Biometric scanners were used to iden-
Furthermore, the tourism industry is extremely vul- tify accredited officials and athletes, and vehicles
nerable to crises (Santana, 2(03). Given the discre- were prohibited within 300 feet of venues and other
tionary choice, it is plausible that many potential selected buildings. In total, there were 60 different
event goers may choose not to attend if there is a federal, state, and local agencies, and over 15,000
threat to their safety. Most event visitors, with the people, including 10,000 national guardsmen, in-
exception of allocentric adventurers, will expect a volved in Games-related security operations
secure environment (Tarlow, 2(02). (Gesterland et al., 2003; Snider, 2002; Tsui et aI.,
Post-9fll, this has meant that the perceived risk 2003). It is estimated that the 9111 attacks resulted
of terrorism has not only kept spectators away from in an additional US$70 million spending on Games'
sporting events, it has also altered the experience of security, bringing the total security budget to around
spectators who opt to attend (Cashman, 2004; US$5OO million (Snider, 2(02). This amount was
Toohey & Taylor, 2(05). While an array of reasons more than double that of the 1996 Atlanta Summer
such as high ticket and accommodation prices and Olympics (Janofsky, cited in Wicks, 2(02).
scheduling problems were put forward to explain Cronin (2003) contends that terrorism attacks such
the disappointing attendance figures in the initial as 9/11 are a reaction to globalization, by those with-
days of competition at the Athens Olympic Games, out power, and are also facilitated by globalization's
the most commonly advanced theory related to safety trappings (e.g., by the Internet, mobile phone tech-
fears associated with terrorism (Cashman, 2004). In nology, and global financing). However, she also
Athens, a side effect of the intensified security mea- notes that globalization has also led to increased ef-
sures was increased spectator queuing time, routine ficiencies in international responses and terrorism
examinations with metal detectors, and frequent pat- countermeasures through processes such as increas-
down searches. In this and other cases, sport event ing international cooperation in matters of law en-
organizers have introduced an ever-growing array forcement, intelligence sharing, and tighter finan-
of restrictions on items that spectators can take into cial controls. The security planning for the 2003
Stadiums. Once inside, fans are now more closely RWC, an international event contested by countries260 TAYLOR AND TOOHEY
from across the globe, held in Australia, was directly mated that 65,000 of these spectators were from[~ ~.~~);:l
affected by the events of 9/11. Whether or not in- overseas and had visited Australia primarily becauset~
creased efficiencies or a better spectator experience of the RWC (Australian Department of Industry.c1
resulted from the extensive security measures is a Tourism and Resources, 2004). This assessment was .'
key question in this study. based on figures sourced from the ARU and
QANTAS (the official RWC airline carrier), the
Background and History of the RWC Australian Bureau of Tourism Research, and infor-
mation collected during the event. Early estimates
From its inception in 1987 the RWC has grown to
had predicted up to 75,000 international visitors
be the world's third largest sporting event in terms
would attend, mostly from New Zealand, the UK,
of spectators and television audience (Australian
and Europe. These calculations were revised down
Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources,
to 40,000 in mid-2003, because of lower than ex-
2004). It was the largest sporting event held in the
pected ticket package sales from overseas visitors
nation since the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.
and a number of non-event-related international
The tournament follows a 4-year cycle, as do the
travel issues, including an outbreak of the SARS
other two most significant mega-sport events: the
virus inAsia and the war in Iraq (Australian Depart-
Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup. The RWC
ment of Industry, Tourism and Resources, 2004). An
is held the year after each FIFA World Cup and pre-
estimated breakdown of the countries of origin, type
ceding each Summer Olympic Games. The 2003
of international visitors, and their expenditure is pre-
RWC, staged from October 10 to November 22, was
sented in Table 1.
hosted by the Australian Rugby Union (ARU), in
conjunction with the sport's governing body, the
Security and the RWC
International Rugby Board (IRB). In terms of the
tournament's governance, the ARU had responsibil- The threat of terrorism was considered to be a
ity for the event's organization and staging, while risk by the event organizers and the Australian gov-
the IRB controlled the commercial aspects, such as ernment during the RWC. The administration rec-
broadcasting rights, sponsorship, and licensing. The ognition of the possible danger was essential, as only
economic impact was estimated to be close to A$l governments and the international community are
billion (Australian Department of Industry, Tourism successful in preventing terrorism (Pizam, 1999).
and Resources, 2004; Australian Rugby Union, The tournament was held only 2 years after 9/11, in
2004). which 15 Australian nationals died, and 1 year after
There were 1,800,000 spectators who watched 88 Australians were killed and 100 injured by Is-
RWC matches, resulting in ticket sales of almost lamic terrorist bombings in Bali. The Australian
A$200 million. The Australian government esti- Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003)
Table I
Estimated International Visitors to RWC 2003 by Region and Economic Impact
Rugby Estimated Total
Region Competing Countries Supporters Media Corporate Total Trip Spend ($A M)
Europe England. France. Georgia Ireland. 28.200 1.094 2.500 31.794 256.1
Italy. Romania, Scotland, Wales
New Zealand! New Zealand. Japan. Fiji. Hong Kong.' 18.600 813 none reported 19,413 59.2
Asia Pacific Samoa. Singapore.' Tonga
Africa South Africa. Namibia 10,200 438 none reported 10,638 64.5
Americas Argentina. Canada. US. Uruguay 3,000 155 none reported 3.155 20.6
Total 60,000 2.500 2.500 65.000 400.4
Adapted from Australian Department of Industry. Tourism and Resources (2004. pp. 2-11. 3-12).
'Hong Kong and Singapore. although not competing countries, were included in estimates of visitor numbers. as large numbers of expatriates
from these countries traveled home to see the RWC.SECURITY, SAFETY, AND ATIENDEEE ENJOYMENT 261
viewed these attacks as defining events, in terms of A World Cup security working group, headed by
both the nation's foreign and domestic policies not- the Australian Attorney-General Department's Pro-
ing that "they have changed Australia's security en- tective Security Coordination Centre (PSCC), coor-
vironment in significant ways. They starkly demon- dinated the event's security planning. Also involved
strated that threats to Australia's security can be were the Australian Security and Intelligence
global as well as regional." The Bali attacks in par- Organisation (ASIO), the Australian Defence Force
ticular signaled that there was a prospect of terror- (ADF), and state and federal police (Metcalfe, 2004).
ism occurring in Australia itself. According to the According to Metcalfe (2004) the coordinated plan-
Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and ning took place at three levels:
Trade's (2003) White Paper, "Advancing the Na-
tional Interest," "Australia is committed to the inter- 1. The Commonwealth Security Working Group,
national campaign to eliminate the global threat of chaired by the PSCC, to ensure that Australian
terrorism because terrorism threatens Australians at government preparations were coordinated and
home and overseas. Terrorist groups such as al- consistent with State/Territory preparations;
Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah attack our values" (p. 2. Policing and Security Working Group, compris-
I). ing relevant Commonwealth agencies (PSCC,
The Australian obligation to combating terrorism the Australian Federal Police, the Australian
meant that Australian troops joined the US-led in- Defense Force, the Department of Industry,
vasion of Iraq. This move, itself divisive within the Tourism and Resources), Qantas, Sydney Air-
country, further influenced perceptions that the US ports Corporation Ltd, the Australian Rugby
and its allies, including Australia, were at even Union, and other host State police; and
greater risk of terrorist attacks by Islamic extrem- 3. Working groups for local planning purposes.
ists. As a result, the Australian, English, and US
teams received added security during the RWC (Aus- The ARU 2003 Annual Report (2004) noted that
tralian Broadcasting Commission, 2003). "venue security was appropriate for an international
Despite these concerns the RWC was only given event ... even the large and boisterous crowds, who
an overall rating as a "low-risk" potential target for enjoyed imbibing, were well behaved, before, dur-
terrorists by some intelligence experts (Australian ing and after the matches. This was commented on
Broadcasting Commission, 2003). For example, ei- by all police forces, which allowed them to have a
ther knowledgeably or naively, analyst Clive Will- good time" (p. 54).
iams said the tournament would be largely "off-ra- Managing sports stadia during events to ensure
dar for Islamic extremists, because few Muslim that they are safe and spectators can enjoy them-
countries play rugby "It's not the sort of thing selves is a complex problem (Frosdick, 1997). Since
that would attract them It's not something they 9/11 this balance has become even more problem-
would have looked at as a potential target" (Austra- atic. The RWC provided an example of sport event
lian Broadcasting Commission, 2003). Notwith- organizers investing substantially more than origi-
standing such assessments, the organizers treated the nally planned in security measures due to the in-
event as a "medium risk," arguing that it would be creased threat of terrorism. At the same time they
easier to scale down security measures rather than also had to ensure that the people traveling to watch
scale them up in an emergency (Australian Broad- and participate were not overwhelmed by the height-
casting Commission, 2003). Security planning re- ened security to the extent that it detracted from their
flected this approach. As the games were played experience. We assess here how successful the or-
across Australia, the security planning required co- ganizers were in achieving their goal, and how event
ordination between relevant local, state, and federal attendees perceived the threat of terrorism and the
agencies. The model for RWC security, first devel- relationships of these perceptions and the security
.oped for the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, had also measures taken.
been adapted to suit other major international events The study aimed to document four aspects of ter-
,hosted by Australia, such as the Commonwealth rorism and security at the RWC: (i) the measures
~!leads of Government Meeting. taken to ensure appropriate levels of terrorism-re-262 TAYLOR AND TOOHEY
lated security; (ii) spectators' perceptions of safety items on rugby involvement, taken from a study on
during the World Cup; (iii) the impact of the threat rugby union fans by Ritchie, Mosedale, and King
of terrorism on attendees' intentions to attend the (2002), were added, along with key demographic."
event; and (iv) if risk management measures taken questions. We also included three open-ended ques-
by the event organizers impacted on spectators' level tions providing respondents the opportunity to write
of enjoyment. additional comments about security issues or safety-
related suggestions for future events. The questions
Method were "What were the principal reasons why you
decided to come [to the RWC]?"; "Do you have any
A sample of 511 World Cup attendees from the
suggestions or comments about security measures
three New South Wales cities hosting matches
that might help the organizers of future large sport-
(Sydney, Gosford, and Wollongong) were surveyed
ing events?" and "Do you have any suggestions or
to determine: (a) the extent to which terrorism af-
comments about the impact ofterrorist activities on
fected the attendees' motivations to attend the event;
sport?" The sample represented respondents from
(b) how safe those attending matches felt during the
19 countries. The majority of respondents resided
World Cup; and (c) how risk management measures
in metropolitan Sydney. Table 2 presents data on
taken by the event organizers impacted on attend-
respondents by region of residence.
ees' level of enjoyment. At the Wollongong and
Gosford games, attendees were randomly surveyed
Results
just outside the venues before the game started. In
Sydney, the survey was conducted on game days at The 511 respondents reported attending two
the entrance to the Central Train Station and at the games on average, were mainly male (73.4%), had
Darling Harbour live site. The train station was se- a mean age of 32.2 years, were most likely to attend
lected because the majority of attendees traveled by with a group of friends, and stayed an average of
public transport to the matches at Olympic Stadium. 9.2 nights in Sydney on RWC-related travel. Ap-
The live site was relevant as the ARU and State and proximately 52% were active sport participants,
Territory governments organized an official program 39.5% were members of a sport club, 42.5% were
of entertainment, visual displays, and "live sites" regular spectators at rugby matches, 12.3% had at-
where rugby fans could watch key matches. While tended a previous Rugby World Cup event, and 6.7%
not the most ideal locations, these sites were chosen were season ticket holders for rugby. A further pro-
due to International Rugby Board venue control pro- file of respondents in provided in Table 3.
tocols. Respondents were asked to rate the importance
At fixed points at each location between two and of a range of items on their decision to come to the
five interviewers intercepted passing pedestrians, RWC using the 5-point Likert scale. The factors that
using the next available person technique, The po- influenced the study participants to attend the RWC
tential respondent was informed of the survey's aim
and invited to participate in the research. Upon ap-
proval to proceed, the respondents were initially
Table 2
screened by use of two questions that determined if
Respondents' Region of Residence
they had attended, or were about to attend, any RWC
games. If they answered yes to either of these two Location No. of Respondents (N)
questions then the interviewer continued with the
Sydney Metropolitan 295
questionnaire. Europe 38
The survey instrument incorporated items used Other Australia 138
New Zealand 14
to measure the perceptions of security for a 2002
Asia II
FIFA World Cup study of spectators (Toohey et aI., North America 10
2(03). These security items were measured on a 5- South Africa 3
point Likert-type scale using a set of 10 items ask- Argentina 2
Total 511
ing about their perceptions of the event. In addition,SECURITY, SAFETY, AND ATTENDEEE ENJOYMENT 263
Table 3 Factors Influencing Perceptions of Safety
Profile of Respondents
No. of Proportion of Place of residence emerged as a significant
Characteristic Respondents (N) Respondents (%) differentiator on perceptions of safety among event
attendees. Sydney residents were less inclined to
Male 375 73.4
Female 136 26.6
indicate that the security measures taken in relation
Under 24 years old 129 25.3 to the RWC enhanced their perception of safety,
25-44 years 298 58.3 compared with non-Sydney residents. Table 4 pre-
45 years- 84 16.4
Avid rugby fan 155 30.4 sents results of the residential dimension.
Frequent spectator 127 24.8 This could mean that local residents were slightly
Casual spectator 203 39.7 more sensitive about safety issues. This may be re-
Not a rugby fan 26 5.1
lated to the media broadcasts about the level of se-
curity employed for the event coupled with head-
lines that the security measures were the most costly
were first and foremost that it was a once in a life- since the Sydney Olympics in 2000. The local resi-
time opportunity (mean = 4.3), an opportunity to dents found the security at the stadiums more obvi-
=
cheer and support a team (mean 4.2), and to have ous than did nonlocals; however, they did not feel
a social experience (mean = 4.2). This was followed as safe as nonlocals. It is quite possible that the ob-
by being a big fan ofRWC (mean = 3.9), and avail- viousness of the security, which was more rigorous
ability of tickets, affordable, and "Sydney is safe" than they usually experienced at the same venues,
=
(all with mean 3.5). Of least importance was it might have heightened their anticipation that a se-
being part of a holiday (mean = 2.9) and for busi- curity problem was likely to happen, or may have
ness networking (mean = 1.7). created higher expectations with regard to security.
Notably, only II ofthe 511 respondents indicated A complementary explanation could be that visitors,
that they had considered not attending the game due already a self-selecting sample due to their decision
to security reasons. A slightly higher number (n = 20) to attend, upon spending the money, and effort trav-
indicated that family or friends were concerned about eling to the event, were less concerned about the
their decision to attend the World Cup because of obviousness of security because they were mentally
possible terrorist attacks. Feelings of safety during captured by the media hype around the event and
the RWC were high with 76.6% of respondents say- were engrossed in their RWC experience.
ing they felt either "very safe" or "safe." Results also The size of the group attending the event with
indicated that the security measures slightly en- the respondent, or who they traveled with (i.e., solo,
hanced some attendees' level of enjoyment of the as a couple, organized tour, or with friends), had
game (23.8%), detracted from the event for a sample no relationship to feelings of safety at the RWC
proportion (1.9%), with the majority (74.3%) stat- game or level of enjoyment of the game. The pur-
ing that they were "neutral" about the impact of se- pose of visit (i.e., to visit friends and relatives, for
curity on their enjoyment of the RWC. business, for the RWC experience) likewise did not
Table 4
Perceptions of Security by Place of Residence
Feeling of Safety Effect of Security on Enjoyment
Very Safe or Neither Safe
Place of Residence Safe (%) nor Unsafe (%) Unsafe (%) Enhanced (%) No Impact (%) Detracted (%)
Sydney (n = 295) 68.5 30.2 1.2 15.4 81.4 3.2
Other Australia (n = 138 81.0 15.8 3.2 26.8 71.8 1.4
Overseas (n = 78) 80.4 18.4 1.2 29.2 69.6 1.2
Total (N=511) 76.6 21.5 1.9 23.8 74.3 1.9264 TAYLOR AND TOOHEY
produce any significant relationship to perception sport is above politics." There were indications from
of safety. numerous attendees that they felt not coming to the
Questions were asked about the obviousness of RWC would be tantamount to giving in to terrorism.
security measures in key locations, such as the air- Furthermore, there was a strong sense of defiance
port, stadium, accommodation, transport, defense among the respondents with many verbally comment-
forces, and police. Respondents indicated that the ing that their choice to attend was not going to be
number of these locations in which security was comprised by potential terrorist activity. One respon-
obvious was insignificant in enhancing their enjoy- dent even suggested that there was a positive to the
ment during the game itself. Moreover, there was increased security and that was that there were "more
no relationship between "stadium security" and jobs are created due to increased security."
"higher level of enjoyment of the games."
Although the results indicate that if a spectator Discussion
has a perception of feeling safe then they will also
report enhanced enjoyment of the game, feeling of Recent waves of insecurity and destabilizing de-
safety on its own was not a major factor in the velopments have posed serious challenges in mega-
person's enjoyment of the game. Rather, the func- sport event management. In the context of the "War
tion of the visit was the significant influencing fac- on Terrorism" issues of security have come to the
tor on enjoyment. Spectators who attended the event forefront in a range of areas, including the threat of
for multiple reasons (e.g., once in a lifetime oppor- a terrorist act occurring during a mega-sport event.
tunity, cheering for your team, or socializing) re- This changed environmental context requires new
ported the highest levels of enjoyment, regardless kinds of understanding about sport event attendee
of their perceptions of safety or security. perceptions, fears, and expectations. Other research
Respondents were asked the following open- has noted that the key to effective crisis manage-
ended question: Do you have any suggestions or ment is in developing continuous learning processes
comments about security measures that might help designed to equip managers with the capability to
the organizers of future large sporting events? Many deal with sudden and unexpected problems or shifts
respondents replied that they thought the security in public perceptions thereof (Robert & Lajtha,
for this particular event was appropriate and should 2002). By better understanding the perceptions of
not be more overt than it was. However, other re- spectators about safety requirements and security
spondents felt that the bag searches were not done needs organizers can work to ensure that appropri-
thoroughly enough and that the security in general ate actions are taken to satisfy these consumers. This
was too relaxed. The top five suggestions for "best is important for event tourism as terrorism is one of
practice" were: the most significant threats to tourism (Israeli &
Reichel, 2003).
1. make security highly visible; This study outlined the extensive security and
2. provide clear signage (and ensure signs are in safety measures taken by event organizers at a re-
other languages); cent mega-sport event, the 2003 Rugby World Cup
3. communicate security measures taken to the (RWC). The comprehensive security provided for
public; the event was deemed necessary because ofterrorist
4. ensure that safety protocols are taken seriously activities closely preceding the event and perceived
and not just there "for show"; threat to Australia of retaliation for its subsequent
5. provide enough event staff to enable smooth military position. Data were collected on sport event
entry and exit at the stadium. attendees' perceptions of threats of terrorism, event
security, and the nexus of these in relation to levels
Respondents were also asked: Do you have any of enjoyment at the event. The attendees noted that
comments to make about the impact of terrorist ac- the main reasons they came to the event was be-
tivities on sport? The primary theme of these replies cause it was a once in a lifetime opportunity, it pro-
was that sport should not be affected by political ter- vided an opportunity to cheer and support a team,
rorists, with comments such as "don't let them win- and for the social experience.SECURITY, SAFETY, AND ATIENDEEE ENJOYMENT 265 The survey results indicated that very few attend- and those who were not regular rugby spectators, ees had considered not attending the event due to were relatively unconcerned about safety. This may concerns about terrorism. Security measures were suggest that the nature of the event-a large one- perceived as adequate and the majority of attendees off, multifaceted international experience-may be were neutral about the impact of increased security such that attendance motivation on its own overrides on their enjoyment of the event. Just over 23% indi- most concerns about safety. cated that the security actually enhanced their en- It is noted that one of the limitations of the em- joyment and only a handful felt that enjoyment was pirical component of this study relates to the respon- negatively affected by the heightened security. Event dent sample. We only surveyed event attendees, and attendees who indicate that they felt "very safe" re- not potential attendees. Therefore, there may have ported higher levels of enjoyment than those attend- been people who did not come to the RWC due to ees who merely felt "safe." Place of residence concerns about safety. However, anecdotally, in con- emerged as the most significant indicator of percep- versations held with survey respondents, nobody tions of safety among event attendees. Sydney resi- could name or recall anyone they knew who did not dents felt that security measures taken in relation to come because of the security. the RWC did little to enhance their perception of This study demonstrated that event attendees' safety, compared with non-Sydney residents. How- motivation, expectations, and perceptions in relation ever, unlike Cashman's (2004) observations of the to security and its impact on event attendance and Athens Games, there was no indication of decreased enjoyment is an area for further research. The di- crowds because of security threats at the RWC. verse attendees' profiles need to be better understood, Therefore, it could be suggested that the RWC or- not only to continue to attract attendees, but to be ganizers balanced security and enjoyment consider- able to meet their distinct expectations through ad- ations effectively. equate provision of operational aspects such as safety One key concern that emerged is the need to make and security services. Sport event managers need to the local attendees feel safe and improve their expe- balance the different needs of these spectators, the rience of the event. There is little doubt that the media safety of the event, and ensure that the sport event playa role in disseminating key messages about the experience lives up to spectators' expectations. image and profile of events. Sport event managers In rising to these challenges posed by the specter would be well advised to work with the media to of terrorism it is possible that new and innovative create an image that the rationale of security mea- ways of handling the situation will emerge. As sures is to provide a safe and secure environment, Faulkner (2001, p. 137) noted, crises have transfor- and that the increased security is a proactive and a mational connotations and may lead to innovation preventative measure, not one implemented as a re- and the recognition of additional markets. Also, by sponse to intelligence reports suggesting that a ter- improving the management of sport events, there rorist attack is anticipated. These messages should may be associated benefits. As was the case here, be disseminated with particular focus on local resi- when security planning is managed in cooperation dents. with the event organizers working with an existing The authors did not find any evidence to suggest range of relevant government authorities, there may that spectators stayed away from the RWC due to be less costs accruing and fewer tensions arising from terrorism concerns. Given this finding it might be security issues. Finally, benefits beyond the event that Solberg and Preuss's (2005) contention that might be generated. The development of security mega-sport event tourists will be deterred by terror- protocols and process can be catalytic agents for ism concerns is not applicable to all sport event con- greater cooperation between the state and sport or- texts. Because attending the RWC was considered ganizations and hence even foster integration pro- to be a once in a lifetime experience and this was cesses in economic- and security-related aspects. very important for the majority of respondents, their desire to attend may have overridden any concerns Biographical Notes about safety. Notably, even those respondents who Dr. Tracy Taylor has over 25 years of experience in the lei- did not identify themselves as avid fans of the RWC, sure field and has worked in various areas of public sector
266 TAYLOR AND TOOHEY
sport and recreation in both Canada and Australia. She is Binghamton, NY: Haworth Hospitality Press.
currently an Associate Dean in the Faculty of Business at the Cronin, A. (2003). Behind the curve: Globalization anduh
University of Technology, Sydney. Tracy is actively involved ternational terrorism. International Security, 27(3), ~
in research, consultancies, and community project work that 58. .
encompasses dimensions of inclusively and diversity in sport. Diaz, G. (2001, November 12). Olympics stress safety: Sail
recreation, and leisure. Her research is mainly in the area of Lake City officials will re-evaluate the safety measures
diversity and sport management, with a secondary interest of the 2002 Olympic Games. The Orlando Sentinel, p. 1.
in human resource management. Tracy is currently engaged Faulkner, B. (2001). Towards a framework for tourism di-
in an ARC Linkage grant with the ARU on volunteer reten- saster management. Tourism Management. 22, 135-147.
tion in community sport. Tracy also lectures and consults on Faulkner, B., & Raybould, M. (1995). Monitoring visitor
leadership development and teambuilding. expenditure associated with attendance at sporting events:
An experimental assessment of the diary and recall meth-
ods. Festival Management & Event Tourism, 3, 73-81.
Frosdick, S. (1997). Beyond footbalI hooliganism. In S.
Dr. Kristine Toohey is a Professor in the School of Tourism, Frosdick & L. Walley (Eds.), Sport and safety manage-
Leisure and Sport Management at Griffith University located ment (pp. 3-10). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
on the Gold Coast of Australia. She has operational experi-
Gesterland, P., Gardner, R., Tsui, E, Espino, J., Rolfs, R., &
ence in the field of sports management, event management. James, B. (2003). Automated syndromic surveillance for
sport studies, and knowledge management. Kristine worked
the 2002 Winter Olympics. Journal of the American Medi-
as a program manager at SOCOG, the Sydney Organizing
cal Informatics Association, 10(6), 547-554.
Committee for the Olympic Games, between 1998 and 200 I, Goodrich, J. (2002). September 11,2001 attack on America:
where she was in charge of communication services, a di- A record of the immediate impacts and reactions in the
verse operational unit within the organizing committee. She
USA travel and tourism industry. Tourism Management,
has acted as consultant to various organizations such as: The 23, 573-580.
Olympic Co-ordination Authority, the Australian Sports Com-
Israeli, A., & Reichel, A. (2003). Hospitality crisis manage-
mission, the Australian Jockey Club, Womensport Australia
ment practices: The Israeli case. International Journal
and the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic of Hospitality Management, 22(1), 353-372.
Games and the International Olympic Committee. She has Metcalfe, A. (2004, 23 March). Implementing a whole of
published widely as the author or coauthor of a number of
government approach to national security and terrorism.
journal articles and books, most dealing with Olympic and
National Security Australia. Retrieved February 17,2005,
sporting themes. from http://www.pmc.gov.au/speeches/metcalfe/
whole~ovcapproach_2004-03-04.cfm
References Pantera, M., Accorsi, R., Winter, C; Gobielle, R., Griveas,
S., Queen, D., Insalaco, J., & Domanoski, B. (2003). Best
Australian Broadcasting Commission. (2003). Aust, England, practices for game day security at athletic and sport ven-
US get extra Cup security. Retrieved May 24, 2004, from ues. The Span Journal, 6(4). Retrieved November 14,
http://www.abc.net.aulsport!contentls962584.htm 2004, from http://www.thesportjournaI.org/2003JournaV
Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2003). VoI6-N04/security.asp
Advancing the national interest. Retrieved July 23, 2003, Pizam, A. (1999). A comprehensive approach to classifying
from http://www.dfat.gov.aulani/index.html acts of crime and violence at tourism destinations. Jour-
Australian Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources. nal of Travel Research. 38(1), 5-12.
(2004). Economic impact of the Rugby World Cup 2003 Pizam, A., & Mansfeld, Y. (1996). Tourism, crime and inter-
on theAustralian economy-post analysis. Canberra: URS national security issues. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Finance and Economics. Richter, K., & Waugh, W. (1986). Terrorism and tourism as
Australian Rugby Union. (2004). Annual repon 2003. logical companions. Tourism Management, 7(4), 230-
Carey, J. (2004, January 5). Superdome, New Orleans step 238.
up security at game. USA Today, p. 5c. Ritchie, 8., Mosedale, L., & King, J. (2002). Profiling sport
Cashman, R. (2004). Athens 2004, the no-show Games. Na- tourists: The case of super 12 rugby union in the ACT.
tional Forum. Online Opinion. Retrieved August 15, 2005, Current Issues in Tourism, 5(1), 33-44.
from http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp? Robert, B., & Lajtha, C. (2002). A new approach to crisis
article=2490 management. Journal of Contingencies & Crisis Man-
Cavlek, N. (2002). Tour operators and destination safety. agement. 10(4), 181-191.
Annals of Tourism Research, 29(2),478-496. Ryan, C. (1993). Crime, violence, terrorism and tourism. An
Coles, T. (2003). A local reading of a global disaster: Some accidental or intrinsic relationship? Tourism Management,
lessons on tourism management from an Annus Horribilis 14(3), 173-183.
in South West England. In C. Hall, D. Timothy, & D. Santana, G. (2003). Crisis management and tourism: Beyond
Duval (Eds.), Safety and security in tourism: Relation- the rhetoric. In C. Hall, D. Timothy, & D. Duval (Eds.),
ships, management and marketing (pp. 173-198). Safety and security in tourism: Relationships, manage-SECURITY, SAFETY, AND ATIENDEEE ENJOYMENT 267
ment and marketing (pp. 299-321). Binghamton, NY: United States General Accounting Office (2001). Olympic
Haworth Hospitality Press. Games. Costs to plan and stage the Games in the United
Snider, M. (2002). Safety in numbers. Maclean's, lJ5(6), States. Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Sub-
22. committee on the Legislative Branch, Committee on Ap-
Solberg, H .• & Preuss, H. (2005). Major sporting events- propriations, U.S. Senate.
are there any long-term tourism impacts? In J. Allen (Ed.), United States Office of the Press Secretary, The White House.
The impact of events (pp. 134-142). Sydney: Australian (2002, January 10). Preparing for the World: Homeland
Centre for Event Management, University of Technol- security and the Winter Olympics. Retrieved September
ogy. 22, 2005, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/re-
Tarlow, P. (2002). Event risk management and safety. New leases/2oo2l01I2oo2011O-7.html
York: John Wiley and Sons. Wederrneyer, B. (1999). Sport and terrorism. In J. Riordan
Toohey, K., & Taylor, T. (2005, July). The Olympics and ter- & A. Kruger (Eds.), The international politics of sport in
rorism. Paper presented at the Sporting Traditions Con- the 20th century (pp. 217-231). New York: Routledge.
ference, Melbourne, Australia. Wicks, B. (2002). World Cup fans: hooligans or tourists. In
Toohey, K., Taylor, T., & Lee, C. (2003). The FlFA World Proceedings of the Korean Academic Society of Tourism
Cup 2002: The effects of terrorism on sport tourists. Jour- Management International Conference for the success
nal of Sport Tourism. 8(3), 186-196. of the 2002 World Cup (pp. 22-35). Korea: Korean Aca-
Tsui, E, Espino, J., Dato, V., Gesterland, P., Hutman, J., & demic Society of Tourism Management.
Wagner, M. (2003). Data, network, and application: tech- Whisenant, W. A. (2003). Using biometrics for sport venue
nical description of the Utah RODS Winter Olympic management in a post 9-11 era. Facilities, 21(5/6), 134-
biosurveillance system. Journal of the American Medi- 141.
cal Informatics Association, 10(5), 399--408.You can also read
