WHY INFORMATION MATTERS - A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE May 2015 - Internews
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WHY
INFORMATION
MATTERS
A FOUNDATION
FOR RESILIENCE
May 2015
SUPPORTED BY
EMBRACING CHANGE:
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ACRONYMS
THE CRITICAL ROLE OF INFORMATION
“Why Information Matters: a foundation for resilience” is
part of Embracing Change: The Critical Role of Information, AIFDR Australia Indonesia Facility
funded by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation to for Disaster Reduction
support the Internews’ Center for Innovation and Learning’s BNPB National Disaster Management Agency
research on the role of information ecosystems in building (Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana)
resilience. Many thanks to the Rockefeller Foundation, and
BPBD Provincial Disaster Management Agency
especially to Sundaa Bridgett-Jones, Associate Director, (Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah)
International Development, for vital input and support.
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
Amanda Noonan (Internews, Director of Research and FEMA The Federal Emergency
Learning) and Adam Levin (Internews, Project Manager Management Agency
and Knowledge Management Advisor) collaborated on
MPBI Indonesian Society for Disaster
the strategic vision and planning, and provided invaluable Management (Masyarakat
feedback on earlier drafts of this report. Mark Frohardt Penanggulangan Bencana Indonesia)
(Executive Director, Internews’ Center for Innovation and NGO Non-governmental Organization
Learning) shared useful input on earlier drafts. Matt Abud PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3
provided helpful context and guidance for the Jakarta PMI Indonesia Red Cross (Palang
Merah Indonesia)
InfoEco Pilot research. A big acknowledgement is due to
the staff at PMI East Jakarta, particularly Eki, Fahdhli, and Pusdalops Central Management and
Operations for Floods
Dewi, for generously facilitating two days of our site visits
to flood-affected areas. Deep appreciation as well to the RT “Neighborhood administrator”
Jakarta InfoEco Pilot interviewees for their very valuable (Rukun Tetangga)
contributions. Many thanks to Roanne van Voorst, (University RW “Community administrator” (Rukun
of the Netherlands, Lecturer) and Vida Parady (University of Warga) Administrators of a larger
geographic area and level of
SCOPING & TESTING & OPERATIONALIZING
Indonesia, Lecturer) for their helpful peer reviews of earlier responsibility above Rukun Tetangga DEFINING UNDERSTANDING
drafts of Part III. We also thank our final peer reviewers,
Charles Martin-Shields (George Mason University) and Ola SMS Short Message Service Initial framing and research Refining definitions and Developing and sharing
Tjornbo (University of Waterloo), for their invaluable feedback. UNOCHA United Nations Office for the to explore theoretical and analyzing the relationship of operational guidelines
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs practical underpinnings of between information and tools for policymakers
information ecosystems. ecosystems and resilience. and practitioners.
CREDITS
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES
Tara Susman-Peña (Internews, Senior Research Officer) • Literature review of systems,
• Reviewing four Internews • Creating materials to
is the research lead for the Embracing Change project ecosystems and resilience
case studies in Japan, capture research findings
and the principal author of the report. Nicole Audette • Defining information Pakistan, Indonesia,
(Internews, Research Assistant) was responsible for analysis • Disseminating materials
ecosystems and an analytic and Myanmar
of the Internews case studies (Part II). Julianne Funk, through events and public
framework
• Fieldwork in Jakarta launch
Alyssa Mesich, and Thelonius Cook (Internews, Research
Assistants) reviewed theoretical and policy literature. Mary OUTPUTS • Fieldwork in New York City
Myers contributed edits to an early draft of the report. • Literature Review OUTPUTS
Isobel Grad (Internews, Research Assistant) designed the [Completed April 2014] • Final Presentation Deck
OUTPUTS
preliminary visualizations and graphics for the report. Natalie [September 2014]
• Resilient Information
Chang (Senior Program Associate, Internews) edited the Ecosystems Tumblr [Ongoing] • Final Report
report and provided substantial writing support. Annette [November 2014]
Makino copyedited the report. Front cover photograph • Why Information Matters:
by Roanne van Voorst, 2011. Photographs on pages 22- A Foundation for Resilience • Outreach Strategy
[September 2014] & Dissemination Plan
24 are drawn from their respective research reports.
[November 2014]
All other photographs by Tara Susman-Peña, 2014. • Why Information
Matters summary deck
[September 2014]
SUPPORTED BY
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
1
ABOUT THIS REPORT
Embracing Change: The Critical Role of 3. Shares insights from the Jakarta Information is summarized in the paper and annexes, the focus political and economic opening, and 4) three
Information, a research project by the Internews' Ecosystems pilot, which investigated the of this piece is the learning and recommendations environmental disasters in Indonesia, including
Center for Innovation & Learning, supported by relevance of information ecosystems to that we have drawn from the data. The paper is not floods that are a chronic occurrence in Jakarta.
the Rockefeller Foundation, combines Internews’ communities living in chronically flood-prone meant to be academic nor fully capture the rigor of the
longstanding effort to highlight the important role of environments; and research; it is meant to enable informed action. LEARNING FROM RESILIENCE POLICY,
information with Rockefeller’s groundbreaking work on IDEAS, AND PRACTICE
resilience. The project focuses on three major aspects: 4. Reveals the utility of an information ecosystems To contextualize the research, the Center examined
approach and highlights preliminary conclusions METHODOLOGY policy literature on disaster risk reduction and
∞ Building knowledge around the role of on why information matters for resilience. resilience to better understand how information fits into
information in empowering communities to LEARNING FROM LITERATURE current conversations and thinking in this area. Key to
understand and adapt to different types of This analysis provides consistent evidence that healthy Information ecosystems, occasionally referred to this review was Arup’s “City Resilience Framework”
change: slow onset, long-term, and rapid onset / information ecosystems promote resilience, while weak as “information ecologies,” are an underdeveloped (supported by the Rockefeller Foundation) in addition
disruptive; information ecosystems seriously hinder preparedness, concept in the literature. Most uses of the term to documents on disaster policy in Indonesia and the
response, and recovery from shocks and stressors; assume a common understanding without laying out United States.
∞ Identifying strategies and techniques for underscores that healthy information ecosystems are a a definition; it is less so considered with respect to
strengthening information ecosystems to support vital component of ensuring that resilience strategies the development and resilience of communities. In LEARNING FROM FIELDWORK
behavioral adaptation to disruptive change; and engage all individuals and communities within a April 2014, the Center presented a literature review To further inform the theoretical and retrospective
city or system; and surfaces critical areas of further summarizing explorations of the theoretical and analyses on the relationship between information
∞ Disseminating knowledge and principles to investigation in the second phase of the Embracing practical underpinnings of information ecosystems to ecosystems and resilience, this report incorporates
individuals, communities, the private sector, Change project, the New York InfoEco Pilot study. articulate: 1) what information ecosystems are, how fieldwork in Jakarta, Indonesia completed in April
policymakers, and other partners so that they can they function, and how best to assess them; and 2) 2014. At the time of writing, additional fieldwork in the
incorporate healthy information ecosystems as a The final phase of the Embracing Change project how best to strengthen them to support communities’ Brooklyn and Staten Island areas of New York City is
core element of their social resilience strategies. (to be completed in November 2014) will lead to the adaptation to change.1 ongoing, and will be described in future deliverables.
development of practical guidelines and tools for This component of the research is designed to pilot
“Why Information Matters: A Foundation For incorporating measures to strengthen the health of LEARNING FROM CASE STUDIES the information ecosystems methodological approach
Resilience” represents the first step towards these information ecosystems into resilience frameworks. The review of theoretical literature was a basis for to offer new insight and inform future inquiry for
aims. Drawing on theoretical literature, case studies, Future outcomes will include diagnostic tools for constructing a working definition of information information ecosystem and resilience research and
and primary field research, this report: accessing the health of information ecosystems, including ecosystems, a significant part of which is the “Eight planning.
additional characteristics, indicators, and variables Critical Dimensions of Information Ecosystems.” This
1. Defines “information ecosystems” and that inform a holistic picture of healthy information definition was then used to analyze the relationship
proposes an analytic framework of eight critical ecosystems. Ultimately, the research is designed to between healthy information ecosystems and
dimensions for understanding them, drawing identify critical issues and opportunities that can inform resilience through four Internews case studies
upon the Center’s extensive literature review planning and practice, and further identify where action representing different forms of disruption and
completed in April 2014 and reflecting Internews’ and investment will be most effective. change: 1) instability and underdevelopment in the
three decades of field experience; tribal regions of northwest Pakistan, 2) Japan after
“Why Information Matters” is designed principally the massive underwater earthquake and tsunami that
2. Analyzes information ecosystems across for policymakers, practitioners, and communities notoriously damaged the Fukushima nuclear power
a spectrum of change and their impact on concerned with strengthening resilience strategies plant, 3) Myanmar at the cusp of unprecedented
resilience, referencing four case studies of and practices. The streams of research that inform the
Internews’ previous work; analysis and recommendations are described below 1 THE FULL LITERATURE REVIEW CAN BE DOWNLOADED ON THE CENTER’S
WEBSITE: HTTPS://INNOVATION.INTERNEWS.ORG/RESEARCH/WHAT-
in Methodology. While the data from this research INFORMATION-ECOSYSTEM-WHY-DOES-ITMATTER
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
2 3
ABOUT THIS REPORT PREFACE
DESK-BASED RESEARCH
WHY DO While information is so fundamental to surviving and
thriving within our complex global environment, it is
LITERATURE INTERNEWS CITY RESILIENCE
INFORMATION rarely addressed directly, considered strategically, or
integrated effectively across policy and planning for
REVIEW CASE STUDIES RESILIENCE
FRAMEWORK
POLICY:
INDONESIA & US
ECOSYSTEMS resilience. When information does appear in resilience
literature, it usually has a minor role, and is often
MATTER FOR conceived as simple messaging to affected populations,
or as a tool in coordinating responders and resources.
RESILIENCE? Moreover, when information is explicitly recognized
as an important element in a system’s capacity
to adapt and evolve in the face of disruptions,
Information is as critical as the air we breathe. corresponding strategies rarely incorporate analyzing
Without information, people can neither understand and strengthening information flows as a core pillar
nor effectively respond to the events that shape their – particularly at the hyper local, human-to-human
world. For over 30 years, Internews has strengthened level. The information needs of communities; the
and supported local media around the world to context, production, sharing, or impact of information;
help ensure that individuals, communities, and or social factors such as trust and power dynamics
governments have the information they need to make are seldom even mentioned in resilience policy and
WHY INFORMATION MATTERS: critical decisions. This experience with citizens and practice. Most studies to date do not take into account
local media in more than 90 countries has provided informal information networks, people’s perceptions
A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE plentiful evidence that information not only supports about information in their community, or the impact of
the development and wellbeing of populations around information transmitted through word of mouth. Issues
the world, but that people empowered with the of change and adaptation, or the use of information to
information they need are more capable of creating cope with the events, shocks, and stressors that disrupt
resilient communities. the performance of systems and the lives of citizens,
has never been systematically analyzed or incorporated
into an operational framework.
These elements, which deliberately incorporate
“ HUMAN WELLBEING
IN CITIES RELIES ON
an appreciation of social relationships, human
context, and dynamic networks of control and
influence, are critical to understanding the impact
A COMPLEX WEB of media, information, communication, and various
OF INSTITUTIONS, information technologies on social systems.
INTERVIEWS SITE VISITS INFRASTRUCTURE AND Information is inherently social and has meaning only
in social context. As such, we must leverage a broad and
INFORMATION." universal framework that emphasizes these dimensions
-CIT Y RESILIENCE FR AMEWORK , ARUP - information ecosystems – to truly understand a
FIELDWORK RESEARCH community’s unique information obstacles, challenges,
JAKARTA INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS PILOT and needs. The use of information ecosystems as a
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
4 5PREFACE
understanding how information flows, and how to
“ “ [I]NFORMATION
ensure that information has an impact at all levels
THE CONCEPTUAL of a city or system, is essential for operationalizing
HOLDS SYSTEMS TOGETHER AND…
LIMITATION OF resilience strategies and should be a central concern DELAYED, BIASED, SCATTERED, OR MISSING INFORMATION
RESILIENCE IS THAT IT for all planning, practice and investment in this space. CAN MAKE FEEDBACK LOOPS MALFUNCTION. DECISION
How information is interpreted, perceived, and trusted
DOES NOT NECESSARILY is extremely important in understanding how resilience
MAKERS CAN’T RESPOND TO INFORMATION THEY DON’T
ACCOUNT FOR THE policies and programs will be transformed in practice. HAVE, CAN’T RESPOND ACCURATELY TO INFORMATION
POWER DYNAMICS THAT THAT IS INACCURATE, AND CAN’T RESPOND IN A TIMELY
ARE INHERENT IN THE The information ecosystems framework, therefore,
offers unique value in understanding the complexities
WAY TO INFORMATION THAT IS LATE. I WOULD GUESS THAT
WAY CITIES FUNCTION of information so that decision makers can leverage MOST OF WHAT GOES WRONG IN SYSTEMS GOES WRONG
AND COPE WITH information as a resource for the wellbeing of populations. BECAUSE OF BIASED, LATE, OR MISSING INFORMATION.
The approach is applicable at multiple scales and
DISRUPTIONS." timeframes, from the hyper-local, to the city, to systems
CIT Y RESILIENCE FR AMEWORK , ARUP within systems. As it enables highly granular human IF I COULD, I WOULD ADD AN ELEVENTH COMMANDMENT
insights grounded in social context, it offers insights for TO THE FIRST TEN: THOU SHALT NOT DISTORT, DELAY, OR
actively engaging communities down to the individual
citizen as participants and builders of resilience. For
WITHHOLD INFORMATION. YOU CAN DRIVE A SYSTEM
framework creates the opportunity for a vastly diverse anyone interested in improving information access, flow CRAZY BY MUDDYING ITS INFORMATION STREAMS. YOU
array of frames of analysis, ranging from the sum total and uptake in target communities, an understanding of CAN MAKE A SYSTEM WORK BETTER WITH SURPRISING
of all information points and flows in a community, to a information ecosystems is key not only to the design of EASE IF YOU CAN GIVE IT MORE TIMELY, MORE ACCURATE,
very narrow slice of the system. The framework is also appropriate and effective interventions that have impact,
the first to conceive of information needs, information MORE COMPLETE INFORMATION."
creation, and information distribution as multi- – DONELL A MEADOWS, THINKING IN SYSTEMS
dimensional, dynamic, and fluid systems that adapt
and regenerate according to the specific context of a
given situation and community. “ EXCHANGE OF
INFORMATION BETWEEN but fostering strategies that empower and build upon a
community’s existing relationships internally and with
It is our belief that applying our expertise in
information ecosystems to the context of the
Information ecosystems are fundamental to SYSTEMS ENABLES external stakeholders. Rockefeller Foundation’s resilience strategies is not
resilience. Information is the lifeblood of resilience THEM TO FUNCTION only a fundamental element of strengthening our
– it is the foundation for human behavior. Without At the heart of the Internews’ work is the vision that support for communities around the world, but is
the ability to access, create, disseminate, and share
COLLECTIVELY AND healthy information ecosystems are a root solution to a valuable opportunity to bring our expertise to
critical information about the world around them, RESPOND RAPIDLY furthering human progress. Through research in the urban planners and others in the resilience space to
individuals are incapable of understanding the THROUGH SHORTER closed societies of Pakistan and Burma, as well as this collaborate and build a body of knowledge around
challenges they confront, adapting to an evolving
environment, nor ultimately, improving their lives.
FEEDBACK LOOPS current work supported by the Rockefeller Foundation,
the Internews Center for Innovation & Learning continues
the critical role of information in embracing change.
This report is a first step toward demonstrating and
As such, a significant element in the understanding, THROUGHOUT THE CITY." to develop a deeper appreciation for and description building a body of evidence around the importance
building, and reinforcement of community resilience CIT Y RESILIENCE FR AMEWORK , ARUP of the information dynamics, flows, networks, and of healthy information ecosystems in understanding,
must be an understanding of how to support the communication behaviors that characterize information building, and reinforcing resilience.
health of information ecosystems. More broadly, ecosystems in environments of change and disruption.
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
6 7TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I
ABOUT THIS REPORT
PREFACE
2
5
PART III: THE IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATION
ECOSYSTEMS FOR RESILIENCE 31 DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
1. INFORMATION NEEDS 33
TABLE OF CONTENTS 8 2. INFORMATION LANDSCAPE /
3. PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 34
PART I: DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS 9 4. DYNAMIC OF ACCESS 36
5. USE 37
A. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS:
WHY A NEW PARADIGM? 9 6. IMPACT OF INFORMATION 38
B. WHAT IS AN 7. SOCIAL TRUST 40
INFORMATION ECOSYSTEM? 11
8. INFLUENCERS 41
C. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS: PRELIMINARY
A PRELIMINARY DEFINITION 11
CONCLUSIONS 42
D. EIGHT CRITICAL DIMENSIONS
OF INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS 12 PART IV: WHY INFORMATION MATTERS 44 A. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS: situation and community. Among other goals, this
E. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS WHY A NEW PARADIGM? framework aimed to understand the utility and
& ADAPTATION TO CHANGE 18 impact of new tools and technologies within specific
ANNEX I: TOWARDS TYPOLOGIES 46 contexts, including their unintended consequences on
PART II: INFORMATION
traditional information flows.
R
ECOSYSTEMS & RESILIENCE 21
ANNEX II: ANALYZING THE CASE STUDIES 48 ecent years have seen more changes in the
A. OVERVIEW global media and journalism environment Now referred to as “information ecosystems,” this
OF CASE STUDIES 22 ANNEX III: JAKARTA INFORMATION than ever before in Internews’ 30+ years approach combining macro-level analysis (i.e.
B. WHY INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS MATTER ECOSYSTEMS PILOT 74 media landscape, information infrastructures,
of history. From the rapid trending of the mobile
FOR RESILIENCE 24 and political/regulatory environments), granular
ANNEX IV: KEY FINDINGS phone as a primary source of information, to the
C. HOW INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS observations (i.e. information availability, needs,
MATTER FOR RESILIENCE 25 SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS 77 decline of traditional media in many places around and distribution), with human and social insights
D. AREAS FOR the world, the dramatic evolution in how people (i.e. identifying information disseminators and
FURTHER RESEARCH 28 ANNEX V: NEW YORK INFORMATION influencers) is believed to be the best methodology
access, produce, consume, and share information
E. TOWARDS PRELIMINARY TYPOLOGIES: ECOSYSTEMS PILOT 78 for understanding how to deliver information with
CLASSIFYING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS 29 has challenged our fundamental understanding of
impact. By understanding information ecosystems,
ANNEX VI: BIBLIOGRAPHY 81 how to create quality local news and information. policymakers and practitioners can design the most
appropriate and effective strategies that can serve
Recognizing that new information dynamics even the most information deprived communities
necessitated a new and forward-looking model and societies.
of comprehending local information systems, the
Internews Center for Innovation & Learning began its This report offers an opportunity to take a systemic
investigations into “information ecologies” in 2012. and holistic approach in defining information
For the first time, this optic conceived of information ecosystems and examining how they function across a
needs and information creation and distribution as spectrum of change. In Part I, we present a preliminary
fluid systems that adapt and regenerate according definition of information ecosystems and eight critical
to the obstacles, challenges and needs of a given dimensions for understanding them, based on an
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
8 9I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
extensive literature review.2 In order to ground our An information ecosystem is not a static entity; it is
HOW NEWS IS RECEIVED, DISCUSSED, AND SHARED IN MON STATE (URBAN AND RURAL) definitions of information ecosystems, we then look by nature constantly evolving and changing. Nor is it
at these concepts “in action” through an examination a discrete form; it can be defined at many levels, from
FRIENDS
AND LOCAL MYANMAR NATIONAL FOREIGN NEWS EXILED of Internews’ previous research in Japan, Pakistan, global to national to community to interest-based
FAMILY AUTHORITIES NEWS SERVICES SERVICE (BBC, VOA) MEDIA Myanmar, and Indonesia in Part II. groupings within communities. Any examination of
an information ecosystem goes beyond traditional
audience research on media access and consumption;
B. WHAT IS AN it adds considerations of information needs,
INFORMATION ECOSYSTEM? information creation, and information distribution as
dynamic systems that adapt and regenerate according
to the broader developmental challenges and needs of
@ Borrowed from environmental studies, the term a given community.
“information ecosystem” is used to describe how
INTERNET
PRINT LESS AVAILABLE local communities exist and evolve within particular
RADIO
MEDIA information and communication systems. Within these C. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS:
TELEVISION systems, different types of news and information may A PRELIMINARY DEFINITION
be received from outside then passed on to others—
through word of mouth, key community members,
phone, the Internet, and the like. An examination of “Information ecosystems” broadly refers to a loose,
YOUNG an information ecosystem looks at the flow, trust, use dynamic configuration of different sources, flows,
WORLD OF URBAN
MOUTH RESIDENTS and impact of news and information. producers, consumers, and sharers of information
INFLUENTIAL interacting within a defined community or space. A
URBAN/
AFFLUENT RURAL
resonant and promising idea, information ecosystems
RESIDENTS are an underdeveloped concept in the literature. Most
MOBILE uses of the term assume a common understanding
PHONE URBAN
HOUSEHOLDS without laying out a definition. It is not yet a common
concept, and even less so with respect to the development
DISCUSS
and resilience of communities. This under-elaboration
WITH
FAMILY/ and minimal currency offers an opportunity to explore
INFORMATION THAT RURAL
FRIENDS the theoretical and practical groundwork that underlies
FLOWS FROM SOURCE HOUSEHOLDS the term, and to craft the definition that best suits the
AND THROUGH:
URBAN HOUSEHOLDS
goals for the Embracing Change project.
RURAL HOUSEHOLDS DISCUSS
INFLUENTIAL/AFFLUENT WITH The idea of information ecosystems stands on
TRUSTED NETWORKS PASS the shoulders of several other families of theory:
YOUNG URBAN
IN PUBLIC ON
(TEA SHOPS, MARKETS, INFORMATION ecosystems, resilience, and at the very core, systems
AND THEN IS VERIFIED AND/OR DISCUSSED SALONS, ETC...) DIRECTLY theory. The systems framework establishes that an
IN VARIOUS SPACES, BEFORE BEING PASSED
ON TO OTHER FRIENDS OR FAMILY information ecosystem is made up of complex sets of
2 THE FRAMEWORK PRESENTED HERE SYNTHESIZES AND EXTENDS RELEVANT
THEORY ABOUT INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS AND ITS UNDERPINNING
relationships. Any systems-driven analysis thus will
A sample information ecosystem analysis from Mon State, Myanmar examining information sources and flows for different segments of the population.
CONCEPTS. THIS SECTION DRAWS ON KEY FINDINGS FROM THE EMBRACING need to consider the structure of the system, how to
CHANGE LITERATURE REVIEW, FOUND AT https://innovation.internews.org/
This is just one way of analyzing an information ecosystem; there are many others. research/what-information-ecosystem-why-does-it-matter. understand the relationships among its parts, how to
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
10 11I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
trace and examine the flows of information that are
critical to those relationship, and the relationship of the
system’s structure to its behavior. THE EIGHT CRITICAL DIMENSIONS OF INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
To systems thinkers, the world is a collection of feedback
Information Information
processes. Information flows are vital to feedback
processes, and thus, information is the lifeblood of any 1 needs 2 landscape
and all systems. Information is inherently social and
acquires meaning only in a social context. Information
is a relationship; generating and receiving information
Influencers Production
are both creative acts. Information is an activity, not a
thing; it has to move or it ceases to be of value. 8 3 and movement
To understand information ecosystems, contextual
analysis is critical. Information is a defining aspect of
human relationships; thus the question of trust is critical
to the study of information ecosystems. Information This definition is intended to be a preliminary
must move or it has no reason to exist; because it moves, one, and will continue to evolve through further
it transforms as context and actors shift. research. 3
Based on an extensive literature review and Internews’
extensive global field experience as an implementer
of media and information projects, the Center puts D. EIGHT CRITICAL DIMENSIONS
forth the current working definition of information OF INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
ecosystems: Social Dynamic of
This conceptual framework also includes
7 trust 4 access
Information ecosystems are complex Eight Critical Dimensions of Information
adaptive systems that include Ecosystems, which enable a holistic understanding
information infrastructure, tools, media, and analysis of the information ecosystem of any
Impact of Use of
producers, consumers, curators, and
given community or place. These dimensions are
dynamic and in constant flux, depending on the
6 information 5 information
sharers. They are complex organizations specificities of each context at a given moment in
of dynamic social relationships time. To illustrate how each would be reflected
through which information moves and in a healthy information ecosystem, we provide provide concrete examples illuminating these to understand resilience from a new perspective. 4
transforms in flows. Through information a few general principles for each dimension. In principles. These dimensions, like the definition of
ecosystems, information appears as a the next section of this report, the case studies information ecosystems, were constructed out of
4 FOR AN EXAMPLE OF EARLY FORAYS INTO APPLYING THE FRAMEWORK,
master resource, like energy, the lack of the theoretical literature review and observations SEE http://resilientinfoeco.tumblr.com/post/91388759035/putting-the-infoeco-
from Internews’ field experience. The dimensions framework-into-action . THIS EXAMPLE SHOWCASES SISI NI AMANI, A KENYA-
which makes everything more difficult. 3 FOR EXAMPLE, COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS BY DEFINITION BASED ORGANIZATION THAT USES A COMBINATION OF TRADITIONAL
EXHIBIT EMERGENCE; THEY TRANSFORM IN UNPREDICTABLE WAYS. are interconnected and non-hierarchical, and are AND INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO COMMUNICATION AND DIALOGUE
UNDERSTANDING THIS DYNAMIC IN INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS IS AN TO INCREASE CIVIC ENGAGEMENT AND PREVENT VIOLENCE IN KENYAN
IMPORTANT TOPIC FOR FUTURE RESEARCH. provided as a preliminary analytical tool with which COMMUNITIES.
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
12 13I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
1. INFORMATION NEEDS 2. INFORMATION LANDSCAPE 3. PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT 4. DYNAMIC OF ACCESS
• Information needs across different segments of • The physical and institutional infrastructures • The variety of types of information available • The environment in which information flows (e.g.
the population, and how they change over time that support information production and (e.g. government services, community news) political, cultural, time, cost, and other factors)
flow, including media outlets, distributions
• The degree that information needs are known • The producers of information and the owners • Ease of accessing, finding, using, sharing, and
systems, production units, etc.
to information producers and consumers of the means of production and dissemination exchanging different types of information
• Intermediary organizations: media,
• The role of word of mouth, social media, bulletin • Barriers to interaction and participation
government, private industry, civil society
GENERAL PRINCIPLES boards, and other local information hubs
• Broader structures that influence
• Populations’ information needs are diverse and • The characteristics of information
• The role of Internet and mobile media as new, and access: governance, legal, political,
changing, and sub-groups within a community providers and their capacity to verify, filter,
rapidly expanding sources of information flows economic, and infrastructural factors
will have vastly different information needs. sort, and disseminate information
Information and communication needs assessments • The variety of types of content • Social inclusion
are a critical first step in designing programs. available, and to whom
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• Information must be inclusive and relevant to • While elements of macro infrastructure (e.g. • Impact of information as storytelling GENERAL PRINCIPLES
all segments of the population, including at the national radio broadcasting networks, cell phone • Power relationships and other forms of
hyper-local community level. Policymakers and towers) are often the easiest to identify and support social constraints profoundly shape access to
practitioners must have sufficient channels for within media and information landscapes, Internews GENERAL PRINCIPLES
information. Understanding power dynamics
listening and adapting to community feedback. has found that the hyper-local, community level • Strengthening information flows is not just
is critical to designing for inclusive access.
information landscape is the backbone of healthy about building new tools or technologies; it is
• Information must be unbiased, and should not also about redundancy and coordination. Healthy • Specific, contextual understanding of what
information ecosystems. Hyper-local information
serve the interests of media organizations, the information ecosystems are characterized by access looks like on the ground is also critical.
is critical for inspiring action, and its flow depends
government, or others. Without locally relevant a diversity of sources capable of providing the
on capable information providers and local • Techniques such as design research, combining
and actionable information, communities are same message. In particular, while sophisticated
influencers (please see the eighth dimension). immersive observation and ethnographic
left disempowered, helpless, and frustrated. sources of information like SMS and TV are typical
• Different groups access information investigative methods, may be the best way to
of more developed societies, these systems
through different means; understanding the understand the intrinsic constraints and motivations
are often the most vulnerable to disruption.
information landscape ensures that information that drive behaviors around information, as well as
is matched with the most appropriate and • Strengthening information flows is also build a nuanced picture of the dynamics of access.
resonant way to communicate it for impact. about richness of content – not just where
and how information flows, but what types of
information are available, how compellingly
information is conveyed, and whether
information is understandable and actionable.
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14 15I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
5. USE 6. IMPACT OF INFORMATION 7. SOCIAL TRUST 8. INFLUENCERS
• Factors influencing information’s • The impact of information on individual • Influence of trust networks on the • The people, organizations, and institutions that
relevance to people: content, medium/ and community opportunity, health, flow and use of information influence how different types of information flow
format, source, literacy, habit and economic development
• Trust building around information • Builders of trust in information
• What consumers and audience do • Relationship between information,
• Trust in information sources, medium, content • Change in influence over time,
with information that is received knowledge and behavior change
especially during disruption
• Disruptions in trust tied to information
• How information is processed, • Community organization around
(or the lack of information)
disseminated, and applied different types of information
• Challenges in building trust GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• Effects on community planning and action • Influence rests on political, religious, economic,
around information flows
GENERAL PRINCIPLES • Effects on policy and implementation and social status. It can also emerge from
• Once information reaches its intended disruptions of traditional social structures
audience, there are many factors that influence • The effect of information on civic engagement GENERAL PRINCIPLES precipitated by specific events, or the advent
whether and how it is actually used. Therefore, • A healthy information ecosystem can only of new technologies. The democratization of
it cannot be assumed that an environment exist when information sources are trusted, and information and communication technologies
with plentiful information is necessarily one GENERAL PRINCIPLES means that control over information production
individuals have the ability to verify and validate
with a healthy information ecosystem. • Relevant, compelling, and accessible information and flows is more unpredictable than ever before.
information through their established trust networks.
has a positive impact on people’s lives in terms
• Before it is used, information is often verified, of their agency and overall well-being. • Trust in information is ultimately influenced • Influencers can act as information bridges,
validated, and triangulated at a hyper-local by a community’s social dynamics at the connecting social groups that have weak or
level through friends and trusted contacts • However, unless information resonates nonexistent ties. This is critical for ensuring that
moment, coupled with any historical or cultural
with people’s needs and interests, it information flows are healthy and can adapt
factors that may generally color attitudes about
will not foster agency and action. to function during change or disruption.
government, external intervention, crises,
• Information may not always have a positive conflict, or other sociopolitical events.
impact on knowledge and behavior change; in
some cases, it may even perpetuate state influence
over the architecture of public information and
discourse. It may be that information production,
distribution, and access are robust in a community;
however, if information does not promote
empowered decision making (i.e. is primarily
entertainment or “managed” news content), it
will not actually foster the development of a
more empowered or enlightened citizenry.
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16 17I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
E. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS
& ADAPTATION TO CHANGE “ RESILIENCE IS THE
CAPACITY OF INDIVIDUALS, QUALITIES OF RESILIENT SYSTEMS
COMMUNITIES, AND
Internews’ experience has revealed consistently and SYSTEMS TO SURVIVE, REFLECTIVE diversity: the presence of multiple city’s ability to restore functionality
across a myriad of contexts that quality information and ADAPT, GROW, AND Reflective systems are accepting of
the inherent and ever-increasing
ways to achieve a given need or
fulfill a particular function. Examples
of critical systems, potentially under
severely constrained conditions.
communication are critical to anticipating, planning for,
and ultimately responding to change. When people are
EVEN TRANSFORM IN uncertainty and change in today’s include distributed infrastructure
supported by strong information ecosystems that allow THE FACE OF CHANGE, world. They have mechanisms
to continuously evolve, and will
networks and resource reserves.
Redundancies should be intentional, INCLUSIVE
them to access and exchange critical information, they STRESS, SHOCKS, AND modify standards or norms based cost-effective and prioritized at a Inclusion emphasizes the need for
can effectively adapt and flourish in response to more city-wide scale, and should not be broad consultation and engagement
frequent and large-scale changes in their environment.
DISRUPTION." on emerging evidence, rather
than seeking permanent solutions an externality of inefficient design. of communities, including the most
- ADAPTED FROM THE ROCKEFELLER based on the status quo. As a vulnerable groups. Addressing the
F O U N D AT I O N result, people and institutions shocks or stresses faced by one
Timely and accurate information for populations, as FLEXIBLE sector, location, or community in
examine and systematically learn
well as strong and healthy information flows between from their past experiences, and Flexibility implies that systems isolation of others is an anathema
communities, responders, and local media, allows leverage this learning to inform can change, evolve and adapt to the notion of resilience. An
communities to understand the challenges they systemic manner, while reducing dependency on future decision-making. in response to changing inclusive approach contributes to
confront, self-organize and take on responsibilities in external intervention that is typically only available for circumstances. This may favor a sense of shared ownership or a
decentralized and modular joint vision to build city resilience.
response, participate in recovery and resilience efforts, traumatic, large-scale events.
ROBUST approaches to infrastructure or
and reach consensus on how to build back better. As ecosystem management. Flexibility
Robust systems include well-
such, information fosters the capabilities and aspirations While our research demonstrates that information conceived, constructed and can be achieved through the INTEGR ATED
of individuals and communities: it empowers people to ecosystems are rarely acknowledged within resilience managed physical assets, so that introduction of new knowledge Integration and alignment between
take an active role in their own resilience in a sustained, policy and practice, a review of the City Resilience they can withstand the impacts of and technologies, as needed. city systems promotes consistency
Framework, developed by Arup’s International hazard events without significant It also means considering and in decision-making and ensures
damage or loss of function. Robust incorporating indigenous or that all investments are mutually
Development team and supported by The Rockefeller
design anticipates potential failures traditional knowledge and supportive to a common outcome.
“ RESILIENCE FOCUSES
ON ENHANCING THE
Foundation indicates that healthy information ecosystems
are already an implicit cornerstone of resilient cities and
systems. As the City Resilience Framework is highly
in systems, making provision
to ensure failure is predictable,
safe, and not disproportionate
practices in new ways. Integration is evident within and
between resilient systems, and
across different scales of their
PERFORMANCE OF aligned with our own conception of resilience (built to the cause. Over-reliance on RESOURCEFUL operation. Exchange of information
Resourcefulness implies that between systems enables them to
A SYSTEM IN THE from the literature review and Internews’ experience),
Internews is adopting it as our definition of resilience.5
a single asset, cascading failure
and design thresholds that might people and institutions are able function collectively and respond
FACE OF MULTIPLE This framework will help us to precisely analyze the
lead to catastrophic collapse if to rapidly find different ways to
achieve their goals or meet their
rapidly through shorter feedback
loops throughout the city.
HAZARDS, RATHER linkages between dimensions of information ecosystems
exceeded are actively avoided.
needs during a shock or when
THAN PREVENTING OR and qualities of resilient systems.6
REDUNDANT
under stress. This may include
investing in capacity to anticipate
MITIGATING THE LOSS OF Redundancy refers to spare capacity future conditions, set priorities, and
ASSETS DUE TO SPECIFIC 5 THE DEFINITION OF RESILIENCE ARTICULATED IN THE FRAMEWORK DOES
NOT REFER TO THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM, OR PUT
purposely created within systems
so that they can accommodate
respond, for example, by mobilizing
and coordinating wider human,
EVENTS." DIFFERENTLY, FEATURES THAT REMAIN UNCHANGED DESPITE DISRUPTION.
WHETHER INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS SUPPORT A COMMUNITY’S ESSENTIAL
CHARACTERISTICS, OR COMMUNITY TRANSFORMATION INSTEAD, IS FERTILE
disruption, extreme pressures financial and physical resources.
GROUND FOR FUTURE RESEARCH. or surges in demand. It includes Resourcefulness is instrumental to a
- CIT Y RESILIENCE FR AMEWORK , ARUP
6 THE TEXT ON THE FOLLOWING PAGE IS TAKEN DIRECTLY FROM ARUP, “CITY
RESILIENCE INDEX: CITY RESILIENCE FRAMEWORK,” APRIL 2014, P.5
WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE WH Y INFORMATION MAT TERS A FOUNDATION FOR RESILIENCE
18 19I. DEFINING INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS PART II
While it is implicit from the Qualities of Resilient
Systems that healthy information ecosystems are vital INFORMATION
to resilience, Internews argues that it is important to
make this element explicit and to better understand ECOSYSTEMS & RESILIENCE
its dynamics. Without healthy information
ecosystems, articulated goals and characteristics of
resilience simply cannot be achieved. For example,
if governments, donors, investors, policymakers,
and the private sector hope to foster resilience by
understanding dynamic networks of control, influence
and power and ensuring inclusion of all social groups
and neighborhoods, it is vital to systematically assess
and support the information ecosystem within a given INSIGHTS FROM 1. “Trust, Influence and Connectivity:
community or place. Similarly, the City Resilience INTERNEWS CASE STUDIES Understanding Information Ecosystems in
Framework identifies resource coordination, Pakistan’s Tribal Areas” by Panthea Lee (2013)
collective action, social cohesion, social networks, 2. “Connecting the Last Mile: The Role of
and effective communications systems as key features In order to move beyond a theoretical understanding Communication in the Great East Japan
of resilient cities and systems (to name just a few). of information ecosystems and their relationship with Earthquake” by Lois Appleby (2013)
These ambitions cannot be achieved solely through resilience, we now apply the conceptual framework 3. “Information Ecosystems in Transition: A Case
technology or tools, but must also rely upon strong, to four real world cases of disruption and change. Study from Myanmar” by Andrew Wasuwongse
redundant, and trusted information flows and This section examines four Internews Case Studies and Alison Campbell (2014)
relationships that underlie and sustain day-to-day life that were, to varying degrees, undertaken from 4. “Indonesia: Crisis Communication Channels” by
within a community. Simply put, a community with a different information ecosystems perspectives.7 While Matt Abud (2013)
strong information ecosystem is a more resilient one. these Case Studies were written before the current
information ecosystems framework was constructed,
they do provide enough data to test the framework The case studies provide a diversity of types of
and construct prototype typologies of information information ecosystem, levels of economic development,
ecosystems. and types of change––including acute disaster, long-
term stresses, and slow-onset crises. They allow us to
identify common features of information ecosystems
across different contexts and formulate preliminary
typologies that can serve as useful analytical and
predictive models for policy and planning. The case
studies also demonstrate weaknesses in information
ecosystems undermine resilience. This presents
areas for further investigation through the Jakarta
Information Ecosystems (InfoEco) Pilot and the New
7 NOTE THAT THESE STUDIES WERE CONDUCTED PRIOR TO OUR CURRENT
York InfoEco Pilot.8
INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS FRAMEWORK, AND WHILE THEY REFLECT SOME
OF THE VALUES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FRAMEWORK ILLUSTRATED
IN PART 1, THEY DO NOT ADHERE TO IT. FOR A MORE DETAILED LOOK AT THE
DATA ACROSS THE FOUR CASE STUDIES, SEE THE COMPARATIVE CHARTS IN 8 INFORMATION IN THE SUMMARY BOXES WAS ADAPTED FROM THE
ANNEX 2. RESPECTIVE CASE STUDIES.
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20 21II. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS & RESILIENCE
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNEWS CASE STUDIES poverty, and isolation. Pakistan’s per-capita development along the coastline and resulted in over 18,000 dead or
spending in FATA is one-third of those in other parts of missing, 6000 injured and 470,000 survivors seeking
the country leading to critical gaps in essential services shelter. The tsunami also damaged the Fukushima
PAKISTAN JAPAN MYANMAR INDONESIA and inadequate infrastructure, including information nuclear power plant, causing radioactive material to be
Instability and Acute crisis event Political and Environmental infrastructure. Compounding these obstacles is the leaked into the sea. While the damage was catastrophic,
TYPE OF underdevelopment economic disasters existence in parts of FATA of militant groups that it is generally acknowledged that Japan’s advanced
DISRUPTION opening; post- threaten regional security. Since 2004, this threat has disaster preparedness measures prevented the number
conflict recovery led to US intelligence operations, targeting FATA with of fatalities and damage from being far greater.
Long-term, chronic Sudden-onset, Sudden, uneven Chronic, drone strikes in the attempt to defeat Taliban and Al-
SPEED AND large scale sudden-onset Qaeda militants. The political and physical alienation
SCALE OF of the region has further contributed to an already-wide CASE STUDY 3: MYANMAR’S
DISRUPTION gap of understanding between the global community DEMOCRATIZATION AND OPENING
and the people of Pakistan’s tribal regions.
Low High Low Medium
LEVEL OF Until recently, few might have predicted the political,
DEVELOPMENT social and economic developments now taking place
Everyday human Information Information Crisis
CASE STUDY 2: in Myanmar. Rapid removal of restrictions present
impacts of ecosystems in ecosystems within communications
GREAT EAST JAPAN EARTHQUAKE a unique opportunity to conduct research among
information post-disaster a history of crisis; across contexts the most remote, least developed ethnic minority
challenges survival and such as repression (urban and rural, On March 11, 2011, a massive underwater earthquake areas, such as Mon State, that chronically experience
INVESTIGATIVE recovery and conflict local and national
LENS ON THE measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale struck off the conflict. Little has been documented about the way
disasters, areas
INFORMATION Pacific coast of the Tohoku region in northeast Japan. in which information circulates in the ethnic states,
with/without
ECOSYSTEM infrastructure The earthquake was the most powerful ever recorded what information people need, how they meet these
and with/without in Japanese history and caused a mega-tsunami needs through informal networks, and what kinds of
preparedness that toppled seawalls and spread over 500 square information they trust and can access. Internet and
efforts) kilometers. The tsunami destroyed towns and villages mobile phone penetration are minimal.
A. OVERVIEW
OF CASE STUDIES
CASE STUDY 1: INSTABILITY AND
UNDERDEVELOPMENT IN FATA, PAKISTAN
Pakistan’s present-day Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (FATA) are the homeland for three million
Pashtun residents and thousands of Afghan refugees
spread across three thousand mostly rural villages and
towns. Decades of turbulence and semi-autonomous
governance have alienated inhabitants from the rest of
Pakistan and kept FATA in a perpetual state of instability,
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22 23II. INFORMATION ECOSYSTEMS & RESILIENCE
After the catastrophic 2004 tsunami, Aceh, a region on Second, trust is absolutely essential for C. HOW INFORMATION
the island of Sumatra, received extensive investment information to have an influence on the lives ECOSYSTEMS
in early warning systems and crisis communications.
When two earthquakes struck off the west coast of
of communities and individuals. Naturally, the
strongest level of trust is found at the local levels
MATTER FOR RESILIENCE
northern Sumatra on April 11, 2012, measuring 8.6 through information shared among friends and
and 8.2 on the Richter scale, the systems were put to families. In all of the case studies, people evaluate The case studies also provide tangible examples of
the test. The first quake triggered a tsunami evacuation information in multiple ways to establish its validity. how various dimensions of information ecosystems
warning; fortunately, no tsunami materialized. They consider eyewitness accounts, the medium, play into community resilience. Using the Eight
However, the experience exposed significant and whether there were videos or photographs, and Critical Dimensions of Information Ecosystems
weaknesses in the disaster response mechanism: then compare these inputs with other sources of (described in Part I.D) as a framework for analysis, we
thousands were stranded as they tried to heed the information including friends and family. In all cases, can identify how strengthening certain dimensions
evacuation warning. trust in information is difficult to establish, yet central can foster adaptation and recovery from disruption,
to the way that information is accepted. Information whereas barriers and weaknesses in other dimensions
ecosystems with strong trust bonds make for more undermine resilience and lead to breakdown in systems.
B. WHY INFORMATION resilient communities.
CASE STUDY 4:
ECOSYSTEMS MATTER 1. INFORMATION NEEDS
Third, the case studies confirm the notion that
THREE ENVIRONMENTAL FOR RESILIENCE information is power. For example, in Pakistan,
DISASTERS IN INDONESIA where tribal and religious leaders once held the most ∞ Inclusive and relevant information is essential.
These four case studies highlight several observations influence, others have now begun to occupy equal if Government and major media producers often
Flooding has long been a fact of life in the Indonesian about information ecosystems that are particularly not more influential positions. For example, educated set an information agenda that is too broad or
capital, Jakarta. Recent decades, however, have seen significant in building resiliency: and tech-savvy citizens have begun to gain influence too sensational, failing to serve the information
a significant increase in severity, affecting areas that due to their ability to utilize new media to access desires and needs at the community level. In the
had not previously been susceptible. Starting January Firstly, information ecosystems are shaped and share relevant information and validate official Indonesia case study, media conglomerates
16, 2013, heavy monsoon rains combined with broken and constrained by their context. The ability for sources of information. provided sensationalized crisis coverage to benefit
embankments and seasonally high tides led to extreme information to foster community resilience depends the media owners. This failed the people directly
flooding across Jakarta, causing approximately 41 on broader factors that define the context, including Lastly, one of the most interesting themes central affected by the disaster. Sensational stories that
casualties and some 45,000 displaced. Under a state a country’s media laws, the presence of conflict, the to all case studies was that technology broadens drive ratings should not take precedence over
of emergency, government agencies, civil society poverty gap, and the current development status of opportunities for citizens to participate in and empowering and informing communities through
organizations, businesses, and citizens all scrambled the entire country. The case studies show that the role shape their lives. For example, the ability for a relevant and unbiased information.
to meet the sudden humanitarian needs of those information can play in managing change is linked with community to share information through social media
affected. other features of the system, such as infrastructure and other Internet platforms allows people to have a ∞ In Japan, mainstream media coverage focused on
and policy. Barriers such as a lack of electricity or voice in setting the agenda and encouraging producers the nuclear crisis and did not provide the informa-
The Rokatenda volcano dominates the isolated Palue community isolation can severely hinder information’s to generate needed information. Additionally, the 24- tion that people in evacuation centers needed most.
Island, home to some 12,000 people. In November movement, the relevance of information produced, hour news cycle and the ability for instant updates This barrier stemmed from a lack of sufficient chan-
2012, Rokatenda began intense activity and continued and people’s usage of that information. Likewise, allows people to get information whenever they want nels for local information and inquiries to reach
to experience repeated tremors with frequent ejections factors such as demographics can dramatically change it, and far more quickly than ever before. policymakers and crisis responders. It also high-
of smoke, ash, and debris. The three villages closest to the way that people experience and recover from a lights the fact that information providers often have
the volcano, Nitlung, Lidi, and Rokirole were the most crisis. To build resilience at the hyper-local level, it is their own agenda. Feeling that their urgent needs
affected and account for many of the approximately critical to strengthen information ecosystems with an for local information are treated as unimportant,
4,900 people displaced. appreciation of contextual constraints. people in communities can end up feeling helpless
and frustrated.
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24 25You can also read
