QMU Guide to the APA Style of Referencing - Only for students who need to use the APA style of referencing
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QMU Guide to the
APA Style of
Referencing
Only for students
who need to use
the APA style of
referencing
September 2014September 2014
Queen Margaret University
Edinburgh
EH21 6UU
Page 2 of 37Table of Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 What is referencing?.............................................................................................................. 5
1.2 When should I reference? ...................................................................................................... 5
1.3 What is plagiarism? ............................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Formatting ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.5 How do I reference? .............................................................................................................. 7
2. Citing a source in your writing ................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Authors .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Same author, different year ................................................................................................. 10
2.3 Same author, same year ....................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Examples of sentence structure ........................................................................................... 10
2.5 Quotations ........................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) .............................................................................. 12
2.7 Long quotations (40+ words) .............................................................................................. 12
2.8 Unfinished sentences or quotations ..................................................................................... 13
2.9 Page numbers and abbreviations ......................................................................................... 13
2.10 Chapter in an edited book.................................................................................................. 14
2.11 Citing multiple references ................................................................................................. 15
2.12 Referring to a secondary citation ...................................................................................... 15
3. Creating a list of references ...................................................................................................... 17
3.1 How to reference a journal article with a DOI .................................................................... 18
3.2 How to reference a journal article without a DOI (when DOI is not available) ................. 19
3.3 How to reference a journal article with more than seven authors ....................................... 19
3.4 How to reference an early view or in press journal article.................................................. 20
3.5 How to reference a book ..................................................................................................... 22
3.6 How to reference a chapter in a book of collected writings by different authors (‘in’
references) ................................................................................................................................. 23
3.7 How to reference an electronic version of a print book (Ebook) ........................................ 24
3.8 How to reference an electronic only book (Ebook) ............................................................ 25
3.9 How to reference a website ................................................................................................. 25
4. Additional information.............................................................................................................. 27
4.1 Footnotes ............................................................................................................................. 27
4.2 Latin terms........................................................................................................................... 27
5. List of references as they should appear at the end of your essay ............................................ 28
Appendix: Sample text.................................................................................................................. 32
Page 3 of 371. Introduction
The American Psychological Association (APA) have published a style guide that sets out the
formatting and referencing conventions about how to acknowledge sources which must be
followed in all written work:
American Psychological Association. (2010a). Concise rules of APA style (6th ed.). Washington,
DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2010b). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
The APA style blog (http://blog.apastyle.org/) is the official online companion to the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association and is another valuable source of
information.
This guide is an introduction to the APA style of referencing. The examples shown here are
indicative of the sources of information you should be using when writing an academic essay in
psychology. An example list of references appears at the end of this guide which reflects the
examples cited in this guide.
Tips and sources of further information are provided where you see this symbol
Page 4 of 371.1 What is referencing?
In your written work, you will use ideas and information from other sources to support points
and arguments you want to make. Referencing is a way of crediting all the sources of
information and ideas that you have used in any piece of academic work.
When you use someone else’s ideas in your work, you must reference the source in order to:
Show you are aware of other people’s ideas and are including them
Acknowledge other people’s ideas
Support points and arguments you want to make
Allow the reader to find the original material you have used
You must write everything in your own words and not just in a close paraphrase – i.e. only
changing the order of the words, or sentences, or only changing a few words here and there.
1.2 When should I reference?
You must reference when you summarise or paraphrase ideas and information from someone’s
work. If you do not do this carefully, you will risk being considered as having plagiarised the
work you have mentioned if it is:
(1) Not acknowledged as someone else’s AND
(2) If you copy it from their work – whether acknowledged or not
Failure to do any of the above is considered to be plagiarism.
Page 5 of 371.3 What is plagiarism?
“…the presentation by an individual of another person’s ideas or work (in any medium,
published or unpublished) as though they were his or her own…” (Queen Margaret University,
2011, p. 30).
Plagiarism is considered to be a major breach of academic regulations.
For further information about plagiarism, look at Queen Margaret University’s plagiarism wiki:
https://sites.google.com/a/qmu.ac.uk/plagiarism/
1.4 Formatting
Sample text which demonstrates how work should be formatted can be seen in the appendix (pp.
32-35). APA style rules include basic rules and principles for preparing written work:
Use a serif typeface (e.g. Times New Roman), 12-point sized font
TIP: the default font on the QMU student desktop is Arial so you will need to
change this when writing essays or other pieces of written work!
Indent on a new paragraph with no line breaks
Use a 1 inch (2.54cm) margin on all sides
Use double spacing
Use left justified text
Page 6 of 37 Use of quotes in essays is discouraged and if used they should be a very rare occurrence
where the original author’s words are so apt or express something in such as way that the
text would lose something really important if you used your own words instead
Use page numbers on the bottom of each page starting at page 1 for the title page
The list of references starts on a new page at the end of your essay. References in full are
placed in alphabetical order of the first author
If you use appendices, then these should start on a new page following the list of
references
TIP: A guide to the correct style for writing in psychology – e.g. without bias and
avoiding labelling by disorder (for example people diagnosed with schizophrenia instead
of schizophrenics) – is provided in the Concise Rules of APA Style (pp. 22-33) as well as
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (pp. 70-77) and you
should refer to these in preparing all your written work
1.5 How do I reference?
There are two key features of referencing:
Citing a source in your writing
Creating a list of references at the end of your writing
A list of references:
Is alphabetical by author
Must contain full details of all the sources you have cited in your text
Page 7 of 37 TIP: You will always be required to provide a list of references.
2. Citing a source in your writing
In the APA style of referencing, every time you refer to a particular document or writer, you
should insert the author’s surname and the year of publication.
Insert only the surname (family name), not the initial of the author
The ‘author’ may sometimes be the name of an organisation
The in-text citation is the first two elements of the full reference which appears in the
reference list at the end of your work
Use the word ‘and’ in the running text – for example Grusec and Hastings (2007) and an
ampersand (&) in the bracket if the authors are not part of the sentence (Grusec &
Hastings, 2007)
Punctuation is an important element of any referencing style – including the APA style –
please take care to follow the punctuation in the examples
2.1 Authors
When there is no author, the title takes the place of the author unless the author is stated as
Anonymous.
If there are two authors then you must cite both of them in your text every time the reference
occurs in the text:
(Choudhary & O'Carroll, 2007) or Choudhary and O’Carroll (2007)
Page 8 of 37If there are three, four or five authors, cite all of them the first time the reference occurs; in
subsequent citations include only the surname of the first author followed by ‘et al.’ in your text.
Et al. is short for ‘et alia’ which is Latin for ‘and others’. Note the full stop after ‘al.’
First citation in the text:
(Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995)
Subsequent citation thereafter:
(Kessler et al., 1995)
If there are six or more authors, cite only the surname (family name) of the first author
followed by et al. and the year for the first and subsequent citations. If two references with six or
more authors shorten to the same form, cite the surnames of the first authors and of as many of
the subsequent authors as necessary to distinguish between the two references.
TIP: See page 183 of the Concise Rules of APA Style or page 177 of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association for a practical table on types of
citation, number of authors and their first and subsequent citations in text
TIP: In your list of references you should always include all authors regardless of the
number with the exception of works with eight or more authors. Works with eight or
more authors have the first six authors followed by three ellipsis points (. . .) followed by
the last author. See page 195 of the Concise Rules of APA Style or page 184 of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association for more information on
authors in a list of references
Page 9 of 372.2 Same author, different year
If you need to refer to two or more pieces of work by the same author, published in different
years, the year alone will distinguish each one in the text.
In a list of references, you should list each work in date order with the oldest first.
2.3 Same author, same year
Very occasionally, you may need to refer to two or more pieces of work by the same author,
published in the same year. You should use lowercase letters to show the difference:
In the text of your essay:
It is recommended that that works by the same author in the same year are listed in the reference
list by alphabetical order of title (American Psychological Association, 2010a). The lowercase
letters also appear in the reference list (American Psychological Association, 2010b).
In the list of references:
American Psychological Association. (2010a). Concise rules of APA style (6th ed.). Washington:
Author.
American Psychological Association. (2010b). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington: Author.
2.4 Examples of sentence structure
There are several ways you can reference original sources in your essay, according to how the
style of the sentence is written. The following examples are taken from the sample text in the
appendix. Note how the following examples differ slightly in each case.
Page 10 of 371. State the information, then site the source as: (author, date)
These prevalence rates are likely to be underestimates for several reasons, including reluctance,
or perhaps inability (qv), to report trauma (Kessler, et al., 2005).
2. Use the author(s) as the subject of the sentence, with the date of the citation in
brackets: author (date)
Kessler et al. (2005) suggest these prevalence rates are likely to be underestimates for several
reasons, including reluctance, or perhaps inability (qv), to report trauma.
3. Introduce the subject then acknowledge the source before going on to amplify the
first part of the sentence in what follows after the citation: (author, date)
These prevalence rates are likely to be underestimates for several reasons (Kessler et al., 2005),
including reluctance, or perhaps inability (qv), to report trauma.
4. Set the date and then use the authors as the subject of the sentence in describing
what they did. This style has no brackets but note the comma after the year.
In 2005, Kessler et al. suggested these prevalence rates are likely to be underestimates for several
reasons, including reluctance, or perhaps inability (qv), to report trauma.
TIP: This last example is less commonly used and is not the best style to use for this
particular content; it would be better used where the focus is perhaps on comparing
different dates on which research was carried out.
Page 11 of 372.5 Quotations
The use of quotes in essays is strongly discouraged. If used they should be a very rare
occurrence where the original author’s words are so apt or express something in such as way that
the text would lose something really important if you used your own words instead.
2.6 Short quotations (fewer than 40 words)
When you quote directly from the text, you need to include the page number. Look at the
punctuation in these examples:
Haralambos, Holborn, Chapman and Moore (2013) state that “the family has often been regarded
as the cornerstone of society.” (p.509)
Reading, understanding and evaluating what you read is an important role in the learning
process. “A well written literature review helps the reader understand disagreements and debates
about the topic in context and also identifies gaps and omissions in previous work or identifies
unanswered questions” (Landrum, 2012, p. 91).
Do not use italics or bold typeface to indicate a quotation
Use ‘p.’ for a single page and ‘pp.’ for multiple pages
2.7 Long quotations (40+ words)
Must be indented from the left margin by 0.5 inch
Do not require quotation marks, italics or bold typeface
Lead-in statement ends with a colon:
Separate the quotation from the lead-in with a new line
Page 12 of 37 If the quoted source is cited in the lead-in, only the year and page(s) are required at the
end of the quotation
Note the full stop is placed after the last sentence of the quotation before the author, date
citation
Beech describes:
Informal or colloquial writing is a habit that some students find difficult to shake
off. If you cannot help writing in this way, at least go back and edit your chatty
style afterwards to make it suitably formal. A handy tip is to do a computer
search for a single quote (‘) to find contractions such as ‘can’t’ afterwards.
(2009, p. 6)
2.8 Unfinished sentences or quotations
The omission of a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage is indicated by
three spaced dots or ellipsis points.
“. . . research techniques are engulfing researchers in a deluge of data. JISC and other
organisations are funding studies . . . to gain new insight and knowledge . . . within this resource”
(Redfearn, 2006, p. 6).
2.9 Page numbers and abbreviations
Page numbers are used with direct quotations or when referring to tables, illustrations or figures.
You are also encouraged when paraphrasing to include a page number where possible to direct
Page 13 of 37interested readers to specific passages. This detail will appear after the date, followed by a
comma within the brackets using one of these abbreviations:
Page (p.) Table (tab.)
Pages (pp.) Diagram (diagr.)
Section (s.) Figure (fig.)
Sections (ss.) Illustration (illus.)
Track (tr.) Volume (vol.)
TIP: For more information on citing references in text, see pages 178-188 of the Concise
Rules of APA Style or pages 174-179 of the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association.
2.10 Chapter in an edited book
Sometimes a chapter in a book is referred to as an ‘in’ reference when you are referring to a
piece of work which is contained in another publication. For example:
A chapter in a book of collected writings, brought together by an editor
A conference paper in a collection of papers presented at a conference and gathered
together in one book with an editor as the main author
In the text of your work you would cite the author of the paper/chapter as usual:
Schaffer (2011) describes a to-and-fro pattern of infant gazing.
In the list of references you will always reference at least two names:
Page 14 of 37Schaffer, H. R. (2011). Social interaction and the beginnings of communication. In A. Slater, & G.
Bremner, An Introduction to Developmental Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 217-242). Chichester: BPS
Blackwell.
TIP: On some occasions, the author/editor may be the same person but you would still
follow the same format
TIP: Remember to include the page numbers of the relevant chapter or section of the
book in the reference list
2.11 Citing multiple references
List the order they appear in the list of references, separated with a semicolon. Two or more
works by the same author(s) should be listed by year of publication.
Statistics and data analysis are considered an essential element within the field of psychology
(Coolican, 2014; McQueen and Knussen, 2006; Wilson and MacLean, 2011).
OR:
Coolican (2014), McQueen and Knussen (2006) and Wilson and MacLean (2011) all argue that
statistics and data analysis is considered an essential element within the field of psychology.
2.12 Referring to a secondary citation
Citing the work of an author you have read within someone else’s work is known as secondary
referencing and should be used sparingly. Where possible you should read the original work
yourself. However, due to a lack of availability, you may sometimes need to use a secondary
reference. This acknowledges that you haven’t actually read the original source but you are
basing what you say on what another/other author(s) have said about it (as they have read it).
For example:
Page 15 of 37Interpersonal violence is the most inherently trauma producing event (Frederick, 1984; as cited
in Adams, Barton, Mitchell, Moore & Einagel, 1998); combat and rape are the most potent
events in precipitating PTSD.
Use ‘as cited in’ to show that you have not seen the original article by Frederick but only
what Adams et al. (1998) say about it
Frederick (1984) is not required to be included in your list of references
Only include works in your list of references that you have actually read
The full reference appears in the list of references as follows:
Adams, D. P., Barton, C., Mitchell, G. L., Moore, A. L., & Einagel, V. (1998). Hearts and minds:
suicide among United States combat troops in Vietnam, 1957-1973. Social Science &
Medicine, 47, 1687-1694. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00253-6
Page 16 of 373. Creating a list of references
The examples shown here are indicative of the sources of information you should be using when
writing an academic essay in psychology – articles in peer-reviewed journals, textbooks written
by an expert and general textbooks. Website examples are given and should only be used in very
rare exceptions where peer-reviewed evidence such as official, government-produced statistics is
not available elsewhere.
When compiling a list of references you must:
Start on a new page
Include it at the end of your manuscript before any appendices
Have the heading ‘References’ centred
Organise it alphabetically by the surname (family name) of the author
Ensure group authors should have their name in full (e.g. British Psychological Society)
Use “Anonymous” only when a work’s author is designated as “Anonymous” otherwise
list alphabetically under title and cite in the text the first few words of the title using
double quotation marks
Have a hanging indent following the first line
Only includes the works you have cited in your text
TIP: In the text of your work, you cite the author and year only to refer to a source in
your list of references
See section 5 for an example of a list of references.
Page 17 of 37Correct and consistent punctuation is very important:
Authors’ surnames should start with a capital letter, authors initials should also be in
capitals
The first word in the title and subtitle of books and any proper nouns start with a capital
letter
Journal titles, publishers’ names and places should also start with a capital letter
Note carefully how the examples in this guide are punctuated.
3.1 How to reference a journal article with a DOI
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
Year. (in brackets)
Title of article. (Capitalize only the first word of the article title and of the subtitle)
Name of Journal, (in italics)
Volume(issue number) (note that only the volume number is in italics)
Page number(s).
doi:
Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. Z. (1987). Mother-infant face-to-face interaction: The sequence of
dyadic states at 3, 6 and 9 months. Developmental Psychology, 23, 68-77.
doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.1.68
TIP: Include DOIs where available for both print and electronic format
Page 18 of 37 TIP: Only give issue number if each issue starts on page 1. For example, 23, 2100-2117
not 23(9), 2100-2117
3.2 How to reference a journal article without a DOI (when DOI is not available)
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
Year. (in brackets)
Title of article. (Capitalize only the first word of the article title and of the subtitle)
Name of Journal, (in italics)
Volume(issue number), (note that only the volume number is in italics)
page number(s).
Bremner, J., & Andreasen, G. (1998). Young children's ability to use maps and models to find
ways in novel spaces. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 197-218.
TIP: Only give issue number if each issue starts on page 1. For example, 23, 2100-2117
not 23(9), 2100-2117
3.3 How to reference a journal article with more than seven authors
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s). (list first six authors followed by . . . then last author)
Year. (in brackets)
Title of article. (Capitalize only the first word of the article title and of the subtitle)
Name of Journal, (in italics)
Volume(issue number), (note that only the volume number is in italics)
Page 19 of 37Page number(s).
doi:
Choe, M.-S., Haehn, D., Pienaar, R., Ellen Grant, P., Makris, N., Kennedy, D., . . . Benasich, A.
A. (2013). Regional infant brain development: An MRI-based morphometric analysis in 3
to 13 Month Olds. Cerebral Cortex, 23, 2100-2117. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs197
TIP: In text citation for this article will be (Choe et al., 2013)
TIP: Only give issue number if each issue starts on page 1. For example, 23, 2100-2117
not 23(9), 2100-2117
TIP: For more information on referencing work by multiple authors see pages 180-182
and 195 in the Concise Rules of APA Style or pages 175-176 and 184 of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association.
3.4 How to reference an early view or in press journal article
Journal publishers often offer an online early view to articles that have been accepted for
publication but that have not yet been officially designated a volume and page numbers.
Sometimes this is known as “early view”, “in press” or “advanced online publication”.
Advanced online publication content is generally not changed or revised prior to formal
publication (American Psychological Association, 2010b, p.199). Early view or in press articles
are informally published and can be made available in a preprint archive and may be subject to
change when published (American Psychological Association, 2012b, p.200).
Page 20 of 37Advanced online publication:
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
Year. (in brackets)
Title of article. (Capitalize only the first word of the article title and of the subtitle)
Name of Journal. (in italics)
Advance online publication.
doi:
Mueller, P., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2014). The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages
of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science. Advance online publication.
doi:10.1177/0956797614524581
TIP: Give the URL of the journal home page when there is no DOI
In press article in a preprint archive
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
in press. (in brackets)
Title of article.
Name of Journal. (in italics)
Retrieved from:
Brooks, J. L., Della Sala, S., & Darling, S. (in press). Representational pseudoneglect: A review.
Neuropsychology Review. Retrieved from http://eresearch.qmu.ac.uk/3359/
TIP: Remember to check the reference prior to the submission of your manuscript and
refer to the published version where possible
Page 21 of 373.5 How to reference a book
Details for a book should be set out in the following order and with the punctuation as indicated:
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s). (if editor, then write (Ed.). or (Eds.). after initial)
Year. (in brackets)
Title of book. (in italics)
edition. (if later than the first and abbreviated to (ed.))
Place of publication: (town or city, include state in abbreviated form if available for US)
Name of publisher. (use the word Author when the author and publisher are the same)
Wilson, S., & MacLean, R. (2011). Research methods and data analysis for psychology.
Maidenhead: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Editions and editors
Use the abbreviation ‘ed.’ for edition and for editor use (Ed.). (Eds.).
Only give details of the edition if it is later than the first
Make sure the edition detail matches the copy of the text you have read
A reprint is not a new edition
When using a later edition the full stop comes after the edition statement and not the title
Comer, R. J. (2014). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (7th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.
David, S. A., Boniwell, I., & Ayers, A. C. (2013). Oxford handbook of happiness. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Page 22 of 373.6 How to reference a chapter in a book of collected writings by different authors
(‘in’ references)
Do not confuse the name of a contributor to a book of collected writings with that of the editor.
Name the editor of the book in the reference list as this is the information needed by anyone
wanting to find that piece of work.
Author of the chapter (as cited in your work) Surname, Initial(s).
Year of chapter publication. (in brackets)
Title of chapter.
In: Initial(s). Surname of author(s)/editor(s) of the collected work
(Ed.). (Eds. if more than one)
Title of the collected work (in italics)
Edition, volume number (if available), page number(s) of the chapter referred to. (in
brackets)
Place of publication:
Publisher.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology
of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New
York, NY: Academic Press.
Page 23 of 373.7 How to reference an electronic version of a print book (Ebook)
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
Year. (in brackets)
Title (in italics)
edition. (if later than the first and abbreviated to (ed.))
Type of electronic edition [in square brackets]. (if applicable–leave out if read via ebrary etc.)
Retrieved from: (use doi: where available instead of URL)
Grusec, J. E., & Hastings, P. D. (2007). Handbook of socialization. Retrieved from
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/qmuc/Doc?id=10176579
American Psychological Association. (2010c). Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th ed.). [Kindle version]. Retrieved from http://www.amazon.co.uk
Henriques, G. (2011). A new unified theory of psychology. doi:10.1007/97814614-0058-5
TIP: For more information on what a doi is and how a URL is constructed see pages 200-
207 in the Concise Rules of APA Style as well as pages 187-192 of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association
Page 24 of 373.8 How to reference an electronic only book (Ebook)
Author/Editor Surname, Initial(s).
Year. (in brackets)
Title (in italics)
Retrieved from:
Webb, D. (2010). Psychology student survival guide: A comprehensive survivial guide.
Retrieved from http://www.all-about-psychology.com/support-files/psychology-student-
survival-guide.pdf
TIP: For more information on referencing books see pages 222-226 of the Concise Rules
of APA Style or pages 202-205 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association.
3.9 How to reference a website
Websites should only be used in very rare exceptions where peer-reviewed evidence such as
official, government-produced statistics is not available elsewhere.
Author/Editor/Organisation. (as appropriate)
Year, Month Day. (in brackets) [n.d. if no date]
Title/heading. (Capitalize only the first word of the article title and of the subtitle)
Format description. [in square brackets] (only if non-routine such as blog post)
Retrieved from:
Page 25 of 37Lee, C. (2010, November 18). How to cite something you found on a website in APA style [Blog
post]. Retrieved from http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2010/11/how-to-cite-something-
you-found-on-a-website-in-apa-style.html
TIP: Notice the title is not italicized
TIP: Only include month and day if citing a blog post
TIP: No retrieved date is required unless the site is likely to change
TIP: For more information and examples on how to reference something you found on a
website see Lee’s (2010) post on the APA style blog.
Page 26 of 374. Additional information
The following are all common features of academic writing. They are included here so that you
can recognise and understand them in your academic reading. They should not be used in your
academic writing!
4.1 Footnotes
Footnotes are used to strengthen the discussion and should only be included to provide additional
content. APA style discourages the use of footnotes with the exception of alerting readers to
additional information found elsewhere (American Psychological Association, 2010b, p.37).
4.2 Latin terms
ibid. Abbreviation of the Latin term ‘ibidem’ meaning ‘in the same place’. It is
used as a ditto instead of repeating the previous reference
op.cit. Abbreviation of the Latin term ‘opere citato’ meaning ‘in the work cited’.
This is used after an author’s name to refer to the same work cited
previously for this author
Qv Abbreviation of the Latin term 'quod vide' meaning 'which see' or ‘on this,
go see’. It is used to reference material mentioned in another part of the
text
sine loco (s.l.) Latin term for ‘without place’. If there is no place of publication (s.l.) is
used to indicate location unknown
sine nomine (s.n.) Latin term for ‘without name’. If there is no publisher’s name (s.n.) is used
Page 27 of 375. List of references as they should appear at the end of your essay
References
Adams, D. P., Barton, C., Mitchell, G. L., Moore, A. L., & Einagel, V. (1998). Hearts and minds:
suicide among United States combat troops in Vietnam, 1957-1973. Social Science &
Medicine, 47, 1687-1694. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00253-6
American Psychological Association. (2010a). Concise rules of APA style (6th ed.). Washington:
Author.
American Psychological Association. (2010b). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2010c). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). [Kindle version]. Retrieved from
http://www.amazon.co.uk
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Page 31 of 37TIP: This sample text
TIP: Only label appendices if using demonstrates the formatting rules
more than one (Appendix A, Appendix B of the APA style – Times New
etc.). Begin each Appendix on a new page Roman font (serif typeface), 12
and centre the heading Appendix and the Appendix point, double spaced, 1 inch margin
title of the Appendix – shown here as on all sides and left justified text
Sample text.
Sample text
Trauma research: some context for using the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale (PDS;
Foa, Cashman, Jaycox, & Perry, 1997) as a diagnostic screen for Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder (PTSD).
The experience of traumatic events is common. The (US) National Comorbidity Survey (NCS; Kessler,
Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995) found that, within their lifetimes, approximately 60% of
men and 50% of women experienced at least one trauma, and estimated lifetime prevalence of
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was 7.8%. Although men were more likely to experience
trauma than women, more women than men had lifetime PTSD (10.4% vs. 5.0%). These prevalence
rates are likely to be underestimates for several reasons, including reluctance, or perhaps inability
(qv), to report trauma (Kessler et al., 2005).
Interpersonal violence is the most inherently trauma producing event (Frederick, 1984; as cited in
Adams, Barton, Mitchell, Moore, & Einagel, 1998); combat and rape are the most potent events in
precipitating PTSD. They are also most often experienced in adolescence and early adult life.
Herman (2001) points out that the average age of the Vietnam combat soldier was 19; of women
who are raped, half are aged 20 or under, and three-quarters are aged between 13-26 at the time of
the rape. Indeed a recent review of the literature considering age of onset for all mental disorders
found that approximately half of all lifetime disorders start by the mid-teens and three quarters by
the mid-20’s (Kessler et al., 2007); for PTSD age of onset at the 50th percentile is 23 years and at the
75th percentile is 39 years (Kessler et al., 2005).
My research studies used the PDS as a self-report tool for investigating prevalence of PTSD and the
three associated symptom clusters (hyperarousal – where the body is constantly on the alert for
danger, avoidance of any reminders of the traumatic event and re-experiencing of the trauma,
which is often fragmentary, through e.g. flashbacks and nightmares). I used the PDS for several large
Page 32 of 37scale studies: (1) 596 participants (50% students, 50% members of the general public visiting
Glasgow Science Centre)1 (2) a replication in another general population sample consisting of 227
members of the general public visiting GSC over the Easter weekend, (3) 410 students/staff
undertaking experimental studies using the Stroop task and (4) 108 + 60 students/staff for two other
experimental studies.
It is understandable, and rightly so, that there are special concerns about conducting research in
sensitive areas which include sexual assault and domestic abuse. While the PDS makes reference to
these types of trauma, the research is not about engaging with people about these particular issues.
The reason the PDS sets out a comprehensive list of possible traumas is because the nature of PTSD
is such that memories of trauma are often in a dissociated state, that is, they are not always
available to consciousness.
For example, Ehlers et al. (2004) describing examples from extensive clinical experience report in
their example 15, a rape victim who initially failed to remember that she had been threatened with a
knife by her assailant, something which memory theory debates on “weapon focus” would consider
a central element, likely to be remembered (Loftus, Loftus, & Messo, 1987). This is typical of the
disorder, which is essentially a disorder of memory; even though people with PTSD on one level are
aware that they have suffered an event which has affected them, the factual details of the events
may not be readily accessible, and they need to be reminded of what (from a research point of view
- to try and capture all incidences of trauma) are important possible causes of PTSD. There is a
literature on how, particularly for sexual trauma events, women (who typically experience them
much more often than men) do not recall them if simply asked to state if they have ever experienced
a ‘traumatic event’ (Cusack, Falsetti, & de Arellano, 2002). This finding may also partly explained by
the increasing evidence that verbal memory is particularly adversely affected in fear states and
PTSD; in a state of fear the language part of the brain is ‘switched off’ so that verbal accounts of the
1
Eg, in this sample, 56% had experienced a trauma and prevalence of PTSD was 8.6% (Choudhary &
O'Carroll, 2007)
Page 33 of 37trauma may be prevented by the physiological state of the brain (Rauch et al., 1996).
This short introduction may be helpful in outlining the use of the PDS in student and general
population samples and by providing some insight into PTSD and why it is likely underdiagnosed,
some understanding of the reasons why the PDS, as a widely used instrument in PTSD research, is
structured the way that it is.
Dr Carolyn J Choudhary
Lecturer in Psychology
References
Adams, D. P., Barton, C., Mitchell, G. L., Moore, A. L., & Einagel, V. (1998). Hearts and minds: Suicide
among United States combat troops in Vietnam, 1957-1973. Social Science & Medicine, 47,
1687-1694. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00253-6
Choudhary, C. J., & O'Carroll, R. E. (2007). Left hand preference is related to Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 365-369. doi:10.1002/jts.20222
Cusack, K., Falsetti, S., & de Arellano, M. (2002). Gender considerations in the psychometric assessment
of PTSD. In R. Kimerling,, P. Ouimette,, & J. Wolfe,, Gender and PTSD (pp. 150-176). New
York: Guilford Press.
Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Michael, T. (2004). Intrusive re-experiencing in post-traumatic stress
disorder: Phenomenology, theory and therapy. Memory, 12, 403-415.
doi:10.1080/09658210444000025
Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: The posttraumatic diagnostic scale. Pyschological Assessment, 9,
445-451. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.9.4.445
Page 34 of 37Frederick, C. J. (1984). Aggression, violence, terrorism and PTSD. Washington, DC.: American
Psychological Association.
Herman, J. L. (2001). Trauma and recovery. London: Pandora.
Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Ustun, T. B. (2007). Age of
onset mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, 359-364.
doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32816ebc8c
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime
prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity
Survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593-602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593
Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012
Loftus, E. F., Loftus, G. R., & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about "weapon focus". Law and Human
Behavior, 11, 55. doi:10.1007/BF01044839
Rauch, R. K., van de Kolk, B. A., Fisler, R. E., Alpert, N. M., Orr, S. P., Savage, C. R., . . . Pitman, R. K.
(1996). A symptom provoaction study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder using positron emission
tomography and script-driven imagery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 380-387.
doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830050014003
Page 35 of 37Acknowledgements This QMU Guide to the APA System of Referencing Write is developed and produced by staff in the Learning Resource Centre with contributions and suggestions from academic colleagues and students across Queen Margaret University. September 2014 Queen Margaret University Edinburgh EH21 6UU © 2014 Queen Margaret University
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