A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002
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A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent University of Alabama at Birmingham Headquartered in Berlin since 1998, the German- American Fulbright Program has developed into one of the most active and influential of the binational educational exchange programs operating under the Fulbright umbrella. Every year it sends hundreds of German students, scholars, and educators to the United States and hosts an equally large and distinguished group of American students, scholars, and educators at Germany’s institutions of higher learning. The prominence of the German-American Fulbright Program in the world of scholarly exchange is intimately tied to modern The original Fulbright Agreement German history. Following World War II, when the United States joined in occupying a defeated Germany, officials in its Office of Military Government (OMGUS) discovered that most German citizens had been isolated from the rest of the world for at least half a generation. Starting with the notion of “re-education” of a former enemy, followed by a gentler “re-orientation” concept a few years later, OMGUS and U.S. State Department officials conceived a foreign policy program for sending Germans, especially civic leaders open to democratic ideals and possessing leadership potential, to the United States at public expense to witness democracy in action. This exchange program was launched in 1947, and within six years nearly 10,000 young Germans “experienced” the United States, many of them attending universities there. Upon returning to Germany, many went on to build prominent careers in the public and private sectors. At virtually the same time, a freshman senator from Arkansas, J. William Fulbright, initiated a new program in the United States intended to bring Americans out of their own brand of cultural isolation and to connect students and scholars worldwide on a basis of equality. A Rhodes Scholar worried that so few Americans had studied abroad or experienced foreign cultures, Fulbright, who was profoundly moved by the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, conceived of an imaginative new use of the obscure War Senator Fulbright Surplus Property Act of 1944. His idea was to use a portion of the monetary credits derived from war surplus overseas to send young scholars abroad with the German-American Fulbright Commission 1 of 6
A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent twin goals of advancing knowledge and furthering mutual understanding. A convincing advocate and skilled political strategist, Fulbright won over the initially hesitant Congress, Treasury, and State Department, and on August 1, 1946 President Truman signed off on the P.L. 584 Amendment. Using State Department infrastructure for support, the program set up an independent Board of Foreign Scholarships (renamed the J. William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board in 1991) so that participating nations could select qualified scholars and educators to visit the U.S. while the BFS would choose young scholars to send abroad. Known as the Fulbright Act, the program was destined in Germany’s case to overtake the exchange program in the American Zone, elevating the underlying purpose of the exchange from postwar re- orientation to genuine partnership. The Fulbright Exchange Program began operation in 1948, first targeting former Allied nations that were recovering most rapidly from the war. The Adenauer and McCloy signing the Fulbright Agreement possibility of creating a German Fulbright in 1952 Program was first addressed in 1949 after the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and U.S. High Commissioner John J. McCloy entered into lengthy negotiations, but because the Federal Republic had not yet attained full sovereignty and because of funding intricacies and legal issues delays ensued. The United States signed the (Fulbright) Executive Agreement with the Federal Republic on July 18, 1952, and the binational Fulbright Commission came into existence. Beginning with the academic year 1953-54, approximately 200 American graduate students, twenty teachers, and a handful of senior scholars arrived in Germany, while a comparable group of German students, teachers, and senior scholars traveled to the United States. From its inception, the program was a great success, as evidenced by top: The first German grantees bottom: 1953 American grantees the summary reports submitted by participants at the buying eel on the Rhine conclusion of their year-long programs.. On both sides, the participants found their Weltanschauung and their understanding of people (as distinct from nations) immeasurably widened, just as Senator Fulbright had so fervently wished. Given its robust economy and the availability of war German-American Fulbright Commission 2 of 6
A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent surplus funds, the United States had unilaterally funded the worldwide Fulbright Exchange, including the program with the Federal Republic. However, as the original war surplus sources declined, the U.S. Congress passed new legislation in 1961: the Fulbright-Hays Act. This act widened the scope of the program to include binational cost-sharing. The following year, as a token of gratitude and an indication of its economic recovery, Germany entered into a cost-sharing Fulbright agreement, the first nation to do so. The German government has paid approximately half of all expenditures connected to the Fulbright exchange ever since. This critically President Kennedy and Senator important development in the worldwide Fulbright concept Fulbright at the 15th Anniversary of the Fulbright Program in 1961 helps explain the program’s vitality over five decades. Germany’s pioneering cost-sharing plan guaranteed that the Program would become a genuinely reciprocal process, and it fulfilled one of Senator Fulbright’s earliest goals of sharing and equal responsibility. Soon, other participating nations followed the Federal Republic’s example. Germany’s Program was also helped by the expertise of several long-serving and skillful persons such as American Carl G. Anthon and German Ulrich Littmann, to name only two dedicated officials. From the outset, the German-American Fulbright Commission instituted certain rules for the selection of participants from the Federal Republic and later a reunited Germany. First, it created a highly visible, merit-based competition to select outstanding candidates in all of the recognized scholarly and scientific fields. The preamble to the 1952 Agreement echoed the original Fulbright concept of 1946, specifically seeking participants with the ability to “promote further mutual understanding between the peoples of the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany by a wider exchange of knowledge and professional talents through educational contacts.” From the start, the Commission in Bonn had five American and five German members, each group exercising equal responsibility and selecting its membership by its own national process. On the German side, the Fulbright Commission typically selected representatives from the Ministry of Education, the German University Presidents Conference, the German Academic Exchange Service, one alternating, representative university, and later a university student organization, preferably a Fulbright returnee. The rigorous selection process allowed German Fulbright participants to rebuild their nation’s reputation for academic excellence. Equally important, they became unofficial ambassadors for peace. Other indications of the high national priority assigned to the Fulbright program in Germany abounded. With the implementation of the 1962 agreement, Germany’s Minister of German-American Fulbright Commission 3 of 6
A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent Foreign Affairs became an ex-officio honorary co-chairperson of the Commission and was entitled to perform the same functions as the U.S. Secretary of State, such as budget approval and authorization of the Annual Program Plan. Germany’s Federal Government covered most of the costs for German participants, although individual states and other local German institutions also supported the national enterprise. Given Berlin’s special status in the context of the Cold War, the Fulbright Commission noticed early on that American participants who studied and researched in Berlin eagerly reported a unique atmosphere there. In 1954, the Fulbright Program instituted a “Berlin Week” for all Fulbright participants, a gathering that attracted national attention. For example, in March 1986, Federal President Richard von Weizäcker addressed the Berlin attendees in person, praising the program’s commitment to a binational partnership that carried worldwide implications. Thus, in Germany the Fulbright-Kommission has probably achieved a higher visibility in governmental circles than has its American counterpart, in part because Germany’s senior political leadership views cultural relations as a “third pillar” of foreign Fulbright postage stamp issued 1996 policy. Another Federal President, Karl Carstens, noted in 1978 the enduring legacy bequeathed by Senator Fulbright, commenting that “those among us who are familiar with the general discussion of [German] cultural foreign policy will perceive…that the work of the Fulbright-Kommission is based on a concept of cultural politics that is closely tied to the terms of ‘an expanded definition of culture’ from which our current cultural foreign relations are formed.” His definition encompasses no less than “the entire range of living reality; extends from literature to technology, from issues of social policies to problems of environmental protection; it includes the past and present with a view towards future challenges.” The German-American Fulbright Program has created a sizable body of influential German citizens highly knowledgeable about the United States and a comparable body of American citizens with great knowledge of Germany. One spin-off of these developments is that each country in the binational program has helped to develop a large and respectable historiographical literature about the other, and that American Studies, once a rarity in Germany, is now commonplace in university curricula. This is in marked contrast to pre-1945 developments when mutual ignorance of their opposite nations, even in centers of higher learning, was the norm. The German-American Fulbright Program has engendered many other positive developments great and small; the illustrious career of German Fulbright participant Gerhard Casper serves as one example. A legal scholar, he built his career in the United States, capping it German-American Fulbright Commission 4 of 6
A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent with a distinguished presidency at Stanford University from 1992 to 2000. Thousands of other German Fulbright participants have helped broaden international contacts too, among them a young Germanist who taught public school in New Jersey in the late 1950s. One of his pupils, this author, became so enamored of German culture that he pursued a career in German history. He, like countless other German and American citizens, is, through the “multiplier principle” also a beneficiary of the “Fulbright experience.” Following German reunification in 1990, the German-American Fulbright Program extended its operations to institutions of higher learning in the eastern states of the former GDR. Since then hundreds of exceptional students, educators, lecturers, and scholars from those once culturally isolated regions have traveled to the United States while American participants have studied and experienced life Fulbrighters left their mark on Berlin in cities such as Dresden, Leipzig, and Rostock. They, too, have become full partners in the “Fulbright experience” and will undoubtedly have a major impact on society and on the integration of those parts of Germany that were isolated for so long. In 1996 when the worldwide Fulbright Program celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, its leadership estimated that a quarter of a million participants had gone through the Fulbright programs (now over 300,000) and had organized into a worldwide fraternity of men and women who share the program’s enduring goals of advancing knowledge and promoting international cooperation. On that occasion, they quoted former German Fulbright staff and board member Karl C. Roeloffs, who reminded the Americans that it is “impossible to conceive of the American government being able to succeed without its ability to draw on the United States’ unique system of higher education. American colleges and universities with their commitment to access, intellectual rigor, creativity and excellence, served as models for advancing learning elsewhere and in the process developed a global market for educational change.” The German-American Fulbright Program, one of the largest in the world, has made Colin Powell speaking at the a comparable impact on society, and it shares Senator celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the German-American Fulbright Fulbright’s enduring goal. He said it best: “…We must seek Program German-American Fulbright Commission 5 of 6
A Brief History of the German-American Fulbright Program, 1952-2002 James F. Tent through education to develop empathy, that rare and wonderful ability to perceive the world as others see it” Decent behavior, he observed, stems from perceiving others as individual human beings; barbarism can result from perceiving an adversary abstractly, as the embodiment of some evil design. As recent tragic events have shown, the need for international tolerance, understanding, and cooperation remains as great now as it was after World War II, when a freshman senator from Arkansas initiated the program that bears his name. - James Tent is a professor for German history at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. German-American Fulbright Commission 6 of 6
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