EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS - OVERVIEW A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa - World Bank ...
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EXPECTATIONS AND ASPIRATIONS A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa OVERVIEW
Overview
Expectations and
Aspirations
A New Framework for Education
in the Middle East and North AfricaThis booklet contains the updated overview (originally published in November 2018) from Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa, doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1234-7. A PDF of the final, full-length book, once published, will be available at https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ and print copies can be ordered at http://Amazon.com. Please use the final version of the book for citation, reproduction, and adaptation purposes. © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Nothing herein shall constitute or be considered to be a limitation upon or waiver of the privileges and immunities of The World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. Rights and Permissions This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license (CC BY 3.0 IGO) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo. Under the Creative Commons Attribution license, you are free to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt this work, including for commercial purposes, under the following conditions: Attribution—Please cite the work as follows: World Bank. 2019. “Expectations and Aspirations: A New Framework for Education in the Middle East and North Africa.” Overview booklet. World Bank, Washington, DC. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO Translations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation. Adaptations—If you create an adaptation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This is an adaptation of an original work by The World Bank. Views and opinions expressed in the adaptation are the sole responsibility of the author or authors of the adaptation and are not endorsed by The World Bank. Third-party content—The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work. The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third- party-owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. If you wish to re-use a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Cover design: Aya Krisht. The Arabic calligraphy on the cover is composed of the words “knowledge, education, learning.” Background image by Kjpargeter/Freepik.com. Used with permission; further permission required for reuse. Interior image credits: The following images are by individual artists from thenounproject.com: Figure ES.1 / Figure O.1: “Rope” by Pedro Baños Cancer. Figure ES.2 / Figure O.7: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “Climbing” by IYIKON; “Man Pushing Big Ball” by Gan Khoon Lay; “Pull” by Pavel, N. Figure O.2 / Figure O.17: “Diploma” by Ben Davis; “Brain” by Max Hancock. Figure O.21: “Handshake” by Gregor Cresnar; “People” by Anastasia Latysheva; “Idea” by Ben Markoch.
Contents
Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Education has large untapped potential for the Middle East and North Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Much has changed in MENA—and the world—but education in MENA remains stuck . . . . 2
Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A new framework is needed to realize education’s potential in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Push for learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Pull for skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Recognize that context matters for learning and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
A new education pact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Unleashing the potential of education is attainable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Boxes
O.1 Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
O.2 World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. . . . . . . 13
O.3 Prioritizing early childhood education in the United Arab Emirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
O.4 Attracting the best students to teaching depends on the right policies
and programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
O.5 School principals also must act as instructional leaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
O.6 Teaching at the right level benefits students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
O.7 Improving foreign language instruction is important . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
O.8 Conflict in MENA is depriving many children of education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
iiii v C o n t e n t s
O.9 MENA’s gender paradox presents a dual challenge for human capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
O.10 EdTech offers opportunities to leapfrog learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
O.11 Signaling in education is communicating about skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
O.12 Reforming vocational education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
O.13 Finland and the Republic of Korea rely on different successful education models . . . . 43
O.14 In Rwanda, education has played a role in building peace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
O.15 Peru has found success in aligning interests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
O.16 Egypt’s education sector uses technology to ensure accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Figures
ES.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
ES.2 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . xii
O.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
O.2 MENA is stuck in a credentialist equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
O.3 MENA students are more likely to be asked to memorize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
O.4 Obedience plays a central role in children’s education in MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
O.5 Teachers in MENA have less autonomy than teachers in OECD countries. . . . . . . . . . 10
O.6 Substantial time is devoted to religious education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
O.7 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new framework for education in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . 12
O.8 What matters for growth is skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
O.9 When adjusted for learning, the number of years of effective schooling
in MENA drops substantially. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
O.10 Preprimary enrollments are lower in MENA than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . 17
O.11 Large differences in preprimary enrollment ratios are found across MENA. . . . . . . . . . 17
O.12 The required working hours for teachers in MENA are well below those
in top-performing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
O.13 Teacher absenteeism is prevalent throughout MENA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
O.14 MENA has the biggest gaps in student achievement between top and
bottom performers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
O.15 MENA has the largest gender gaps in test scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
O.16 Computers are available in MENA’s schools, although coverage varies considerably . . . . 35
O.17 MENA needs a skills equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
O.18 A personal connection (wasta) is critical to securing work in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
O.19 School principals in MENA have less authority than those in OECD countries. . . . . . 40
O.20 Tolerance is associated with education, but intolerance is high even among
the educated in MENA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
O.21 Learning is a collective responsibility, and everyone is accountable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
BO.16.1 Technology can shape accountability relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Tables
O.1 MENA countries have some of the lowest results on international
student assessments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
O.2 Participation in national and international assessments has surged in MENA
since 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
O.3 MENA’s student achievement gaps have both narrowed and widened . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Foreword
In 1963, a country in the Middle East and education policies and the need for urgent
North Africa region (MENA), Tunisia, made and deep reforms. The report comes on the
history when it convinced the World Bank to heels of the release, in October 2018, of the
help it finance, develop, and promote its edu- Human Capital Index, which measures how
cation system. Other countries followed, and countries are preparing their citizens for a
the World Bank took the lead in investing in productive future, and which is revealing
education across the world. large gaps for countries in MENA. The index
Fifty-five years later, in 2018, when it came confirms that education is pivotal to building
to standing up and being counted, nine coun- MENA’s human capacity and to unleashing
tries in MENA came forward and chose to be its human wealth.
early adopters of the Human Capital Project. The facts are telling, and they call for our
Many others followed. attention. The youth in MENA have achieved
These countries took this step in recogni- much higher education levels than their par-
tion of a difficult reality: that they were part ents, more than any region in the world.
of a region lagging in clever and efficient Unlike in other regions, however, this achieve-
investments in its most precious asset—its ment has yet to translate into better opportu-
people, and especially its youth. These coun- nities and higher income.
tries also stood up with the determination to MENA has the highest intergenerational
do better, work faster, and take on the formi- mobility in education in the world, but its
dable challenge of acting decisively to alter intergenerational mobility in income is low.
the course of history—and to offer a new, The region’s average spending on education is
positive, forward-looking, and bold vision for higher than the world average. In spite of
their region, their countries, and their youth. that, its learning outcomes are among the
This book on the comprehensive reforms lowest.
awaiting MENA’s education systems arrives Girls are, by far, outperforming boys in
at a time of profound thought about the learning outcomes—with the highest gender
region, its potential, its future, and its place in gap among all countries. Yet the region has
a fast-changing and fast-paced world. It feeds the lowest female labor force participation
into a dialogue opened by the World Bank rates in the world. MENA has the highest
and others with MENA countries on their youth unemployment rates in the world; these
vv i F o r e w o r d
rates are mostly among the educated, espe- innovative, leading-edge, creative, ambi-
cially women. tious, and bespoke solutions for our partner
All of this makes for a huge loss of produc- countries. We need to point out the weak-
tivity for MENA economies. And all of this nesses and help to address them. This is
makes for the many paradoxes of MENA at where our effort and energy will go, for we
large. firmly believe that the MENA countries and
In recent years, the region has witnessed economies need to set a far-reaching goal
the devastating effects of the unmet expec- for themselves—not only to close the gap in
tations and unrealized aspirations of its human capital but to leapfrog to a prosper-
population, especially youth and women. We ous, peaceful, and stable future that meets
ought to learn from those, still current, trou- the expectations and aspirations of its
bled times—learn and act. young people.
There is today an immediate need for a
compact with youth, one in which the Ferid Belhaj
World Bank will have to play an active and Vice President
dynamic role. Above and beyond the diag- Middle East and North Africa Region
nostics that any report can provide—and The World Bank
this one is a case in point—we need moreAcknowledgments This report was prepared by Safaa El Tayeb Sekkarie, Jee Peng Tan, Simon Thacker, El-Kogali, Education Global Practice Ayesha Vawda, and Mohamed Yassine. Manager, Middle East and North Africa We also appreciate the contributions of region (MENA), at the World Bank. The St. Catherine University research assistants report draws on contributions by a team led Kapono Asuncion, Zea Branson, Taylor Flak, by Lianqin Wang and Caroline Krafft and Lyndsay Kast, Caitlyn Keo, and Johanna composed of Mariam Nusrat Adil, Tatlow. Colleagues from across the MENA Mohammed Audah, May Bend, Maja Education Global Practice and other units Capek, Angela Demas, Laura Gregory, Igor contributed valuable information. Kheyfets, Almedina Music, Robert Prouty, Various drafts of the report benefited from Manal Quota, Jamil Salmi, Elisabeth the excellent comments and suggestions from Sedmik, Venkatesh Sundararaman, Samira Ragui Assaad, Benu Bidan, Kamel Braham, Nikaein Towfighian, and Noah Yarrow. Michael Crawford, Luis Crouch, Amit Dar, Overall guidance in the preparation of the Sameh El-Saharty, Mourad Ezzine, Tazeen report was provided by Hafez Ghanem, Fasih, Deon Filmer, Poonam Gupta, Amer Regional Vice President; Shantayanan Hasan, Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Xiaoyan Devarajan, Senior Director; Jaime Saavedra, Liang, Lili Mottaghi, Halsey Rogers, and Senior Director; Rabah Arezki, Chief Sajjad Shah. We would also like to thank the Economist; Daniel Lederman, Deputy Chief members of the MENA Regional Economist; Luis Benveniste, Director; and Management Team for their feedback. Keiko Miwa, Director. This report benefited greatly from the feed- We appreciate the contributions of our col- back received during regional and in-country leagues, including Husein Abdul-Hamid, consultations. In particular, we are grateful Fadila Caillaud, Michael Drabble, Jiayue Fan, for the invaluable feedback received at Kasra Farivari, Katherina Hruskovec regional consultation events held in December Gonzalez, Samira Halabi, Yue-Yi Hwa, Pierre 2017 in Amman, Jordan, and Beirut, Kamano, Thomas Michael Kaye, Amira Lebanon. Comments, insights, and sugges- Kazem, Lisa Lahalih, Jee Yoon Lee, Juan tions were received during the event from Manuel Moreno, Harriet Nannyonjo, H. E. Dr. Omar Razzaz, Prime Minister and Shahram Paksima, Karine Pezzani, Samia former Minister of Education of Jordan; vii
v i i i A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
H. E. Dr. Tarek Shawki, Minister of Education collaboration with Maja Capek, Emma
of the Arab Republic of Egypt; and H. E. Fadi Etori, and Elisabeth Sedmik from the MENA
Yarak, Secretary General, Ministry of education unit. Aya Krisht developed the
Education, Lebanon. We also appreciate the cover design. Patricia da Camara, Karolina
valuable feedback received from representa- Ordon, and Ashraf Saad Allah Al-Saeed
tives of governments, academia, nongovern- provided guidance and support on commu-
mental organizations, civil society nications and dissemination. Elisabeth
organizations, and international development Mekonnen provided overall administrative
organizations across MENA. support.
Our special thanks go to everyone who The report draws on literature and docu-
supported the publication, dissemination, ments by researchers and specialists from
and communication efforts for this report. across the world and on the authors’ own
They include Sabra Ledent, the principal experiences and interactions with many dedi-
editor of the report, and Jewel McFadden, cated educators, administrators, policy mak-
who coordinated the publication process in ers, and students in MENA.Executive Summary
Education has a large untapped potential to the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015a), youth
contribute to human capital, well-being, unemployment rates have risen, and the
and wealth in the Middle East and North quality of public services has deteriorated
Africa region (MENA).1 In fact, it has been (Brixi, Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World
at the heart of the region’s history and civi- Bank 2013). Even in relatively stable coun-
lizations for centuries. In the 20th century, tries, labor market outcomes for the edu-
education was central to countries’ struggles cated have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft
for independence, to building modern states 2013; Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali,
and economies, and to defining national and Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and
identities. Today, MENA has the lowest Ahad 2016). Exacerbating these challenges
share of human capital in total wealth was the substantial downturn in the global
globally (Lange, Wodon, and Carey 2018). oil market, which has placed more pressure
Although the region’s young people have on resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and
attained higher educational levels than their created an even more urgent need to push
parents, they were not able to translate for human capital development across
their educational attainment to greater MENA.
income opportunities (Narayan et al. 2018). Despite large investments in education
MENA has the highest absolute intergener- over the last 50 years, impressive growth in
ational education mobility compared to enrollment rates, and gender parity at almost
other regions in the world, but it also has all levels of education, MENA has not been
low intergenerational income mobility. In able to fully reap the personal, social, and
most other regions, educational attainment economic benefits of education. During these
and income mobility are well correlated same 50 years, the Republic of Korea also
(Narayan et al. 2018). invested in its human capital and succeeded in
The 435 million residents of MENA are moving from a developing country in the
enduring a period of pronounced hardship. early 1960s to one of the top 20 economies in
Ongoing threats to peace and economic sta- the world today. Korea established a world-
bility are contributing to challenges across class education system, and its students con-
numerous sectors. Economic growth has sistently rank among the top in international
remained persistently low in the aftermath of learning assessments. By contrast, MENA
ixx E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y
students have consistently ranked among the Four tensions
lowest on such assessments.
Although much has changed politically, The education process consists of a complex
economically, and socially in MENA, its edu- set of factors and actors at multiple levels.
cation systems have largely remained Factors outside the education system—
unchanged. Over the past decade, new tech- political, economic, and social—formally
nologies have emerged and spread globally, and informally interact with the education
disrupting the lives of billions and changing system and shape its outcomes. Behavioral
the nature of work. Consequently, the kinds norms and ideological polarization among
of skills needed to succeed in the labor market governments, interest groups, and citizens
are changing as well (World Bank 2019). The can hold countries back from delivering pub-
role of technology as a demand shaper in the lic goods (World Bank 2016). Education in
future of work is certain, but its role as a MENA has been held back by these behav-
delivery catalyst holds great potential that the ioral norms and ideological polarization,
region has not yet tapped. Indeed, technology which are embodied in four sets of tensions
is changing how today’s students are being (see figure ES.1): (1) credentials and skills;
prepared to enter the future workforce—that (2) discipline and inquiry; (3) control and
is, it is influencing not only the ends of educa- autonomy; and (4) tradition and modernity.
tion but also the means. Technology presents These tensions have held education back
a unique opportunity to help deliver high- from evolving to deliver learning that
quality education in a more efficient and prepares students for their future. The four
effective manner. tensions are deeply embedded in the region’s
MENA has the capacity and resources to history, culture, and political economy, but
leverage technology to create education sys- they exist to varying degrees in each country,
tems that will build its human capital. The and they largely define social and political
region has the tools and the opportunities to relations. They have informed and shaped
leapfrog and create prosperous and peaceful education policy in MENA countries since
societies. However, the power of education to independence, and they are at the heart of
build human capital and to create change the current national discourses on education
depends on its quality, its access to comple- reforms.
mentary economic and social environments, Schools and classrooms are the platforms
and its ability to leverage technology smartly. on which these tensions are exercised through
curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that
define interactions among principals, teach-
FIGURE ES.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti-
mately shape the educational outcomes for
Tradition young people in MENA and affect their lives,
as well as the economies and societies in
Credentials Discipline which they live. In an increasingly connected
world, the effects of these tensions can reach
beyond the region’s borders. Unless they are
Classroom School Society addressed, MENA will not be able to reap the
Control Education Autonomy full benefits of education, no matter how
much money is invested.
Credentials and skills. A credential in the
form of a degree, diploma, or certificate is
Inquiry Skills
usually associated with acquiring a specific set
Modernity
of skills. In the labor market, credentials sig-
nal productivity based on the assumption that
Source: World Bank. more years of education are associated withE x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y xi
higher productivity. Throughout MENA, a modern world and the moral imperatives
public sector employment was historically of a religious society. The result is tension
guaranteed to anyone with a sufficient educa- between modernity, or the forces of change,
tion credential. Thus, checking the credential and tradition (Cook 2000). This tension can
box became more valued than acquiring lead to conflicts within education processes
skills. As a result, there is little or no link (Massialas and Jarrar 1987). In MENA,
between education credentials and skills in modernity is frequently associated with
MENA. Countries are stuck in a “credential- Western models and approaches and is used
ist equilibrium,” in which a weak demand for by opponents of change to halt reforms.
skills and a strong demand for credentials in However, modernity is the process of renew-
the labor market induce families to demand ing social norms, and there are multiple
credentials from the education system more “modernities.” The issue is not replacing tra-
than skills (Salehi-Isfahani 2012). The educa- dition with modernity. Rather, it is allowing
tion system, in turn, responds to their demands review of the traditional practices and norms
by providing credentials. that hold back the potential of education
Discipline and inquiry. In societies in and engaging in a process of renewal that
which social norms are strong, discipline prepares students to better relate to a chang-
ensures adherence to those norms. Concepts ing world.
of discipline and inquiry are closely linked to
pedagogy and curricula, as well as to the day-
to-day interactions in schools among princi- Push, pull, and pact: A new
pals, teachers, and students. Overemphasis on
discipline leads to memorization and passive
framework for education
learning. Across MENA, curricula depend To realize the potential of education, MENA
heavily on rote memorization, leaving little needs to tackle the four tensions and estab-
time for the development of critical thinking lish an education system that prepares all
skills. Although discipline is important, too students for a productive and successful
much may constrict students’ abilities to future. Such a system would be modern
learn, think, explore ideas, or question con- and flexible and would nurture a culture of
cepts. Inquiry, by contrast, allows students to excellence and creativity in learning. It also
understand their surroundings, contextualize would leverage disruptive technologies and
concepts through questions and experimenta- adopt modern approaches so it can offer
tion, and build the skills they need to learn young people the skills they need to define
throughout life. their trajectories in life and adapt to local,
Control and autonomy. The tension national, and global changes. Finally, it
between control and autonomy is embodied would be a system that would be based on
in the ongoing debate about the decentraliza- a shared national vision and would connect
tion of education services delivery and the with the overall development goals of the
balance of power among central ministries, country. All of society would be responsible
regional offices, and schools. Several MENA for ensuring its success. To establish such a
countries have experimented with aspects of system, MENA needs to adopt a new frame-
education decentralization, autonomy, and work for education—one that includes a
accountability. The success of these efforts concerted push for learning, a wide-reaching
has varied. In some instances, a decentralized pull for skills, and new pact for education
model to devolve decision making was rolled (see figure ES.2).
out, but it did not provide the means for The potential of education is achieved only
implementation at local and school levels. when it confers the skills and knowledge that
Tradition and modernity. According to constitute human capital. It is, in fact, the
some scholars, the greatest challenge facing skills conferred through learning that deter-
MENA is aligning the development needs of mine education’s contribution to economicx i i Executive Summary
FIGURE ES.2 “Push, pull, and pact” offers a new makes it difficult to make a regional rec-
framework for education in MENA ommendation. Even though this phenom-
enon is a regional one, it manifests itself in
A stronger pull
for skills many different ways in different countries.
Hence, it needs to be addressed with a very
A new pact specific formula in each country.
for education
5. Applying learning assessments that regu-
larly monitor student progress to ensure
A stronger push
that students are learning.
for learning 6. Giving all children, regardless of gender,
race, background, or ability, an opportu-
Source: World Bank.
nity to learn—a requirement for raising
learning outcomes at the national level.
growth—not the years of schooling (Barro 7. Leveraging technology to enhance the
and Lee 2013; Hanushek and Woessmann delivery of education and promote learn-
2008; World Bank 2018). MENA has suc- ing among students and educators and
ceeded in providing schooling; now it needs prepare students for an increasingly digital
to achieve learning. The number of actual world.
years of schooling has increased across
MENA; several countries have reached an To reap the benefits of education, MENA
average that is close to a full cycle of primary must align its push for learning with a pull
and secondary education. However, when the for skills. Without a realignment of the
number of actual years of schooling is labor market that increases the demand for
adjusted for learning, the effective years of skills, the contribution of the education sec-
schooling in MENA are, on average, 2.9 less tor to the economy will not be fully realized.
than the number of actual years of schooling. A concerted push for learning can lead to
In other words, the poor quality of education some progress, but it is not enough to real-
in MENA is equivalent to approximately ize the full potential of education. Such a
three lost years of education (World Bank push would move education closer to fulfill-
2018). ing its potential, but it would be a second-
To pursue a push for learning, countries best approach that would leave most of that
need to focus on seven areas: potential untapped (Rodrik 2008). A first-
best approach involves multisystem reforms
1. Building the foundational skills—from that align the push for learning with a pull for
early childhood through the early grades skills. It includes economic reforms to bring
of school—needed for future learning and the skills required in the labor market in line
success. with those conferred by education and sought
2. Ensuring that teachers and school leaders, by parents and students, as well as efforts
who are the most important inputs to the to address distortions in the education sec-
learning process, are qualified, well selected, tor and beyond. Employers would shift from
effectively utilized, and incentivized to con- focusing on credentials to demanding skills.
tinue to develop professionally. Parents and students could then demand
3. Modernizing pedagogy and instructional skills from the education system, which
practices to promote inquiry, creativity, would help MENA move away from a cre-
and innovation. dentialist equilibrium to a skills equilibrium.
4. Addressing the language of instruction Achieving this shift, however, will depend on
challenge presented by the gap between employers doing a better job of signaling the
spoken Arabic and modern standard skills they need. It will also depend on policy
Arabic. The close connection among lan- makers addressing rigid labor policies that
guage, religion, and national identity discourage employers from seeking open,E x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y xiii transparent ways of hiring for skills. A pull mindset. However, such an effort must be for skills will depend as well on civil service based on credible evidence not linked to any reforms that support hiring, motivating, and ideological or political rhetoric; it must focus empowering the best teachers and placing on real, substantial reforms and not minor them where they are most needed. changes in policies (Khemani 2017). Finally, a pull for skills will depend on cur- Changing laws can also lead to a shift in ricula that reflect the skills that prepare stu- norms. However, enactment of laws alone is dents for social and economic life. Curricula not sufficient; they must be strictly imple- reforms must, then, ensure alignment of what mented and their compliance encouraged. students learn with the skills they need. A behavioral response to incentives in the Curricula should serve as the nexus for the short run can lead to longer-term shifts in multiple spheres of society, the labor market, behavior and social norms (World Bank and the education system. Meanwhile, the 2015b). shift from a credentialist equilibrium to a A pact for education. Improving education skills equilibrium should be evident in curri- is not the responsibility of educators alone; it cula. Systems are aligned when official curri- must involve all members of society— cula reflect the skills demanded by society and politicians, businesspeople, and community the labor market. Conversely, when official and religious leaders, as well as parents, curricula are outdated and disconnected from teachers, school principals, and students real life, the result is a mismatch between themselves. Education can potentially play what students acquire and what society and many roles in an economy and society, but employers require. there are tensions among stakeholders’ goals. Context matters. Education reforms in By far, the most difficult are often-opposing MENA through a push for learning and a views, strongly held convictions, and diver- pull for skills will not achieve the same results gent interests. The dissonance across different in all contexts. There are multiple models for stakeholders’ goals for education is a substan- transforming education. Finland and Korea tial obstacle. were both top scorers in the 2015 Programme Establishing a new pact for education is for International Student Assessment (PISA), therefore critical. The interests of the wide a sign of strong learning. Yet the two educa- variety of stakeholders—including teachers, tion systems that produced this learning are principals, inspectors, politicians, communi- quite different. MENA countries need to roll ties, employers, and students—need to be out reform efforts based on what is feasible in aligned by building powerful alliances. Doing education, economic, and social reform— this requires a unified vision that takes into successful education reforms will depend on account the four tensions holding back educa- understanding the existing constraints tion, the local context, and the social norms (Rodrik 2008). How reforms are designed, that define the tensions. It also requires strong introduced, approved, and implemented leadership to align interests and rally support within a specific country also determines their around common national goals to which edu- success. The effectiveness of different policy cation must contribute. A new pact also will options often depends on whether comple- depend on a common sense that everyone is mentary conditions are in place and whether responsible and everyone is accountable in the sufficient resources are available. provision of education—that is, accountability Making any substantial changes in educa- needs to go beyond the education system. tion calls for tackling inefficient social norms Finally, a new pact requires reconciling invest- that inhibit reform. Changing social norms is ments and resources with the vision’s priori- not easy, but it can be done. Raising aware- ties. High-performing education systems—such ness about the costs or inefficiencies of certain as those in Japan, Korea, and Singapore—are norms, or the benefits that would accrue to good examples of strong education pacts society from reforms, can help shift the social across stakeholders. These countries have
x i v E x e c u t i v e Summary
adopted a unified vision for education and IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2017.
have consistently and coherently instituted “Regional Economic Outlook—Middle East
reforms to achieve human capital–driven eco- and Central Asia.” IMF, Washington, DC.
nomic growth (Wong 2017). Khemani, Stuti. 2017. “Political Economy of
Reform.” Policy Research Working Paper 8224,
MENA has the history, culture, and
World Bank, Washington, DC.
resources to leapfrog into a future founded on
Krafft, Caroline. 2013. “Is School the Best Route
a learned society and a knowledge economy. to Skills? Returns to Vocational School and
The region has great expectations and aspira- Vocational Skills in Egypt.” Working Paper
tions. Unleashing the potential of education is 2013-09, Minnesota Population Center,
attainable, but it will take a commitment by all University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
to make education not only a national priority Lange, Glenn-Marie, Quentin Wodon, and
but also a national emergency. Kevin Carey. 2018. The Changing Wealth of
Nations 2018: Building a Sustainable Future.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Note Massialas, Byron G., and Samir A. Jarrar. 1987.
1. The World Bank defines MENA as includ- “Conflicts in Education in the Arab World: The
ing these countries and economies: Algeria, Present Challenge.” Arab Studies Quarterly
Bahrain, Djibouti, Arab Republic of 9 (1): 35–52.
Egypt, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Narayan, Ambar, Roy Van der Weide, Alexandru
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Cojocaru, Christoph Lakner, Silvia Redaelli,
Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Daniel Gerszon Mahler, Rakesh Gupta N.
Republic, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, Ramasubbaiah, and Stefan Thewissen. 2018.
West Bank and Gaza, and the Republic of Fair Progress? Economic Mobility across
Yemen. This report excludes Malta from the Generations around the World. Equity and
analysis as it has little in common with the Development. Washington, DC: World
rest of the region. Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org
/-handle/10986/28428.
Rizk, Reham. 2016. “Returns to Education: An
Updated Comparison from Arab Countries.”
References ERF Working Paper 986, Economic Research
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Debate.” Comparative Education 36 (4): Iran, and Turkey.” Middle East Development
477–90. Journal 1 (2): 145–87.
El-Araby, Ashraf. 2013. “Economics of Egypt’s Tzannatos, Zafiris, Ishac Diwan, and Joanna
Tertiary Education—Public versus Private and Abdel Ahad. 2016. “Rates of Return to
Fairness and Efficiency Considerations.” In Education in Twenty-Two Arab Countries; An
Is There Equality of Opportunity under Free Update and Comparison between MENA and
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by Asmaa Elbadawy, 135–62. New York: 1007, Economic Research Forum, Giza, Egypt.
Population Council. Wong, Anny. 2017. “Insights from East Asia’s
Hanushek, Eric A., and Ludger Woessmann. 2008. High-Performing Education Systems:
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46 (3): 607–68. for Growing Smarter: Learning and EquitableE x e c u t i v e S u m m a r y xv Development in East Asia and Pacific, World ———. 2016. Making Politics Work for Bank, Washington, DC. Development: Harnessing Transparency World Bank. 2013. Jobs for Shared Prosperity: and Citizen Engagement. Washington, DC: Time for Action in the Middle East and North World Bank. Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. ———. 2018. World Development Report 2018: ———. 2015a. “Inequality, Uprisings, and Conflict Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. in the Arab World.” MENA Economic Monitor Washington, DC: World Bank. 3 (October 15). World Bank, Washington, DC. ———. 2019. World Development Report 2019: ———. 2015b. World Development Report 2015: The Changing Nature of Work. Washington, Mind, Society, and Behavior. Washington, DC: DC: World Bank. World Bank.
Abbreviations CAL computer-assisted learning ECCE early childhood care and education ECD early childhood development ECE early childhood education EGMA Early Grade Mathematics Assessment EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment GCC Gulf Cooperation Council ICT information and communication technology IDP internally displaced person LOI language of instruction MENA Middle East and North Africa MOOC massive open online course MSA modern standard Arabic OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PBB performance-based budgeting PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PISA Programme for International Student Assessment STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study xvii
Overview
ان رصيد أي امة متقدمة هو أبناؤها المتعلمون وان تقدم الشعوب واألمم انما يقاس بمستوى التعليم وانتشاره – شيخ زايد ال نهيان
The credit of any developed nation is its educated children, and the advancement of people
and nations is measured by the status and reach of their education.
—Shaykh Zayed Alnahyan
Education has large untapped returns to education in the labor market are
potential for the Middle East and among the lowest in the world (Patrinos
2016). Beyond the labor market, education
North Africa in MENA is only weakly associated with
Young people in the Middle East and North social outcomes such as civic engagement
Africa region (MENA) 1 today have more and participation in community issues,
educational opportunities and have attained unlike in other regions (Diwan 2016).
higher educational levels than their parents. MENA also has the lowest share of human
Among the world’s regions, MENA ranks capital in total wealth globally (Lange,
highest in terms of absolute intergenera- Wodon, and Carey 2018). The contribution
tional education mobility (Narayan of education to human capital, economic
et al. 2018). However, its high levels of growth, and social outcomes is well docu-
educational attainment have not translated mented (Becker 1962; Lochner and Moretti
into greater income opportunities. 2004; Milligan, Moretti, and Oreopoulos
Intergenerational income mobility in MENA 2004; Mincer 1974; OECD 2014; Sala-
is low. Educational attainment and income i-Martin, Doppelhofer, and Miller 2004).
mobility are strongly correlated in most Education has a large, untapped potential to
other regions and within the world’s high- contribute to the human capital, well-being,
income countries, but not in MENA and wealth of MENA (Lange, Wodon, and
(Narayan et al. 2018). Families and individ- Carey 2018). It has been at the heart of the
uals invest in education in the hopes of ben- region’s history and civilizations for centuries.
efiting from good work opportunities in the In the 20th century, education was central
labor market, but in MENA the private to countries’ struggles for independence,
12 Expec tations and Aspir ations
to building modern states and economies, and over the last five decades? More important,
to defining national identities. what can MENA countries do to emerge from
MENA has made large investments in edu- this impasse and retake their position as lead-
cation over the last 50 years and has ers in education and innovation? How can
achieved impressive growth in enrollment they unleash the potential of their human
rates and gender parity at almost all educa- capital to create prosperous and peaceful
tion levels. And yet all MENA countries— societies?
regardless of their geography, demography, MENA countries have an opportunity to
economy, or society—have not been able to realize the untapped potential of education
reap the full personal, social, and economic and fulfill the expectations and aspirations of
benefits of education. During these same their young citizens and future generations.
50 years, the Republic of Korea also invested But some hurdles must be overcome. This
in its human capital and succeeded in moving report identifies four sets of tensions that are
from a low-income country in the early holding back MENA’s education potential:
1960s to one of the top 20 economies in the (1) credentials and skills; (2) discipline and
world today. Korea established a world-class inquiry; (3) control and autonomy; and
education system, and its students consis- (4) tradition and modernity. These tensions
tently rank among the top in international are found within countries, societies, commu-
learning assessments. By contrast, MENA nities, and households and are manifested
students have consistently ranked among the and reinforced in schools and classrooms.
lowest on such assessments. Unless they are addressed, no amount of
When asked in a 2017 World Bank MENA investment in education can reap the full ben-
Facebook poll whether they thought educa- efits. The report proposes a new framework
tion improves their chances in the job market that calls for a concerted push for learning,
in their country, 92 percent of respondents a stronger pull for skills, and a new pact for
said “No,” and one respondent said, “A thou- education. Despite challenging regional geo-
sand ‘no’s.”2 “What is taught in schools and politics, socioeconomic pressures, and global
universities has no relationship with work life trends, MENA has the capacity and resources
or reality—time wasted in a failed system,” to create education systems that will build its
wrote one respondent. “Education in our human capital.
country is just to get a credential, and one
ends up on a couch or in cafes with no work
and a lost future for all students,” wrote Much has changed in MENA—
another. Thousands more expressed similar and the world—but education in
dissatisfaction with education in their coun-
tries. The frustration expressed by the
MENA remains stuck
Facebook poll respondents is not merely a Today, the 435 million residents of MENA
perception; it is the reality facing millions of are enduring a period of pronounced hard-
young people in MENA today. This can and ship. Ongoing threats to peace and economic
should change. stability are contributing to challenges across
Why has MENA not been able to realize many sectors. Economic growth has
the potential of education? How did the remained persistently low in the aftermath of
region whose educational excellence over five the Arab Spring (World Bank 2015b); youth
centuries drove innovation in science and unemployment rates have risen; and the qual-
social development and the region that cata- ity of public services has deteriorated (Brixi,
lyzed the European Renaissance and scientific Lust, and Woolcock 2015; World Bank
revolution (Overbye 2001) become one of the 2013a). Even in relatively stable countries,
worst performers in educational outcomes labor market outcomes for the educated
today? And why has the region not been able have worsened (El-Araby 2013; Krafft 2013;
to improve despite significant investments Rizk 2016; Salehi-Isfahani, Tunali, andO v e r v i e w 3 Assaad 2009; Tzannatos, Diwan, and Ahad how the education sector interacts with other 2016). Exacerbating these challenges is the sectors, broader socioeconomic and political substantial downturn in the global oil mar- trends, and the behavioral norms and inter- ket, which has placed more pressure on ests of various groups. resource-rich countries (IMF 2017) and has In the 10 years since The Road Not created an even more urgent need to push for Traveled, much has changed in the region and human capital development across MENA. the world, but MENA’s education systems Although MENA countries vary substan- remain stuck, “engineering” to meet the high tially in their economic development, as well demand of a large and growing school-age as in the nature of the social and political population with the same delivery mecha- issues they face, they share many characteris- nisms of previous decades. During this tics and challenges. The Arab countries that decade, MENA countries have spent an aver- form the larger part of MENA share a com- age of 4.5 percent of their national income on mon language and much of their history and education, and more than 15 million addi- culture. Many countries in the region have tional boys and girls have enrolled in school- parallel education histories, which include ing at all levels. 3 At the same time, the some of the earliest universities in the world political economy landscape has changed and substantial historical contributions to drastically. From the 2011 Arab Spring arose human knowledge and development (Abi- a public outcry for better basic services and Mershed 2010; Rugh 2002). More recently, equal opportunities that changed long- as a result of similar postindependence trajec- standing dictatorships in the Arab Republic tories, there has been a substantial overlap in of Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia; amended consti- pedagogical methods and labor market issues. tutions in Jordan and Morocco; and altered And throughout the region, education quality the status quo in almost every county in the and learning outcomes have faced many of region. The Syrian Arab Republic and the the same challenges. Republic of Yemen continue to struggle with A decade ago, the World Bank addressed civil war (see box O.1), which has generated the crisis in education quality in MENA in one of the worst refugee crises of all time. It The Road Not Traveled: Education Reform has inflicted great suffering on millions of ref- in the Middle East and North Africa (World ugees across the region and the world and Bank 2008). It noted that MENA countries imposed serious constraints on host commu- had succeeded in engineering an education nities (Brussels Conference 2019; UNHCR system focused mainly on inputs, such as 2019a). building schools, but they had done little to The past 10 years have also been marked change the incentives and behavior of educa- by remarkable technological advances. At the tors. The report proposed a new road toward time of The Road Not Traveled report, the education systems built on improving incen- iPhone was one year old, Twitter was just tak- tives and public accountability, on the one ing off, and Facebook users numbered around hand, and achieving an equilibrium in the 145 million globally (Guardian 2014). By labor market between the supply of educated 2016, there were 107 mobile subscriptions per individuals and labor demand, on the other. 100 persons in MENA countries,4 and by MENA countries have indeed embarked on 2017 there were almost 100 million active numerous reforms in their education sectors, social media users (Radcliffe and Lam 2018). but with little or no success. In some instances, Of the 2.1 billion current Facebook users, the reforms have been piecemeal or uncoordi- more than 100 million are in MENA. The nated or have failed to tackle the fundamental social network WhatsApp, which was issues. In others, they have not been suffi- launched in 2009, has 1.5 billion users glob- ciently funded or communicated to stake- ally. Today, more than two-thirds of young holders. Meanwhile, too often education Arabs use Facebook and WhatsApp. reforms have paid insufficient attention to Furthermore, YouTube, which was three years
4 Expec tations and Aspir ations
Box O.1 Conflict has taken a large toll on education in MENA
MENA has been rattled by violent conflict and pro- receiving countries may not be able to verify the
tracted crises for years, forcing millions of people to authenticity of their documents (ESU 2017).
leave their homes in search of safety and security. At the tertiary level, only about 5 percent of
Although MENA is home to just 6 percent of the Syrian refugees ages 18–24 in host countries across
world’s population, it hosts more than a third of the MENA are enrolled in higher education (European
world’s refugees and about a quarter of the world’s Commission 2018). Because tertiary education is
conflict-related internally displaced persons (IDPs).a not a priority in emergency assistance programs,
This situation has put great pressure on the host coun- funding remains a major roadblock (European
tries’ education systems. For example, in 2018–19 Commission 2017; Nakweya 2017).
Lebanon absorbed almost 213,000 non-Lebanese stu- The education infrastructure and services in
dents in public schools, the majority of whom were conflict countries have been heavily affected. For
accommodated by opening second shifts in 346 pub- example, in the 16 cities that suffered heavy fight-
lic schools across the country (Ministry of Education ing during the war in Iraq, only 38 percent of the
and Higher Education, Lebanon 2019). Jordan also total school infrastructure remains intact, and
operates 209 public double-shift schools and provides 18 percent (190 facilities) was destroyed (World
nonformal education services run jointly by interna- Bank 2018b). Two-thirds of schools in the Republic
tional organizations and the Ministry of Education of Yemen need repairs (UNICEF 2018). In Syria,
(Government of Jordan 2018). In addition to schools, about one-third of school buildings have been dam-
host countries face other challenges in providing suit- aged or destroyed, are occupied by parties to the
able education services for IDPs. For example, host conflict, or are being used to shelter IDPs (Brussels
countries often lack information about the education Conference 2017).
systems in refugees’ countries of origin. Refugees also a. See IDMC (2019); UNHCR (2019a, 2019b); UNRWA (2019); World Bank, World
may not have the requisite documentation, or the Development Indicators database.
old in 2008, currently has 1.5 billion users certain, but its role as a delivery catalyst is an
globally, and Saudi Arabia is its biggest mar- opportunity that needs to be leveraged. That
ket in per capita consumption. Young Saudi will require investment in human capital, edu-
Arabians ages 15–24 spend on average cation, and new skill sets in MENA.
72 minutes a day watching online videos Although much has changed politically,
(Radcliffe and Lam 2018). At the same time, economically, and socially in MENA over the
the world and the region have seen a sharp last decade, their education systems to a large
increase in EdTech—information and com- extent have remained the same. Education
munication technology (ICT) applications has the potential to fuel important economic
aimed at improving education—investments, and social contributions, but its power to cre-
which reached a record US$9.5 billion in 2017 ate change depends not only on its quality but
(Shulman 2018). Khan Academy, which also on complementary economic and social
opened its doors in 2008, uses YouTube to environments and the ability to leverage tech-
provide lessons to millions. nology smartly.
Meanwhile, technological advances, auto-
mation, and innovation are increasingly shap-
ing new jobs and changing the nature of work. Four tensions are holding back
Although manual manufacturing jobs are
being automated, technology has the potential
education in MENA
to create new jobs and increase productivity The education process consists of a complex
(World Bank 2019). The role of technology as set of factors and actors at multiple levels.
a demand shaper for the future of work is Factors outside the education system—political,O v e r v i e w 5
economic, and social—formally and infor- FIGURE O.1 Four tensions are holding back education in MENA
mally interact with the education system and
shape its outcomes. Behavioral norms and Tradition
ideological polarization among govern-
Credentials Discipline
ments, interest groups, and citizens can hold
countries back from delivering public goods
(World Bank 2016b). In MENA, education
has been held back by these complex interac- Classroom School Society
Control Education Autonomy
tions, behavioral norms, and ideological
polarization, which can be captured in four
sets of tensions: credentials and skills, disci-
pline and inquiry, control and autonomy, Inquiry Skills
and tradition and modernity (see figure O.1).
These tensions are deeply embedded in the Modernity
region’s history, culture, and political econ-
Source: World Bank.
omy. They are reflected to varying degrees in
all countries in the region, and to a large
extent they define social and political and modernity. Third, the tensions are nei-
relations. They have informed and shaped ther unique to MENA nor time-specific.
education policy in MENA countries since Throughout history, countries across the
independence, and they are at the heart of world have struggled with these tensions in
current national discourses on education defining their goals and policies. Fourth, no
reforms. These tensions have held education one position applies to every country or
systems from evolving and delivering the region. Each country, based on its national
skills that prepare students for their future. development goals and vision, needs to
Schools and classrooms are the platforms decide where it wants to place its education
where these tensions are exercised through system within these tensions.
curricula, pedagogy, and the norms that
define interactions among principals, teach-
Credentials and skills
ers, parents, and students. These tensions ulti-
mately shape the education outcomes of The tension between credentials and skills
young people in MENA and affect their lives, has been a source of debate for almost
as well as the economies and societies in 50 years. Since the 1970s, economists and
which they live. In an increasingly connected sociologists have argued about the links
world, the effects of these tensions can reach between education, skills, and the labor mar-
beyond the region’s borders. Unless these ten- ket, using numerous theories and models,
sions are addressed, MENA will not be able such as Becker’s human capital theory
to reap the full benefits of education, no mat- (Becker 1962), Collins’s credentialist theory
ter how much money is invested. (Collins 1979), and Spence’s signaling model
Four features of these tensions are note- (Spence 1973). A credential in the form of a
worthy. First, they are not mutually exclu- degree, diploma, or certificate is usually
sive, and they coexist along a continuum. associated with the acquisition of a specific
The challenge for countries is to determine set of skills or knowledge. In the labor mar-
where they want to be on the continuum and ket, credentials signal productivity, based on
what balance would be optimal to deliver the assumption that more years of education
the desired outcomes. Second, the four ten- are associated with higher productivity (Page
sions overlap in some areas and can rein- 2010). Credentials also bestow a certain sta-
force each other. For example, notions of tus in society, where a higher degree is asso-
control and autonomy could also be associ- ciated with higher status and figures in
ated with d iscipline and inquiry or tradition matters such as marriage.You can also read
