Fierce Heat and Players' Health: Examining the View on Japan High School Baseball - MDPI
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sustainability
Article
Fierce Heat and Players’ Health: Examining the View on Japan
High School Baseball
Eiji Yamamura
Department of Economics, Seinan Gakuin University, Fukuoka 814-8511, Japan; yamaei@seinan-gu.ac.jp
Abstract: A summer high school baseball tournament is held every mid-summer in Koshien Sta-
dium. “Koshien Baseball” is very popular in Japan; however, it faces the problem of extremely
high temperatures during games. Thus, high school players are threatened by harsh environmental
conditions. For this reason, two Internet surveys were distributed to the same individuals. Then, their
views regarding the Koshien tournament before and after the provision of information regarding
environmental change in Japan were gathered. Using these data, this study examined how their views
changed after being introduced to the information. Compared with their previous views, it was found
that (1) respondents were more likely to agree that the management rules of the Koshien tournament
should be altered to protect players’ health, and (2) the impact of providing information is greater
for female respondents, young respondents, and highly educated respondents. This study provides
evidence that the effect of information provision varies according to gender, age, and educational
background. However, the mechanism causing this difference has not yet been analyzed. It would be
valuable to consider this mechanism in future research.
Keywords: high school baseball; health; heatwave; heatstroke; sustainability; environment; gender
difference; Japan
Citation: Yamamura, E. Fierce Heat
and Players’ Health: Examining the 1. Introduction
View on Japan High School Baseball. The impact of heatwaves on health has been increasingly analyzed [1]. Increased
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1399. https://
exposure to heat negatively affects human health, which leads to increased death in various
doi.org/10.3390/su14031399
geographical locations around the world, such as the USA [2], Taiwan [3], and China [4,5].
Academic Editors: Giuseppe Temperatures increase in urban areas due to man-made activities, resulting in the urban heat
Battaglia and Marc A. Rosen island (UHI) effect. The UHI increased the detrimental influence of heatwaves on human
health in urban areas in Europe [6] and China [7]. Heatwaves increased total ambulance
Received: 10 December 2021
calls by 19% in Australia [8] and increased all-cause admissions by 2.5% in Vietnamese
Accepted: 22 January 2022
hospitals [9]. The risk of death is increased by 10% on a heatwave day compared to a
Published: 26 January 2022
non-heatwave day in the USA [10]. This also holds true in Japan. The average temperature
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral in Japan rises every year. Particularly, during mid-summer, temperatures greater than
with regard to jurisdictional claims in 35 ◦ C are frequently recorded, accompanied by a high humidity. Due to climate change, the
published maps and institutional affil- lives of Japanese people are jeopardized. Thus, during the final week of July 2019, a total
iations.
of 5600 people were sent to the hospital because of heatstroke [11]. Furthermore, in the
summer of 2019, a total of 162 people died of heatstroke during heatwaves [12]. During the
Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics, the players experienced serious heatwaves accompanied by
high humidity. For example, during the match, a tennis player named Daniil Medvedev
Copyright: © 2022 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
told the chair umpire, “I can finish the match, but I can also die” and asked him “If I die, are
This article is an open access article
you going to be responsible?” [13]. By 2085, it will be too risky to hold the Summer Olympic
distributed under the terms and Games in most cities in the Northern Hemisphere due to environmental changes [14].
conditions of the Creative Commons Baseball is one of the most popular sports in Japan. The Japanese are attracted not only
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to professional baseball games, but also to amateur ones. During the annual spring and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ summer seasons in Japan, the national high school baseball tournament is held annually
4.0/). at Koshien Stadium in summer and spring. In the summer tournament, 49 teams are
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1399. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031399 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainabilitySustainability 2022, 14, 1399 2 of 11
selected to represent 47 prefectures and play games in Koshien Stadium, while in the
spring, only 30 teams are selected to play. The summer “Koshien Baseball” event is larger
than the one in spring, and it is the most popular sporting event in Japan [4–6]. The high
school summer break usually begins on 20 July and ends on 31 August, although there
are differences among prefectures. During the summer high school break, the games for
regional elimination and the main Koshien tournament games are held. In other words, the
final game at Koshien Stadium must be completed before September when high schools
reopen. Inevitably, the schedule is very tight. During the Koshien tournament, there are
four games every day, except the days when the final or semi-final games are held. Koshien
Stadium is an open-air stadium. “As hot as the action can be on the field, the soaring
temperatures during the day can be dangerous for fans watching the games. Amid the
relentless heatwave, shops at the stadium began selling portable electric fans, cooling
mist spray bottles, and other items as part of efforts to prevent the crowd from suffering
heatstroke” [15]. However, high school boys play under a scorching sun and high humidity.
They are exhausted and face the risk of heatstroke. The Japan High School Baseball
Federation (JHBF) has faced considerable difficulty in arranging the optimal conditions for
games to protect players. Several measures have been adopted to address this problem.
For instance, the JHBF postponed the starting times of two quarterfinal games to avoid the
hottest times of the day. One game started at 7 p.m. and did not end until approximately
11 p.m. [16]. However, the problem was not fully solved, because most games take place
during mid-day due to tight schedules.
The problem of the Koshien tournament has drawn attention in Japan [8–10]. How-
ever, the summer Koshien tournament started in 1915, when, 15 years before, Uruguay
won soccer’s first World Cup [17–21]. For over 100 years, high school boys have played
baseball during mid-summer. The history and experience of the Koshien tournament
have led people to have a conservative view with regard to the current system and rules.
However, the negative effects of heatwaves on society have been widely observed in
previous studies [22–28]. For instance, a heatwave was accompanied by large excess mor-
tality [24]. Furthermore, high temperatures reduce workers’ incentive to work [29] and
reduce productivity [30].
It is unknown whether people who adhere to the traditional system of the Koshien
tournament consider the effects of climate change over the past 100 years. Increasingly,
various studies have conducted information-provision experiments and found that people’s
behavior changed after information was provided [31–36]. There was a moderate reduction
in partisan differences in beliefs regarding climate change if survey respondents were
provided with incentives [37]. It is worth analyzing how information provision gives
people an incentive to improve the situation and to sustain society. Through an Internet
experiment, this study examined how, and to what extent, people’s views about the Koshien
tournament changed when provided with information on climate change in Japan. A key
finding was that respondents are more likely to agree that the management rules should
be changed to protect the player’s health after viewing the information. Furthermore, the
effect was greater for female, young, and highly educated respondents.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the research
design and data. Section 3 presents the results and interpretations. Section 4 discusses the
study’s findings. The final section provides reflections and conclusions.
2. Methods and Data
2.1. Experimental Design
A flowchart of the simple experiment used in this study is presented in Figure 1. As
explained further in the text, the same respondents participated in the first and follow-up
surveys, and answered the same questions regarding the system of the Koshien tournament.
The differences that respondents were informed of the increase in extremely hot days in the
follow-up survey. Therefore, the effect of information provision on the Koshien tournament
was examined in the experimental design. In other words, this design examines how, andSustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1399 tournament. The differences that respondents were informed of the increase in extremely 3 of 11
hot days in the follow-up survey. Therefore, the effect of information provision on the
Koshien tournament was examined in the experimental design. In other words, this de-
sign examines how, and to what extent, participants change their views after learning
to what extent, participants change their views after learning about the increase in extreme
about the increase in extreme heat days.
heat days.
The first survey
Respondent's answer questions of basic characteristics and the
KOSHIEN tournament.
Information of climate change
The follow-up survey
Respondent's answer questions of the KOSHIEN tournament.
Flow-chartofofthe
Figure1.1.Flow-chart
Figure theInternet
Internetexperiment.
experiment.
2.1.1.First
2.1.1. FirstSurvey
Survey
InInJapan,
Japan,the
theNikkei
NikkeiResearch
ResearchCompany
Company(NRC)
(NRC)has
hasexperience
experienceininacademic
academicresearch
research
on Internet surveys [38–40]. Therefore, the NRC was commissioned to conduct a nationally
on Internet surveys [38–40]. Therefore, the NRC was commissioned to conduct a nation-
representative web survey for Japan through 25–30 October 2018. A total of 9130 partici-
ally representative web survey for Japan through 25–30 October 2018. A total of 9130 par-
pants participated in the survey. In the first survey, 7855 observations were gathered, which
ticipants participated in the survey. In the first survey, 7855 observations were gathered,
were reduced to 7285 in the follow-up survey. Eventually, the response rate reached 79%.
which were reduced to 7285 in the follow-up survey. Eventually, the response rate
In the first survey, as basic information, respondents were asked about their residential
reached 79%. In the first survey, as basic information, respondents were asked about their
locality, age, and educational background, and they were selected from 47 prefectures. They
residential locality, age, and educational background, and they were selected from 47 pre-
were then asked to report their subjective views about the Koshien tournament:
fectures. They were then asked to report their subjective views about the Koshien tourna-
ment: Do you agree that the operation system of the tournament should be changed to protect
the school player’s health?
Do you agree that the operation system of the tournament should be changed to protect
1 (Strongly
the disagree)
school player’s to 5 (Strongly agree).
health?
1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree).
2.1.2. Follow-Up Survey
2.1.2. Follow-Up Survey
Two weeks after the first survey, the follow-up survey was distributed to the respon-
Two
dents who weeks after the
completed the first survey,
original the follow-up
questionnaire. survey
Hence, was distributed
the two-period panelto thewere
data re-
spondents
constructed who completed
through the original
the first questionnaire.
and follow-up surveys.Hence,
As per thethe
two-period
flow chart panel datain
shown
were constructed
Figure through
1, information the first change
on climate and follow-up surveys.
was provided As perbefore
directly the flow chart
they shown the
answered in
Figure 1, information on climate change was provided directly before
question about the Koshien tournament. The specific information on climate changes is they answered the
question about in
demonstrated theFigure
Koshien tournament.
2, where The the
we indicate specific
total information on climate
number of extreme heatchanges is
days every
demonstrated
five years from in 1880
Figureto2, where
2015. Anwe indicate hot
extremely the day
totalwas
number of extreme
defined as havingheat days every
a temperature
five ◦ C. However,
>35years from 1880 to2015.
the An extremely
temperature hot day was
varies according defined
to the as having
location where thea temperature
temperature
>35 °C. However,
is measured. the temperature
Therefore, we used the varies
dataaccording to the
for extremely hotlocation
days inwhere
Osakathe temperature
because Osaka is
nearby and has a climate similar to that of Koshien Stadium.Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
Sustainability 2022, 14, 1399 4 of 11
is measured. Therefore, we used the data for extremely hot days in Osaka because Osaka
is nearby and has a climate similar to that of Koshien Stadium.
40
35
30
25
Days 20
15
10
5
0
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Figure 2. Total number of extremely hot days in October in Osaka (Japan) every five years, in the
Figure 2. Total number of extremely hot days in October in Osaka (Japan) every five years, in the
period 1880–2015. Note: An extremely hot day is defined when the temperature exceeds 35 °C.
period 1880–2015. Note: An extremely hot day is defined when the temperature exceeds 35 ◦ C.
Source: Website of Japan Meteorological Agency. http://www.data.jma.go.jp/risk/obsdl/index.php
Source: Website of Japan Meteorological Agency. http://www.data.jma.go.jp/risk/obsdl/index.php
(accessed on 23 August 2018).
(accessed on 23 August 2018).
The average temperatures of August in Japan are 27.7 °C (2014), 26.7 °C (2015), 27.1
The average temperatures of August in Japan are 27.7 ◦ C (2014), 26.7 ◦ C (2015), 27.1 ◦ C
°C
(2016), 26.4 ◦26.4
(2016), °C (2017),
C (2017), and 28.1 and◦ C28.1°C
(2018).(2018). Therefore,
Therefore, the survey the survey participants
participants experi-
experienced
theenced the highest
highest temperature temperature of thefive
of the past pastyears
five years
whenwhen the survey
the survey waswas conducted.
conducted. High
High
temperatures can have a significant effect on participants
temperatures can have a significant effect on participants during the tournament. This during the tournament. This
possibly influences the estimation results if a cross-section analysis
possibly influences the estimation results if a cross-section analysis is conducted. However, is conducted. How-
ever, a fixed-effects
a fixed-effects analysisanalysis is conducted
is conducted using data,
using panel panelwherein
data, wherein the interval
the interval betweenbetween
the
theand
first firstfollow-up
and follow-up surveys surveys
is only is two
onlyweeks.
two weeks.People People
who who are seriously
are seriously affected
affected duringdur-
theing the summer
summer tournament
tournament have have a relatively
a relatively different
different view.view.
However,However, the approach
the approach usedused
in
in this study allows for a comparison of the same person’s
this study allows for a comparison of the same person’s view first in summer, and then inview first in summer, and then
in autumn.
autumn. Accordingly,
Accordingly, the effects
the effects of theoftemperatures
the temperatures and incidents
and incidents that that occurred
occurred duringdur-
ing the tournament can
the tournament can be controlled. be controlled.
AA cursory
cursory examination
examination ofof Figure
Figure 2 reveals
2 reveals that
that the
the total
total number
number ofof extremely
extremely hot
hot days
days
waswasSustainability 2022, 14, 1399 5 of 11
the mean value of INFORMATION at 0.50. The mean value of UNIV is 0.25, suggesting that
25% of the respondents graduated from university. YOUNG_AGE is 0.18, indicating that
18% of the respondents were younger than 30 years. The mean value of FEMALE was 0.49,
indicating that almost half of the respondents were women. This implies that respondents
prefer the tournament system on average.
Table 1. Description of variables and its means and standard deviation.
Description Mean s.d.
Do you agree that the operation system of the tournament should be changed to protect the
KOSHIEN 3.58 1.00
school player’s health.?1 (strongly disagree)–5 (strongly agree)
INFORMATION Equals 1 if the information of climate change is provided, 0 otherwise. 0.50 0.50
UNIV Equals 1 if respondents graduated from university, 0 otherwise. 0.25 0.43
YOUNG_AGE Equals 1 if respondents are younger than 30 years old, 0 otherwise. 0.18 0.38
FEMALE Equals 1 if respondents are women, 0 otherwise 0.49 0.50
Observations 14,570
Note: The samples before and after providing the information are included. Information on climate change was
provided to all respondents. INFORMATION is equivalent to the follow-up survey dummy, which equals 1 if data
is from the follow-up survey, and 0 otherwise.
For a closer examination of KOSHIEN, Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of KOSHIEN
by dividing it into sub-samples before and after providing the information. There was a
striking difference in their distribution. Before providing the information, approximately
40% of respondents chose “3” and so were neutral with regard to the question. Respondents
who selected “Agree” or “Strongly agree” were about 30% and 20%, respectively. After
providing the information, respondents who selected neutral declined to slightly lower
than 30%, while respondents who selected “Strongly agree” rose to slightly over 30%.
Overall, many respondents were more likely to support changes in the system after being
exposed to the information.
2.3. Method
This study aims to analyze how information provision gives people an incentive to
protect human health. For this purpose, I examined a case study of a mid-summer high
school baseball tournament in Japan. I examined how, and to what extent, people’s views
about the tournament were changed by providing information on climate change in Japan.
A fixed-effects model was used. The baseline estimated function took the following form:
KOSHIENit = α0 + α1 INFORMATION t + mi + uit ,
where KOSHIENit represents the dependent variable for individual i and time point t.
The regression parameters are denoted as α. The error term is denoted by u. The key
independent variable was FORMATION. The sign of the coefficient of INFORMATION is
expected to be positive if the information on increasing extreme heat days leads respondents
to agree with the change in the tournament system.
Furthermore, the heterogeneity of people’s characteristics recently drew attention
when researchers analyzed treatment effects such as information provision. Depending
on participants’ prior beliefs, groups of participants may update their beliefs in different
directions in response to information [31]. Prior beliefs cannot be observed directly but can
be considered to depend on gender, age, and educational background. Hence, it is beneficial
to explore how the effect of information varies according to respondent’s characteristics.
For this purpose, several cross terms with INFORMATION were included in the alternative
specifications.
INFORMATION*FEMALE, INFORMATION*YOUNG_AGE and INFORMATION*UNIV.Sustainability 2022,14,
Sustainability2022, 14,1399
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 11
11
Before After
40
30
Percent
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
View about high school baseball games
Figure3.3. Distribution
Figure Distribution of
of view
view about
about the
the Koshien
Koshienbaseball
baseballtournament
tournamentbefore
beforeand
andafter
afterprovision
provisionof
information.
of information.
Furthermore,
Various studiesthe heterogeneity
suggest that thereofare people’s characteristics
sex differences regardingrecently drewoverconfi-
risk and attention
when researchers analyzed treatment effects such as information
dence. Women are more likely to exhibit risk aversion and be cautious [41–43]. They are provision. Depending
on participants’
also more benevolent priorandbeliefs, groups concerned
universally of participants[43]. may
Fromupdate
this, we their
inferbeliefs in different
that women are
directions
more likely in response
to agree withtothe
information
change in the [31]. Prior beliefs
tournament cannot
system be observed
to protect directly
the health but
of high
can beboys.
school considered
Hence,tothe depend on gender,
predicted age,coefficient
sign of the and educational background. Hence, itisis
of INFORMATION*FEMALE
beneficialThe
positive. to explore
status quo howbias
theiseffect
that of information
people tend to varies according
do nothing to respondent’s
or maintain char-
their current
acteristics.
or previous For this purpose,
decisions, even if several cross
it is better terms with
to change theirINFORMATION
decisions [44–46]. were included
Young people in
theless
are alternative
likely tospecifications.
have status quo biases [34–47]. Accordingly, people are more willing
to change the existing traditional
INFORMATION*FEMALE, tournament system. Hence,
INFORMATION*YOUNG_AGE andthe predicted sign of the
INFORMATION*UNIV.
coefficient of INFORMATION* YOUNG_AGE is positive. Turning to INFORMATION*UNIV,
Various studies suggest that there are sex differences regarding risk and overconfi-
more educated people are more able to appropriately evaluate the effect of heatwaves on
dence. Women are more likely to exhibit risk aversion and be cautious [41–43]. They are
players’ health after learning about the situation of extreme temperature increases. Thus,
also more benevolent and universally concerned [43]. From this, we infer that women are
the coefficient of INFORMATION* UNIV is predicted to have a positive sign.
more likely to agree with the change in the tournament system to protect the health of
3.high school boys. Hence, the predicted sign of the coefficient of INFORMATION*FEMALE
Results
is positive. The status quo bias is that people tend to do nothing or maintain their current
In Table 2, the estimates obtained from the fixed-effects (EF) estimations are presented.
or previous decisions, even if it is better to change their decisions [44–46]. Young people
This table indicates a positive sign for INFORMATION and statistical significance at the 1%
are less
level likely
in all to have
columns, status
thus quo biases
supporting the[34–47].
inference Accordingly,
presented in people are moresection.
the previous willingIn to
change the existing traditional tournament system. Hence, the predicted
column (1), the absolute value of the INFORMATION coefficient is 0.234. This implies that sign of the coef-
ficient of INFORMATION*
providing the information caused YOUNG_AGE
respondents is positive.
to agree Turning
with the to INFORMATION*UNIV,
change in the tournament
more educated people are more
system by a 0.234 point on a 5-point scale.able to appropriately evaluate the effect of heatwaves on
players’ health(2),
In column after
thelearning about the situation of extreme
sign of INFORMATION*FEMALE temperature
is positive increases.signif-
and statistically Thus,
the coefficient of INFORMATION* UNIV is predicted to have a positive
icant at the 1% level, which is consistent with the inference in the previous section. The sign.
absolute value is 0.098, meaning that the effect of providing information for women is
3. Results
0.098 points larger than that for men. The coefficient of INFORMATION is 0.187, meaning
In effect
that the Tableof 2,information
the estimates obtained
provision forfrom
men the fixed-effects
is 0.187 (EF) estimations
points. Based are pre-
on these results, the
sented. Thisprovision
information table indicates
effect afor
positive
womensign wasfor INFORMATION
52% greater than thatandforstatistical
men. significance
at the
In 1% level(3),
column in all
thecolumns, thus supporting the inferenceispresented
sign of INFORMATION*YOUNG_AGE in the
positive and previous
statistically
significant at the 1% level, which is consistent with the inference in
section. In column (1), the absolute value of the INFORMATION coefficient is 0.234.the previous section.
This
The absolute
implies that value is 0.077,
providing implying that
the information the effect
caused of providing
respondents information
to agree with thefor people
change in
below 30 years of
the tournament age isby
system 0.077 points
a 0.234 larger
point than forscale.
on a 5-point people over 30 years of age. TheSustainability 2022, 14, 1399 7 of 11
coefficient of INFORMATION is 0.221, suggesting that the effect of information provision
for older people is 0.221 points. Therefore, the information provision effect for young
people is 35% larger than that for older people.
Table 2. Estimation results of the FE model (dependent variable is “KOSHIEN”).
KOSHIEN
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0.234 *** 0.187 *** 0.221 *** 0.223 ***
INFORMATION
(0.01) (0.02) (0.02) (0.01)
0.098 ***
INFORMATION*FEMALE
(0.02)
0.077 **
INFORMATION*YOUNG AGE
(0.03)
0.047 **
INFORMATION*UNIV
(0.02)
Within R-squared 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.08
Observations 14,570 14,570 14,570 14,570
Note: Numbers within parentheses are robust standard errors clustered by individuals. *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05.
In column (4), the sign of INFORMATION*UNIV shows a positive sign and statistical
significance at the 5% level. This is in line with the inference presented in the previous
section. The absolute value is 0.047, indicating that the effect of providing information for
those who graduated from university is 0.047 points greater than that of lower-educated
people. The coefficient of INFORMATION is 0.223, suggesting that the effect of information
provision for low-educated people is 0.223 points. Overall, the information provision effect
for educated people is 21% greater than that for low-educated people.
The results jointly reveal that the predicted effect of information provision is more
strongly observed for female, young, and highly educated people. However, the effect is
also observed for men, old, and low-educated people, although its effect is smaller.
4. Discussion
From the findings, it follows that information on climate change is effective in direct-
ing people to change the tournament system to protect players’ health. This makes the
tournament sustainable because sports events can be sustained, assuming that the system
maintains players’ health. However, there is a problem of increased risk of heatstroke
and death when high school baseball players are exposed to daytime heatwaves during
mid-summer. Japanese people are likely to know through their experience that the average
temperature rises. However, they are unlikely to connect climate change with summer
sports and players’ health—hence their responses to questions about tournament systems
change if they are asked directly after being provided with this information. Further,
Japanese people’s perception about the rise in heat waves is possibly reinforced by the
provision of objective information, such as the rising trend exhibited in the previous figures.
One solution could be a change in stadium from Koshien to a roofed baseball park, an
all-weather baseball stadium.
Turning to the difference in the effects of information provision between groups.
The findings of this study made it evident that women are more sensitive to objective
information about climate change than men. Compared to men, women tend to be more
benevolent and universally concerned [43], which leads to paying attention to the health
condition of sports players. Through social interaction, women’s responses influence
men, which lead men to adopt a more positive view of activity in a sustainable society [39].
Similarly, the effect of information provision is larger for highly educated and young peopleSustainability 2022, 14, 1399 8 of 11
when they consider the relation between heat waves and health. People can adapt to the
risk of heatwaves by learning from past experiences [24]. The learning effect on disaster
prevention can be strengthened through social interaction [48]. Hence, the provision
of information should be more intensively provided to women and highly educated and
young people. Then, spillover through social interaction generates the norm, which changes
the view of men and less educated and older people.
In addition to health [24], the issue of temperature change can be considered in terms
of productivity. The heatwave reduces the quality of play in baseball games. An increase in
temperature has a detrimental effect not only on agricultural productivity [49], but also on
manufacturing labor productivity [35,36], and years of high temperatures are associated
with a lower economic output in developing countries, which can be explained by reduced
worker productivity and increased absenteeism on hot days [29]. High temperatures >21 ◦ C
lead to drops in online game performance [50]. Online gaming requires intense engage-
ment and the deployment of cognitive skills, which are key factors in other productive
activities. Temperature anomalies at the time of birth have long-term negative impacts
on an individuals’ economic productivity after they become adults, implying that human
capital formation is hampered [51]. Climate control is thought to significantly mitigate
productivity losses in various sectors.
The provision of information regarding the increase in hot days plays a critical role in
changing the social system to protect workers’ health and to maintain their engagement in
work and their productivity. This is the key to achieving sustainable development.
The simple and partial question used in this study is not sufficient to understand the
opinions of the participants, although this holds in any positive analysis that considers
the subjective view. A case study in a novel setting such as this is useful for providing the
first step to bridge the gap between climate change and sports events from the behavioral
economics perspective. Furthermore, experiences prior to the first survey can be controlled
using fixed-effect estimations. However, there could be possible changes in survey partic-
ipants’ health status and preventive behaviors between the first and follow-up surveys,
which could influence the view of the high school baseball tournament. Unfortunately,
in the questionnaire, preventive behaviors were not assessed. Health status was assessed
in the first wave, but not in the second one. These issues should be addressed in future
studies, although such drastic changes are unlikely to have occurred within two weeks,
between the end of October (the first survey) and mid-November (the follow-up survey).
5. Conclusions
Extremely high temperatures have negative effects on labor productivity and health
conditions. During the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics games, players experienced heat-
waves, which led them to encountering difficulties. Athletes struggled with the heat
accompanied by high humidity during games, and some of them experienced serious
injuries by falling unconscious [52]. Under the same conditions, summer high school
baseball tournaments have been held every mid-summer for over 100 years since 1915. The
traditional tournament system has not been modified, although the number of extremely
hot days has increased. This leads to the endangerment of high school players by unsafe
environments. Internet surveys were conducted twice to purposefully test the same indi-
viduals. Then, the views of changing the tournament system before and after providing the
information were compared. Using the data, it was found that, compared with their initial
views, respondents were more likely to agree that the management rule of the Koshien
tournaments should be changed to protect player’s health, and (2) the effect was greater
for female respondents, young people, and highly educated respondents. However, the
provision changed views for men, old people, and low-educated people. Through social
interaction, the tournament system would change if people are provided with the correct
information about climate change.
I found that information provision varies with gender, age, and educational back-
ground. It is valuable to consider this mechanism in future research. Further, the findingsSustainability 2022, 14, 1399 9 of 11
of this study are based on a simple question about the subjective view of the tournament
system. Hence, the contribution of this study is that it simply provides facts in the novel
setting of high school baseball games. This is not sufficient to derive a strong conclusion for
policy implications. However, it is critical to consider the effect of information provision
using alternative subjective and objective variables. The relationship between health issues
and environmental sustainability should be analyzed by considering sports events in terms
of behavioral science. These issues should be addressed in future studies.
Funding: This research was funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (grant
number [16H03628]).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study. The
survey used in this study falls outside the scope of the Japanese government’s Ethical Guidelines
for Medical and Health Research Involving Human Subjects, and there are no national guidelines in
Japan for social and behavioral research. Therefore, our study was carried out in accordance with the
Ethical Principles for Sociological Research of the Japan Sociological Society, which does not require
an ethical review.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
All survey participants gave their consent to participate in the anonymous online survey by the
Nikkei Research Company. The authors did not obtain personal information about the participants.
After being informed about the purpose of the study and their right to quit the survey, participants
agreed to participate. They were provided with the option “I do not want to respond. The completion
of the entire questionnaire was considered to indicate the participants’ consent.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available upon request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank four anonymous referees for their valuable suggestions
to improve the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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