ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY IN THE STUDIUM BIBLICUM FRANCISCANUM MUSEUM AND BIBLICAL EXEGESIS
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ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY
IN THE STUDIUM BIBLICUM FRANCISCANUM MUSEUM
AND BIBLICAL EXEGESIS
J. H. Charlesworth
The Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum houses seven examples of
anguine iconography. The purpose of this paper is to publish an editio prin-
ceps of the anguine collection, which once belonged to the Franciscan Fa-
ther Godfrey Kloetzli (1916-1992),1 and attempt to place them within the
sequence of anguine iconography found in ancient Palestine. Finally, I will
select some aside regarding the importance of these and similar realia for
exegesis and hermeneutics. It is an honor to be asked to submit this study
in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the Studium Biblicum Fran-
ciscanum that sits on the northern edge of the Via Dolorosa in the Old City
of Jerusalem.2
Description
1. Composition, Size, and Color. The first anguine object found in the SBF
Museum is made of bronze (see illustration no. 1).3 It is 5 cm wide, 3.4 cm
high, and 1.1 cm thick (including the raised serpent).4 The serpent itself is
5 cm thick, except for the tail that is slightly thinner, and about 4.8 cm long.
The upper right corner of the object is missing and broken off. The object
is now dark green in color.
Provenience and Date. There is no archaeological report that will help
us obtain the necessary data for dating. The object was purchased in Israel.
1. He also bequeathed to the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum the items published
in S. Amorai-Stark, Engraved Gems and Seals from Two Collections in Jerusalem, Jerusa-
lem 1993, see esp. p. 11.
2. I am grateful to Dr. M. Piccirillo for allowing me to hold and study the anguine icono-
graphy in the SBF Museum. I also wish to express appreciation to Dr. F. Manns for the
invitation to contribute to this special issue.
3. J.P. Charlesworth is largely responsible for the photographs. We took them together dur-
ing the fall of 1998. I am grateful to her for her skills and assistance.
4. All my measurements are based on the greatest distance.
LA 49 (1999) 431-442; Pls. 5-6432 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
Since it seems to be a bronze belt buckle, I would judge it to date from the
Roman Period.
Anguine Features. The serpent is raised above the base. It is formed in
the shape of an “8” that lies flat. The tail is on the left side and the head on
the right. The head protrudes beyond the body, and both eyes are barely
visible. There is no hole for a tongue. Horizontal and diagonal lines indi-
cate the skin or scales. The head of the serpent is not raised; it rests on the
body.
Context for Interpretation. There is no reason to link this example of
anguine iconography with a cult or to claim that it is primarily a religious
symbol. The object seems to have been used for some utilitarian purpose Ð
perhaps it once served as a belt buckle. This suggestion is based upon the
raised piece of brass with a hole in it in the upper left and lower right cor-
ners; the upper right corner is now lost but may once have also had a raised
piece of brass with a hole for some pragmatic purpose.
2. Composition, Size, and Color. The second example of anguine iconogra-
phy in the SBF Museum is made of glass (see illustration no. 2). The ser-
pent is 7.4 cm long, 3.7 cm wide, and 4 cm thick. The glass is translucent
and pale green, but black dots signify eyes and skin Ð the dots are slightly
larger for the eyes.
Provenience and Date. I would judge the glass anguine object to date
from the Roman Period; its high quality would suggest, perhaps that it dates
from the Herodian Period. It is similar to the numerous glass objects and
glassware that clearly date from ancient Palestine and before 70 CE. Often
glass serpents are dated to the first centuries BCE or CE.5 One cannot be
certain about the date, since the object was purchased in Israel.
Anguine Features. The eyes and skin are impressively marked, and the
nose is pointed though not part of a triangular head. The artistically-shaped
head is raised 1.4 cm above the level of the body. The serpent’s body is
virtually straight until midway where it is coiled into three concentric
circles.
Context for Interpretation. This anguine object is unique. I have not
seen anything to compare with it. Its beauty and the skill of the craftsman-
ship might suggest that the serpent served in some cultic capacity. The
raised head might symbolize divinity and power. It is thus reminiscent of
5. In Grose’s,Early Ancient Glass, all three examples of glass serpents are dated to the 1st
century BCE or 1st century CE. See D.F. Grosse, Early Ancient Glass (The Toledo Mu-
seum of Art), New York 1989, 372, nos. 678, 679, 680.ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY 433
the meanings represented by the uraeus. The beautiful translucent glass of
this ophidian object could evoke thoughts about health, happiness, and re-
juvenation. The coiled body might symbolize the unity of time and cosmos,
as in Ouroborus, the serpent that is circular and swallows its own tail.
3. Composition, Size, and Color. The third piece of anguine iconography is
composed of bronze (see illustration no. 3). It is 7 cm wide and 9 cm high.
It is brown in color.
Provenience and Date. The object was purchased and can be dated by
analogy with other anguine iconography dated by archaeologists who can
refer to the date of pottery and coins found along with the object in situ.
The object seems to be from the Middle Bronze or Late Bronze Age, but it
could also date from the Iron Age. It is like a uraeus and reflects Egyptian
influence. Since it is small and looks Egyptian, it may have been imported
into ancient Palestine from Egypt.
Anguine Features. The anguine object is similar to a uraeus. The head
is raised and faces left. The body is shaped in the form of an “S” turned 90
degrees counter clockwise. Thus, there are two equal curves. The serpent
sits on a flat base. A circular protrusion with a hole is on top of the serpent.
Context for Interpretation. Like a uraeus the anguine symbolism would
signify power, divinity, kinship, and immortality. The small hole at the top
of the uraeus indicates that it was meant to be worn, and perhaps around
the neck. The object was most likely an amulet. It would thus have been
thought to possess apotropaic and prophylactic powers. R. Dionisopoulos-
Mass reports that today in Greece the “whole skin of a snake is considered
to be a strong prophylactic device and it is carried in the clothing, hung
from the rafters of a house, or put over the door of an animal shed.” 6
4. Composition, Size, and Color. The fourth example of anguine iconogra-
phy is a bronze serpent (see illustration no. 4). It is 9.2 cm long and now
dark green in color.
Provenience and Date. The object was purchased so I can date it only
by analogy and a study of the object itself. Since it is composed of bronze
with elaborate glass in circular holes to indicate skin it was most likely
cultic. I would date it to the Roman Period, primarily because of the glass.
Because of the style I would think it dates from the early part of the Ro-
man Period.
6. R. Dionisopoulos, Mass in the Evil Eye (ed. C. Maloney), New York 1976, 49.434 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
Anguine Features. The small serpent is elongated and almost straight,
although a curve appears just before the triangular head turns to the right.
Eyes are indicated by clear circles cut into the bronze. Originally there was
a piece of glass in each of the eleven holes, but only one round piece of
glass (rather clear) remains in place. It is in the second hole from the left
(that is, from the tail).
Context for Interpretation. No hole is present, so the serpent was not
intended to be worn. It may have been a cultic object, because of its so-
phisticated conception and intricate details. The elongation could denote
unity, and the triangular head a poisonous serpent that might denote good
and evil, as well as life and death.
5. Composition, Size, and Color. The fifth anguine object is possibly com-
posed of silver and is the longest serpent in the collection (see illustration
no. 4). It is 26 cm long. It is copper colored and in places is dark.
Provenience and Date. Since the object was purchased we cannot rely
on what a Bedouin or a dealer might claim, even if they were as honest as
training and experience might allow. The anguine object must be dated by
analogy. I would compare it with the serpent found at Timna.7 It is a ser-
pent from the 13th century BCE.8 The serpent is primarily copper, but its
head is gilded and the eyes are highlighted.
Both the serpent in the SBF and the Timna serpent are similarly con-
structed; that is, they depict serpents moving and elongated. Thus, I would
date this SBF ophidian object to the Late Bronze Age (1550-1200 BCE) or
perhaps to Iron I.
Anguine Features. The serpent is long but has five curves that are
usually gradual; perhaps they indicated that the serpent was moving. The
skin is elegantly denoted with fine markings. The eyes and mouth are
barely visible. The head is raised 6 cm above the horizontal position of
the body.
7. The entry for Timnah is found under “Tel Batash” inNEAEHL and OEANE. See A. Mazar
- G.L. Kelm, “Batash, Tel (Timnah),”NEAEHL 1.152-57; A. Mazar, “Batash, Tel,”OEANE
1.281-83. Also see Negev, The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, 379-80. An-
other important succinct report is G.L. Kelm - A. Mazar, Timnah: A Biblical City in the
SorekValley, Winona Lake, Indiana 1995. See the faience scarab with three upright uraei.
8. See the color photograph in Negev, The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land,
49. A wonderful color photograph is found in J.M. Landay, Silent Cities, Sacred Stones: Ar-
chaeology Discovery in the Land of the Bible, London - Jerusalem 1971, 88. Excellent color
photographs are found in B. Rothenberg, Timna: Valley of the Biblical Copper Mines (New
Aspects of Archaeology), London 1972, Plate 19 (full view) and 20 (close up of head).ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY 435
Context for Interpretation. The serpent may well have been a cultic
object, because of its elegance and fine workmanship. It is similar to the
copper serpent with gilding found at Timna in a cultic context. The curves
would evoke thoughts about dynamism and speed. The gentle nature of the
serpent’s curves may symbolize the elusive and mysterious quality of the
serpent. Recall that the serpent in Genesis 3 appears mysteriously and with-
out introduction.
6. Composition, Size, and Color. The sixth ophidian object is like a uraeus;
it is composed of a white substance (I could not discern if it was bone or
ivory). It is 1.1 cm wide and 1.3 cm high (see illustration no. 4).
Provenience and Date. As with the other objects already discussed
there is no context to help us date and interpret this uraeus-like object. It
probably dates somewhere from the Late Bronze Age to the Roman Period.
Anguine Features. The serpent is curled back upon itself in something
like a tight “S” curve (rotated 90 degrees counter clockwise). It faces left.
Context for Interpretation. The serpent object is reminiscent of Egyp-
tian uraei, and it may have been imported to ancient Palestine. It was prob-
ably worn, since a hole is obvious in the top. It was probably worn for
prophylactic and apotropaic reasons.
7. Composition, Size, and Color. The final example of anguine iconogra-
phy is composed of stone (see illustration no. 4). It is 0.7 cm wide and 1.1
cm high. It is green in color.
Provenience and Date. As all the ophidian objects in the Museum, the
object was purchased, so there is no context to help us discern its meaning
and date. Like the previous object, this one could date from the Late Bronze
Age to the Roman Period.
Anguine Features. The serpent faces right. It curves downward and then
upward again and finally downward with a tail that is thinner than the body.
Context for Interpretation. This object is small and was probably in-
tended to be worn, but if there was a hole at the top it is now lost. It was
also worn for prophylactic and apotropaic reasons.
Anguine Symbolisms and Their Possible Meaning
Uraeus. Numbers three, six, and seven are like uraei. Originating in Egypt,
or at least first known there, the uraeus symbolized power, divinity, kin-
ship, and immortality. The small holes often found at the top of the uraeus-436 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
like serpents indicate that they were meant to be worn, and probably around
the neck. Most likely, they were devised as an amulet that was perceived
to be invested or endowed with apotropaic and prophylactic powers.
This second anguine object is unique. As far as I know, no example
of anguine iconography found in the Land from Dan to Beer Sheba com-
pares with it. The beauty of this object is remarkable. The craftsman was
skilled. Perhaps this serpent and the silver one (no. 5) served in some
cultic capacity.
The raised head might suggest divinity and power. The beautiful trans-
lucent glass could evoke thoughts about health, happiness, and rejuvena-
tion. The coiled body might symbolize the unity of time and cosmos, as
with the serpentine god called Ouroborus. It also seems to denote the origi-
nal and fundamental unity of male and female; as C. Paul-Stengel writes,
“Weiter scheint die Schlange den Menschen eine ‘geschlechtliche Einheit’
zu sein É .” 9
The fifth example of anguine iconograhy is so elegant and the work-
manship so refined that I can imagine it may have been used in cultic wor-
ship. It is similar to the copper serpent with gilding found at Timna and
that serpent was found in a cultic context.
If number two and five were connected with some cult, whether
Canaanite or Israelite, then we need to think about the ophidian iconogra-
phy found at Beth Shean and Hazor. In the former there definitely was
worship of serpents, and the objects recovered in the latter indicate that
serpent worship was most likely operative there also. What would the ser-
pent symbolize?
K.R. Joines, following W.F. Albright,10 rightly stresses that serpent
symbolism does not necessarily denote or imply a phallic meaning. As she
states, ophidian symbolism “sets out the intimate connection between” the
serpent “goddess and the source of life.”11 The serpent, thus, would repre-
sent not only divinity and power but also life and protection.
While it is unwise to interpret iconography from writings, even by
those who made the object, it is also unscientific to ignore the importance
of inscriptions or documents. It is clear that the serpent often symbolized
not only divinity and life, but also protection in antiquity. That is the pri-
9. C. Paul-Stengel, Schlangenspuren: Reptilien und ihre Bedeutung in der Kulturgeschichte,
Kšnigstein - Taunus 1996, 121.
10. W.F. Albright, ÒThe Goddess of Life and Wisdom,ÓAJSLL 36 (1919-1920) 227.
11. K.R. Joines, JBL 87 (1968) 250.ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY 437
mary meaning of Medussa and her serpents. Note, moreover, Nebuchad-
nezzar II’s inscription placed on the high Ishtar Gate in honor of Marduk:
The gate of Nana (Ishtar … I built) with (blue) enamelled bricks …
for Marduk my lord. Lusty bulls of bronze and mighty figures of serpents
I placed at their thresholds, …, Marduk, exalted lord … eternal life … give
us a gift.12
Nebuchadnezzar frequently refers to his practice of erecting monu-
ments with “terrible bronze bulls” and “dreadful” or “terrible serpents
standing erect.”13 Obviously many meanings would be evoked by this prac-
tice. Perhaps Nebuchadnezzar’s main purpose was to stress the power and
protection provided by a god. The serpents thus do not signify the embodi-
ment of Marduk; they symbolized the presence of his power and protec-
tion.
This interpretation helps us ground the symbolism of the anguine amu-
lets preserved in the SBF Museum. It is now evident that they most likely
denoted protection for the wearer.
The curves of the fifth anguine object probably evoked thoughts about
power, speed, as well as the elusive and mysterious quality of the serpent.
Exegesis and Anguine Iconography
The evidence of anguine iconography in ancient Palestine is extensive.
Some of it is unknown or hidden in obscure and poorly organized, and
sometimes contradictory, ancient archaeological reports. And much of it is
not yet published.14 The serpents and anguine iconography housed in the
SBF Museum constitute one of the finest small collections in Israel. Only
a few comments on how these realia help us understand and enter into the
ancient biblical world must suffice for now. I have limited my comments
to only succinct five examples: Genesis 3, Numbers 21, 2 Kings, Matthew
10, and John 3.
12. R. Koldewey, The Excavations of Babylon, p. 45 [italics mine]. Also, see Pritchard,
ANEP no. 760. I am grateful to Joines for these references.
13. See S. Langdon, Building Inscriptions of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Part I:
Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar, pp. 79, 85, 105, 131.
14. Over 40 unpublished ophidian objects are published for the first time in J.H.
Charlesworth, The Serpent, in press.438 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
Genesis 3. According to the story recorded in Genesis 3, the serpent
(vjn) was more cunning or clever (Mwro) than any of the other animals. He
tells the woman that if she eats of the tree in the midst of the garden she
will not die, as God has stated, but that she will be like God knowing good
and evil (orw bwf yody). The serpent spoke the truth, since God confirms it
when he tells Adam that he must have eaten of the tree in the midst of the
garden because he knows he is naked (3:11). This account in Genesis
should not be studied in terms of modern conceptions in Judaism, Islam,
or Christianity Ðin each the serpent tends to symbolize evil and signify the
Devil. The text must be interpreted in terms of context. Ancient ophidian
symbolism clarifies that the serpent symbolizes wisdom and knowledge.
Early Jewish lore, as one might expect, is filled with speculations on
the serpent. Most of it derives from imaginative reflections on life before
the woman (later named Eve) and Adam ate from the tree in the midst of
the garden. In his The Legends of the Jews, L. Ginzberg obtained the fol-
lowing summary from his examination of Jewish lore:
Among the animals the serpent was notable. Of all of them he had the
most excellent qualities, in some of which he resembled man. Like man he
stood upright upon two feet, and in height he was equal to the camel. ... As
a matter of fact, it was the very ability of the serpent that led to the ruin of
man and his own ruin. His superior mental gifts caused him to become an
infidel. It likewise explains his envy of man, especially of his conjugal re-
lations.15
Jews believed that before the Fall the serpent was the wisest of all crea-
tures, and that he was created by God as the king of all animals.16 Discus-
sions around the fire at night gave rise to numerous legends. How did God
make the clothes for Adam and Eve? God used the skins of snakes.17 The
serpent can represent evil or good; hence, Satan and Azazel can be seen as
a serpent, and the archangel Gabriel can appear in the form of a serpent.18
Numbers 21. According to the narrative in Numbers 21, the Children
of Israel turn against God and Moses and want to return to Egypt (21:5).
God sends vipers or fiery serpents (Myprch Myvjnh) among them. Many of
them die. The Hebrews cry for deliverance once again. God replies that
15. L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, 7 vols., trans. H. Szold [for volumes 1 and 2],
Philadelphia 1968, vol. 1, pp. 71-72. [vol. 7 is an index by B. Cohen].
16. See Ginzberg, The Legends, vol. 1, p. 78 and n. 84.
17. See Ginzberg, The Legends, vol. 1, p. 80, note 93.
18. Ginzberg, The Legends, vol. 5, p. 423.ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY 439
now they must participate in their salvation. He tells Moses to make a fi-
ery serpent (Prc) and place it upon a pole. All those who look up to the
uplifted serpent will not perish but live. Moses made a copper or bronze
serpent (tvjn vjn) and placed it upon a pole. All who had been bitten and
who looked up to the upraised serpent did not perish but lived. This is a
telling example that the serpent could signify health, healing, and rejuve-
nation. The upraised serpent also possessed apotropaic powers. It brought
life to the one who had been administered death by the viper.
2 Kings. King Hezekiah reforms the religion of Israel, and “he broke in
pieces the bronze serpent (tvjnh vjn) that Moses had made; for until those
days the children of Israel burned incense to it, and called it” (Ntvjn [2 Kgs
18:4]). Hezekiah’s reform seems to explain why ophidian iconography,
which had increased in ancient Palestine beginning in the Middle Bronze
Age, wanes after Iron II.19
Matthew 10. According to Matthew, Jesus tells his followers to be
clever as serpents (fro/nimoi wß oi˚ o¶feiß), and innocent as doves (Mt
10:16). The serpent thus symbolizes not only cleverness but also wisdom
for Jesus. Jesus’ Jewishness is evident, since not only Genesis 3 but also a
Jewish document roughly contemporaneous with him portrays the serpent
as the wisest creature (Apocalypse of Moses). It is with Judaism that Jesus,
according to Matthew, is linked and not with Greek mythology, specifically
Hermes (Mercury), the messenger of the gods who is usually shown with
two serpents (the caduceus). Hence, W.H. FischleÕs claim that Matthew
10:16 should be seen in terms of Hermes (Mercury) is misleading.20
John 3. According to the author of the Fourth Gospel, Jesus tells
Nicodemus that as Moses lifted up the serpent (to\n o¶fin) in the wilder-
ness, so it will be necessary for the Son of Man to be lifted up. Thence, all
those who believe in him will have life eternal (3:14-15). The poetic style,
parallelismus membrorum that is synonymous, indicates that the Son of
Man is synonymous with the serpent. It means that the Son of Man, who is
Jesus, and who is symbolized as a serpent represents life. This seems to be
not only a marvellous example of Intertextuality, but also a brilliant exege-
sis (midrash) of Numbers 21. John 3:14-15 indicate that the author of John
– and his Community – knew that the serpent symbolized life, healing, re-
juvenation, and even resurrection. Perhaps this passage in John and its ex-
egesis helps us comprehend how the author of John can have Jesus say, “I
19. See the discussion in Charlesworth, The Serpent, in press.
20. W.H. Fischle, Das Geheimnis der Schlange: Deutung eines Symbols, Fellbach -
Oeffingen 1989, 76-77.440 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
am the resurrection and the life” (11:25). This exegesis rests upon the de-
monstration that the serpent by the end of the 1st century CE did symbol-
ize life and rejuvenation. This should be obvious to all those who have read
how the serpent obtained the secret of immortality or resurrection accord-
ing to the Gilgamesh epic.21
Perhaps this text is too far removed from the 1st century C.E. to be
persuasive; hence, let us focus on the question: Did the serpent symbolize
rejuvenation, new life, immortality, and perhaps resurrection when the
Fourth Gospel was composed? We obtain an insightful answer by turning
to Philo of Byblos. He wrote at the end of the 1st century or the beginning
of the 2nd century C.E., and claims to translate from a work by a certain
Sanchuniathon. This author, if he lived or is only a creation of Philo of
Byblos,22 has a long section that is devoted to snakes or serpents.23 It is a
major source to study as we seek to comprehend the culture in which the
symbolism of the Fourth Gospel was fashioned.24 Reference is made to the
divine nature of the serpent and snakes; this animal is “fiery and the most
filled with breath of all crawling things.” The creature has matchless swift-
ness “by means of its breath”(sic).25 Note how important for an understand-
ing of serpent symbolism, especially in the Gospel of John, is the following
excerpt from Philo of Byblos (814.23-815.13):
The nature there of the snake (touv dra¿kontoß) and of serpents (tw◊n
o¶fewn), Taautos himself regarded as divine, and after him, again, the
21. The Mexican feathered serpent god, called Quetzalcoatl, is often shown upon a stool of
serpents, which seem to symbolize his journey to the world after death. See J.L. Henderson
- M. Oakes, The Wisdom of the Serpent: The Myths of Death, Rebirth, and Resurrection,
Princeton 1990, esp. see Fig. 13 on p. 167.
22. O. Gruppe thought this Sanchuniathon never existed, but W.F. Albright claimed that he
did exist, lived in Berytus, and was a refugee from Tyre. For us it is not relevant whether
Sanchuniathon was a valuable source concerning Phoenician theology; for us it is more
important that Philo of Byblos, about the time of the Gospels, published these ideas con-
cerning a serpent.
23. Our only source for Philo of Byblos is Eusebius’ Praeparatio Evangelica. Eusebius, as
one might imagine, castigates the idea that snakes can be beneficial. He thus marks one of
the turning points in the appreciation of the serpent.
24. Actually, Eusebius is citing Philo of Byblos who claims to be translating Sanchuniathon,
who in turn is quoting a certain Taautos at this point. This phenomenon often confronts one
who is studying the 1st century; that is, we sometimes have only citations of otherwise lost
works, see J.H. Charlesworth, Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 2, pp. 775-76 and J.
Strugnell, ibid., pp. 777-79.
25. For the Greek and translation see Attridge - Oden, Philo of Byblos, pp. 64-65. For an-
other edition and translation, see A.I. Baumgarten, The Phoenician History of Philo of
Byblos (EPRO 89), Leiden 1981.ANGUINE ICONOGRAPHY 441
Phoenicians and Egyptians [did so]. For he presented the animal as that of
all the reptiles which contained most spirit and as being [of the nature] of
fire. Besides which he also attributes to it unsurpassable swiftness on ac-
count of the spirit, since it lacks feet and arms or any other limbs by means
of which the other animals move. … And it is most long lived, for it not
only sheds its old skin and becomes young but also it is increased [by the
process] and becomes bigger. And when it has filled out the established
measure [of age] it consumes itself, just as Taautos himself described in
the sacred writings. Therefore, too, this animal is taken into the temples and
mysteries. It has been discussed by us more fully in the treatise entitled
Ethothion, in which it is established that the snake is immortal (o¢ti
aÓqa¿naton ei¶h) and that it is resolved into itself as was said above. For the
nature of this animal is such that it does not die unless it is struck by some
violent force. The Phoenicians call it Agathos Daimon.26
Philo of Byblos continues by quoting Epeeis, who claims that the “first
and holiest being is the serpent …” (815.18).
Much more evidence that the serpent symbolizes life, healing, and re-
juvenation can be found in Greek and Latin writings prior to or contempo-
raneous with the Fourth Gospel, and most notably within the Asclepian
cult. Asclepius, as the human who became a god, knew how to bring one
back from the dead, to extend life, and to rejuvenate all.27
Conclusion
Careful research on the meaning of ophidian iconography in antiquity goes
against the grain of what passes for enlightened scholarship. For example,
Baruch Rosen recently claimed that the “snake in Christianity, especially
in eastern Christianity, represents the incarnation of all evil.” He continues
by claiming, in “Judaism the role of the snake as the symbol of sin and evil
is well known.”28 It is not easy to judge these assessments as balanced and
informed opinions. Of course, one can find evidence in Christianity and
Judaism that the serpent is the embodiment of evil. But, in early Christian-
ity, especially in the Canonical Gospels, the serpent serves to symbolize
26. For the Greek and English, see Baumgarten, The Phoenician History, loc. cit.
27. For texts, discussions, and photographs, see Charlesworth, The Serpent, in press.
28. B. Rosen, “Reidentified Animals in the ‘Orpheus Mosaic’ from Jerusalem,” IEJ 34
(1984) 182-83; the quotations are on p. 183.442 J. H. CHARLESWORTH
wisdom and rejuvenation, even resurrection. And from Genesis 3, through
the Apocalypse of Moses, to Matthew 10 the serpent frequently symbolizes
cleverness, knowledge, and wisdom.
The Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Museum preserves some impor-
tant examples of anguine iconography. They all antedate the Fourth Gospel
and represent ideas and iconography prevalent in ancient Palestine. These
objects help transport the exegete back into the past. We must not interpret
ancient texts with a myopic focus on the present. Today in Judaism, Chris-
tianity, and Islam the serpent is usually a symbol of evil and the Devil –
yet thoughtful reflection reveals that the serpent symbolizes medicine (cf.
the medical caduceus). The devoted exegete, upon whom solid hermeneu-
tics should be founded, must seek to dwell in the elusive world in which
our sacra scriptura were composed and copied. In that time, the serpent
was both a symbol of evil and good, of death and life, as well as falsehood
and wisdom. Ancient contexts – often awakened by archaeological artifacts
Ð disclose the mysterious fecundity of our cherished texts.
J. H. Charlesworth
W.F. Albright Institute for Archaeological ResearchYou can also read
