Toxic Narratives MONITORING - ALTERNATIVE-RIGHT ACTORS - Amadeu Antonio Stiftung
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Toxic Narratives MONITORING ALTERNATIVE-RIGHT ACTORS
Toxic Narratives MONITORING ALTERNATIVE-RIGHT ACTORS
Contents
Dear Readers 2
Introduction: Narratives and their impact 4
The challenge of alternative-right media strategies in the digital public sphere 5
1. Hate speech as a digital form of group-focused enmity 5
2. Fake news as a cornerstone of the new alternative-right media landscape 6
3. Alternative-right media figures and their mutual reinforcement 6
4. Social bots’ amplification of discursive conflicts 6
Mobilization and the interaction of media phenomena 7
Toxic narratives 8
Analysis of alternative-right worldviews: Basic assumptions 8
Analysis of alternative-right worldviews: Methodology 9
Observed framing narratives and meta sub-narratives 10
Publisher: The successes of the framing narratives 13
Amadeu Antonio Stiftung: What sub-narratives have been successful? 14
Novalisstraße 12
10115 Berlin On the function of narratives in populism 16
Telephone +49 (0)30 240 886 10 Constructions of “the people” and community 16
info@amadeu-antonio-stiftung.de Conspiracy ideologies as an integrative link 17
www.amadeu-antonio-stiftung.de
Findings and recommendations 18
Pedagogical approaches for a democratic digital civil society 19
Authors: Johannes Baldauf, Miro Dittrich, Melanie Hermann, Britta Kollberg, Robert Lüdecke, Jan Rathje From counter-narrative to democratic narrative 19
Data research and graphics: Miro Dittrich
Editors: Britta Kollberg, Robert Lüdecke Sources and notes 22
Design:
Printing: Druckzone, Cottbus
Printed on EnviroTop 100% recycled paper
ISBN 978-3-940878-29-8
© Amadeu Antonio Stiftung, 2017
Printing: Druckzone, Cottbus
Printed on EnviroTop 100 % recycled paper
ISBN 978-3-940878-29-8
© Amadeu Antonio Stiftung, 2017
2 3
Dear Readers, new online hate-speech law (Netzwerkdurchsetzungs- culture of debate, is developing a pool of trainers able to
gesetz, NetzDG) have made clear how superficial the address the issue of online hate, and works to address
awareness of the problem is. While the steep financial hate speech from the perspective of those affected, thus
penalties have justifiably centered the public debate empowering them. It also publishes Belltower.news, a
around aspects of freedom-of-expression, there has as digital civil society portal offering up-to-date informa
With our Monitoring Report, we want to draw attention Today’s updated narra- yet been little examination of the consequences of hate tion on relevant issues. The foundation connects all
to certain trends and dangers facing democratic culture tives often have roots speech and questions of democratic culture in the digi- these activities with a research-driven foundation
within the digital sphere and ask how we can protect in familiar right-wing tal sphere. through the work of the Institute for Democracy and
this culture together. We want to focus here on the ar- extremist accounts of Civil Society.
guments, content, images and above all the associated the world. Particularly As a part of its own digital work, the Amadeu Antonio
narratives that right-wing populist and far-right extre- alarming is the image Stiftung, a German non-profit foundation, engages with We hope the present study will help illuminate the
mist actors circulate within social networks. As attitude of the so-called race hate and other forms of group-focused enmity online thoughts and ideas lying behind the examined pheno-
research has shown, these narratives are easily assimi- war – ostensibly immi- while promoting the development of a democratic di- mena, while further advancing efforts to shape success-
lated within society’s democratic center, particularly in nent due to the influx gital civil society. Unlike some other actors, we seek to ful counter-strategies. I would like to extend my warm
the case of racist attributions or the use of antisemitic of asylum seekers, im- work with platform operators to achieve changes, for thanks to the Freudenberg Stiftung, whose assistance
conspiracy narratives to explain world events. migration and an al instance in the context of the Online Civil Courage Ini- enabled us to produce this Monitoring Report.
leged Islamization – tiative we are implementing jointly with Facebook, the
In seeking to depict the complexity of the developments that underlies many of Institute for Strategic Dialogue and others.
and the interaction of the various actors, we have uti- the narratives. Overall,
lized a concept that gained currency in Germany during 27 such narratives can be observed, which can be In its other projects, the foundation supports online de- Timo Reinfrank
the course of the Trump election campaign. As an ana- further clustered into 10 broader framing narratives (for radicalization, promotes the development of a digital Executive Director, Amadeu Antonio Stiftung
logue to the self-description of a portion of the U.S. right example: internal/external threats, the downfall of the
wing as the “alt-right,” we refer here to an “alternative German people, etc.). Here, it is evident that the newer
right.” This concept has been criticized – with some ju- narratives draw on already widely disseminated sub-
stice – as being euphemistic. However, it seemed more narratives targeting the “manipulative establishment”
appropriate to us, and better able to render the current or representatives of the constitutional democratic
changes visible, than speaking only of the “new right.” state. This largely open and viral condemnation of the
The alt-right is a term for a variety of ideologies that democratic system is for us previously unprecedented
seek to convince others that the “identity of the white in the digital sphere. Moreover, narratives are very dur
people” is threatened due to policies promoting an open, able. Already many young people are growing up sur-
multicultural society based on human rights and equa- rounded by these accounts of the world, with their in
lity. Former U.S. presidential adviser Steve Bannon, fluence shaping the youths’ developing attitudes toward Sie tarnen
sich als b
und Bürg esorgte B
who strongly sympathizes with the alt-right movement, life. er
schaftlich , werfen mit pse
ürgerinnen
en Argum udowisse
has been a strong advocate of this ideology through offen rass en ten um si n-
isti
ihre Hetze sche Parolen oder
ch, poste
n VIRALER
the Breitbart news portal, using what he calls “rolling This brutal mobilization of hate and contempt through u
mors: Neo nter dem Deckman rstecken
nazis vers
ve
tel des H Rechtsextr HASS
narratives.” In the course of this strategy, he has publis- the means of toxic narratives has to date been met with bestimmte u
r Kommu chen mithilfe gan
u- Kommunik eme
hed thousands of articles linking current themes with little opposition. Anyone who confronts them within so-
Internet
zu mobil
nikationss
isiere
trategien
im
z im Web 2.0 ationsstrategien
und ihren
Hass zu ve n, zu rekrutieren
an underlying racist narrative, seeking to provide his cial networks, trying to discuss the issues raised, will be tiger ist es
,
rbreiten.
Umso wic
die richti diese Taktiken zu h-
worldview with a viral interpretive influence. Various abused, insulted and threatened within hours. Counter- gen Gegen (er-)kennen
– und ein strategien ,
en deutlic anzuwend
die rechts hen Kontr en
factions of the German alternative-right scene are now speech has often proved to be ineffective. Arguments, extreme Pr apunkt ge
gen
opaganda
zu setzen.
trying to emulate Breitbart’s success. statistics and references to research findings often sim-
ply lead to insistence on original positions or even to
For the analysis of specific narratives, we have selected further radicalization and a consolidation of worldviews.
10 right-wing populist, far-right and conspiracy-ideology In contrast to these forces, there are comparatively few
actors that are representative of larger phenomena, quan- democratic counter-narratives that make positive refe-
titatively classifying and qualitatively assessing their rence to equality, human rights and the rule of law. It
most far-reaching posts within the largest social network. is thus all the more critical to develop, disseminate and
We have deemed these narratives to be toxic insofar as recount such narratives. It is equally important that tho-
they poison the social climate, use othering to construct se pursuing this task are credible in their own attitudes
in- and out-groups, and thus seek to polarize the environ- and avoid employing communications techniques simi-
ment into nothing more than friends and enemies. This lar to those used by the alternative right.
construction of “the enemy” then makes it possible to
open up the digital environment to mobbing, hate, hate To date, the public debate has focused largely on the Viral Hate. Right-wing extremist
speech and even criminally prosecutable incitement to issues of filter bubbles, fake news and criminally prose- communication strategies in Web 2.0
hatred and violence (German “Volksverhetzung”). cutable hate speech. The discussions around Germany’s Amadeu Antonio Stiftung 2013
4 5
Introduction: Narratives and their impact The challenge of alternative-right media strategies
in the digital public sphere
Many fairy tales begin with the phrase, “Once upon a true and correct to the specific target audience, and thus “Together against online hate.” (“Gemeinsam gegen Hass In Germany, content that is clearly subject to criminal
time….” When talking about narratives, we often have provide additional motivation and legitimation. Narra- im Netz”) With this prominent problematization of the prosecution, such as incitements to hatred or violent ac-
this in mind. Others think of school literature or mytho tives have long-term potency, create apparent connec- issue of hate speech, the German Federal Ministry of Ju- tion, threats or libel, can be distinguished from forms of
logy, or about stories and narratives that not only de tions between disparate events, and – as in the cases stice and Consumer Protection (BMJV), along with a task hate speech that are not as yet punishable by law. This
scribe a set of actions or series of events, but also con- to be examined here – can be classified as toxic for the force composed of other political, business-sector and latter category includes cyberbullying, defamation, ha-
vey a deeper meaning or lesson. social environment. Such toxic narratives can be found civil society actors, introduced the danger of right-wing rassment and coercion – or more simply, toxic communi-
in far-right, right-wing-populist and conspiracy-theory populist and right-wing extremist social-network content cation. More generally, it encompasses communication
But other narratives exist too, which may not be writ- contexts. This does not mean that all such narratives to a broader public. The problem and possible counter- styles and content that contribute to the destruction of
ten down, but are nevertheless potent forces within our are automatically of right-wing extremist or right-wing measures were also widely discussed in the press. online communities or induce certain participants to
lives and the society at large. These are the narratives populist origin; however, they complement each other leave such communities through methods such as the
that we use to order, explain and describe the world, and well. Toxic narratives are very adaptable and can be In the course of 2016, the British referendum on the persistent disparagement of individuals or groups, lies,
which define the perspective from which we contem found in other parts of society. United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union insults and other destructive expressions.2
plate society. Philosopher Jean-François Lyotard justifi- (EU), as well as Donald Trump’s election as president of
ably calls such explanations of the world “grand narra- Should a person deem one such toxic narrative to be the United States (US), drew media attention to additio-
Focusing on the phenomena of fake news and social
tives.” These accounts function like any other stories, true, he or she doesn’t necessarily have to believe all nal digital phenomena that can be prominently used to
bots detracts from addressing the ideological content
evoking emotions and providing us with motivations. other linked narratives. However, there is a strong pro- promote group-focused enmity – especially fake news
and strategic dimension of hate speech.
But what if this form of narrative primarily evokes fear, bability that this will happen sooner or later. and social bots.
rejection or even hate?
For this reason, it is necessary to process such narra The various phenomena are frequently conflated in All of these various forms have serious psychological
tives – decoding them, examining their core content and public discussions. However, the relationships between and physical consequences for those affected. This can
Narratives have long-term potency, create apparent
classifying them – in order to respond to them cogently them, as well as with the specific strategies pursued by begin with headaches and increased blood pressure,
connections between disparate events, and provide
and successfully. The present report is intended to make right-wing extremist and right-wing populist actors, of- and range through aggressiveness, anxiety and even
legitimacy for personal worldviews.
a contribution to this effort. ten remain unclear. U.S. media reports during and fol- suicide. In some cases, the acts also have an effect on
lowing the presidential election helped kindle a vigo- the victim’s surroundings.
Stories of this kind have served as the basis for the vi- rous discussion about the future of the German public
olence directed against refugees and their supporters. sphere. However, the lack of empirical foundation has We have observed an alarming diffusion of discrimina-
As the number of asylum seekers rose, more than 300 made it difficult to develop suitably targeted responses. tion and numerous calls for violent acts in connection
Facebook sites were created across Germany with the with hate speech. Thus, the strategic dimension of such
title “Nein zum Heim” (“No shelter here”) or something For this reason, the current overview will provide an speech must be emphasized. In many cases, the speech
similar, protesting against local refugee housing and initial introductory illustration of the connections bet- act is not only intended to wound, but is also delibera-
seeking to inflame the public mood against the new ar- ween the phenomena. In the process, it will also high- tely used as a verbal weapon to recruit sympathizers,
rivals. With their strongly local references and unpro- light significant differences between the German and intimidate activists, focus attention on particular issues
fessional appearance, they gave every impression of American developments. and gain interpretive sovereignty within societal dis-
being organizational platforms for ordinary “worried ci- courses.3
tizens”; as a consequence, some of the sites reached tens
of thousands of people with their racist propaganda. No
1. Hate speech as a digital form of
direct relationship between violent attacks and these group-focused enmity
groups can generally be proven; however, their contri-
bution to an overall increasingly tense and aggressive Public debate in Germany in 2016/2017 focused initially
anti-refugee sentiment is obvious. Why do we use the term “toxic narrative”? on communications designated by the Council of Europe
The concept of “toxic communication” has been as hate speech – thus, those that attacked people on the
For good reason, online hate and agitation have been established in the English-speaking world since the grounds of national origin, skin color, gender, sexual
the focus of much discussion since that time. However, 1960s. The term has also been borrowed in Germa- orientation, physical disability or religion, or otherwise
considerably less attention has been paid to the narra ny to refer to linguistic behavior that has a negative promoted, justified or incited the production of such
tives underlying these forms of hate speech. influence on its environment. When we speak of content.1 To be sure, the disparagement and vilification
toxic narratives, we are referring to accounts of the of specific population groups, an expression of group-
In most cases, the condemnation of a certain group of world that supply the pertinent “events” and inter- focused enmity, is nothing new. However, the incidence
people is not an isolated phenomenon. Rather, it is ac- pretations for such communication. of such behavior has increased significantly online since
companied by stories that “explain” and reinforce the the number of asylum seekers arriving in Germany
negative valuation. These accounts are crafted to sound surged in 2015.
6 7
2. Fake news as a cornerstone United States, with a significantly smaller right-wing- additional factors that contribute to the viral propaga- opinions, despite the platforms’ overall large sizes.
of the new alternative-right media populist and extreme-right party and media spectrum. tion of group-based enmity online. Bots are computer Made possible by the personalization of content, this
landscape However, the strategies used to establish the alternative- programs that largely automatically process repetitive development risks giving users a false impression of the
right media landscape in the United States have been tasks without being dependent on human interaction. general climate of societal opinion. For example, mino-
Since the election of Donald Trump as U.S. president in evident here too. As one sign of this fact, the issues and Social bots are in turn computer programs that mas- rities can more quickly imagine themselves to be in the
November 2016, an additional phenomenon has drawn the content shared by political parties and followers, as querade as persons within social networks, produce or majority, while individuals often feel themselves to be
significant media attention: the viral propagation of well the sites “liked,” differ significantly between the share content and interact with people. Their use in the better informed – and better able to participate in the
falseinformation, rumors and lies – in short, fake news. mainstream parties (which rely on sites such as Tages- U.S. elections showed that operators can draw on the political discourse – after consuming one-sided informa-
This refers to false reporting that is distributed over the schau, ZDF-heute-Nachrichten, Spiegel Online, Süddeut- analysis of large and complex data sources (“big data”) tion. This is also true of Germany’s right-wing populist
internet and particularly through social networks with sche Zeitung and Huffington Post Deutschland) and the to help control or manage them, enabling individualized and right-wing extremist actors, who currently remain
the aim of influencing public opinion. AfD (which relies on Junge Freiheit, Epoch Times, Russia communication strategies (“microtargeting”). Because a minority, but who are mobilized using the support of
Today Deutschland and Compact Magazine). these bots imitate real users, they can be particularly echo chambers.12
This phenomenon too is not strictly new. In Germany, challenging to identify.
as carefully documented by projects such as HOAXmap. Twitter analyses by the newspaper Tagesspiegel and The following chapters provide a detailed examination
org, a massive rise has been evident particularly since netzpolitik.org have illustrated the AfD’s creative use of Social bots are increasingly employed for political pur- of strategies and narratives used by prominent right-
the surge in the number of asylum seekers in the fall of social networks. For example, the party benefits from an poses, for example to increase a politician’s number of wing populist and right-wing extremist actors to disse-
2015. Following the U.S. election, numerous press outlets apparently large online support network. The account followers, distribute negative information about an op- minate hate and discord in Germany. In this regard, it
addressed the issue of the degree to which fake news with the broadest reach, which primarily disseminates posing candidate or promote certain issues within the should be noted that while the issues associated with
determined the outcome of the election, as the majori- AfD party material under the name @Balleryna, is an political discourse. Their manner of functioning and im- right-wing populist and far-right positions are becoming
ty of such false reports had supported Donald Trump’s anonymous, unofficial supporter account. But how has pact was also made clear during the U.S. election: 20% more diverse, extreme right-wing ideologies and conspi-
campaign. For example, the most prominent instance it collected its 287,000 followers? “The analysis of hund- of the content distributed online during the campaign racy theories are also in some cases simply reappearing
was the so-called “Pizzagate” accusation, in which Hil- reds of thousands of accounts confirmed the samples,” was ostensibly generated by social bots, although social in a new guise.
lary Clinton was alleged to have operated a pedophile write the netzpolitik.org authors. “Only 3 percent of bots comprised just 0.5% of all users. In addition, a sig-
network from a pizzeria in Washington, D.C. Balleryna’s followers, or barely 10,000 users, are Ger- nificantly higher share of the content created and distri-
man-language accounts, although tweets are exclusively buted by social bots showed support for Donald Trump
However, recent studies have indicated that fake news in German. The remainder of the followers speak Eng- as opposed to Hillary Clinton.10
did not in and of itself determine the election’s outcome. lish, Spanish, Arabic, Portuguese and numerous other
Rather, the election results reflected the depth of divi- languages. Particularly amusing: We find that there are However, one of the few analyses of the use of social
sion within U.S. society,4 which also manifested in the nearly twice as many Arab speakers subscribed to the bots in Germany, conducted during the 2017 presiden-
context of the travel ban for Muslims from certain coun- unofficial communications channel of the right-wing po- tial elections, indicates that the share of content auto-
tries to the United States, which was supported by about pulist party as there are German followers.”7 This is a matically generated and distributed on Twitter in this
one-half of the population. Furthermore, some resear- clear indication that this media presence in fact reaches country remained comparatively small for all parties.11
chers argue that fake news is only a symptom of the only a small number of real supporters.8
systematic consolidation of the alternative-right media
landscape by outlets such as Breitbart, Fox News and
Mobilization and the interaction of
The alarmist narratives of the alternative-right media
the conspiracy-theory site Infowars, all of which stra- are like ambient noise that’s hard to filter out.
media phenomena
tegically and skillfully use social networks to dissemi-
nate misleading information and even disinformation.5 This overview of the phenomena featured most promi-
The goal here has been to establish alternative counter- However, the agreements between the AfD and the ope- nently in media reports shows that they are all closely
publics skeptical of the supposed media mainstream, to rators of such supporter accounts are informal; thus, related. However, the concepts of hate speech and fake
influence the selection of issues addressed by the main- these accounts, tightly networked with each other, news, as well as efforts to consider them in isolation, of- Why do we use the concept of echo chambers?
stream media, and above all, to stoke emotions such as can behave more radically than the official party ac- ten obscure the view of the deeper causative problems. The “echo chamber” concept describes a pheno-
anxiety and hate – the foundations of hate speech – and counts. They create a continuous “background noise”9 At the root of the discursive challenges observed within menon created by many people’s tendency to sur-
spread conspiracy narratives. of information slanted toward the party’s interests, and democratic public sphere are deliberate strategies by round themselves in social networks with other
reinforce the positions of official accounts, for instance right-wing populist and far-right actors who utilize the like-minded people, thus mutually reinforcing each
those of party officials such as Frauke Petry, Marcus latest media and technological methods in pursuit of other’s opinions. This produces the impression that
3. Alternative-right media figures Pretzell, Alice Weidel or AfDKompakt. their goals. one’s own position is a majority opinion. This effect
and their mutual reinforcement is often equated with the concept of the “filter bub-
This trend is exacerbated by so-called echo chambers. ble”; however, this latter term simply describes a si-
The situation in Germany is for the moment more diffe-
4. Social bots’ amplification of This refers to the individual informational and discur- tuation in which algorithms primarily show social-
rentiated. As Facebook research conducted by the Süd- discursive conflicts sive spaces within social networks – created through network users content that is likely to be of interest
deutsche Zeitung shows, the broad democratic middle users’ own activities (posts, likes, friendships, etc.) – in or relevant to them on the basis of their previous
remains confronted by a rather isolated right-wing-po- The fact that the @Balleryna account has so many which users come into contact only with content that usage behavior.
pulist Alternative für Deutschland (AfD).6 In this re- followers is in all probability due to automated proce- generally accords with and thus reinforces their own
gard, Germany appears to be far less polarized than the dures and so-called bots or social bots – and points to
8 9
Toxic narratives However, right-wing narratives often appear today in a pages, along with the Identitären Bewegung and Pegi-
new guise. As the literature on the “new” right and its da sites, to name some of the more internationally well-
intellectuals has noted, the political strategies and ideo- known examples. These actors are broadly representa-
logical content espoused by far-right actors has changed tive of the alternative-right online sphere, employing
since the 1990s. This has been reflected, for example, in and disseminating similar and connected narratives.
Narratives – accounts of the world – are representations context, and thus bolsters or supports certain world- the emergence of an intellectual meta-politics (the justi- However, these narratives are not limited to the right-
of events. As such, they convey a dual meaning. At the views. This applies to stories depicting philosophical, re- fication of political positions), as well as in the focus on a wing online sphere. Conspiracy narratives in particular
content level, they provide information about an event ligious, economic or historical relationships, as well as right-wing cultural hegemony in the place of party poli- know no political affiliation and can indeed be found
in and of itself, and thus address the “what” of an oc- to narratives intertwined with assumptions about other tics. Political strategies have ranged from a partial, func- in all parts of society. In order to illustrate this, we also
currence. At the discursive level, they communicate in- people or groups. Selective narration generalizes indivi- tionally justified lack of organization – as in the case included KenFM in the selection of actors. This is not
formation about the “how”; this can involve the event’s dual events and elevates them in importance. Through of the fellowships that, as informal structures, dispense because KenFM belongs to the far or populist right, but
temporal dimension as well as details such as a descrip- repeated repetition and diffusion into the individual with associational or party-political regulations – to the because the narratives it employs overlap with those of
tion of the setting or causal explanation. and collective memory, narratives can make long-las- adaptation of left-wing cultural tactics (far-right actors the right-wing online sphere.
ting contributions to the construction and stabilization can today be found in all societal strata and subcultures,
In this way, a narrative sets events into a meaningful of individual and collective identities. from punks and skinheads to organic farmers and art From these 10 pages, we collected and analyzed the 10
context. In the process, details are selectively chosen or students). The groups furthermore adapt their termino- most-liked Facebook posts for each month during the
omitted. Thus resulting in an interpretation of the event Analyzing narratives thus presents an outstanding logy to fit their social, political and media environments, period from April 2016 to February 2017, using the Fan-
from a specific perspective, requiring the narrative to opportunity to make worldviews and their long-term employing a kind of political mimicry to conceal their Page Karma tool. The accumulated value of reactions,
rely on potential recipients’ preexisting knowledge and changes visible. Given the increasing prominence of real objectives and make inroads into the societal main- shares and comments served as the basis for this ana-
experience to be understood. conspiracy theories of all kinds, as well as the wides- stream. lysis.
pread difficulty in distinguishing virally disseminated
assertions from facts, true from manipulated photos, The change in the fundamental ideological framework Following the first inspection, we carried out a quali-
Analysis of alternative-right world- and genuine quotes from out-of-context sentence frag- can in turn be characterized with the concept of “ethno- tative analysis of the posts, examining the narratives
views: Basic assumptions ments and pure inventions, this even appears necessa- pluralism.” Here, the new right has replaced the elimi- formulated in each, assessing the clustering of related
ry. Certainly, it seems clear that new right-wing popu- nation of minorities, as pursued under the Nazi ideology, narratives, and identifying the abstract explanatory pat-
Because of this, a narrative enables conclusions to be list and far-right actors will continue to mount a digital with concepts of segmentation that call for the “consis- terns employed, using the basic literature as a reference.
drawn regarding the values, norms and ideas collec- challenge to pluralistic, liberal and democratic societies tent spatial separation and geopolitical segregation of All data reflect the survey situation as of April 2017.
tively shared by its authors and the people sharing and through their use of novel media and technologies. people on the basis of ethno-cultural criteria.”15 Overall,
promoting it. Narratives illustrate their proponents’ numerous new actors and strategies have thus emerged Overall, we examined a total of 1,063 posts containing
fundamental schemata for classifying and analyzing the Research into manifestations of right-wing extremism since the turn of the millennium.16 2,908 individual stories or sub-narratives. These sub-
world around them, as well as their manner of thinking has shown that even if extreme-right worldviews and narratives were then classified into 27 different basic
and experiencing. They offer a structure of meaning extreme-right action are not the same thing, they do However, with the increase in the number of asylum narratives, which were further grouped into seven clus-
that – like a parable – integrates events into an overall go hand in hand. Attitudes and behaviors depend on seekers in Germany, we have seen a new wave of me- ters representing so-called framing narratives. Here,
each other. Thus, the ideology of inequality and the dia mobilization. Analysis is thus vitally necessary. The each cluster reflects a theme common across its particu-
acceptance of physical violence as a legitimate means following sections will present and classify dominant lar group of sub-narratives.
to achieve political goals are core defining elements of narratives, with the aim of clarifying prominent actors’
right-wing extremism.13 strategies and highlighting their power to transform These framing narratives include:
worldviews.
Does this mean we should assume that individual Face- ■■ The downfall of the German people
book posts expressing support for ethnic inequality in ■■ External threats
fact motivate right-wing-extremist actions? Not necessa-
Analysis of alternative-right world- ■■ Internal threats
rily; far-right attitudes are one thing and closed far-right views: Methodology ■■ The manipulative establishment
worldviews and actions another. However, those who ■■ Global conspiracy
promote narratives consistent with far-right ideologies To begin the analysis, we selected 10 relevant and do- ■■ Resistance and solutions
– even if they begin with a tangle of contradictory and minant social-media actors from within the spectrum ■■ The repression of resistance
tentative attitudes – may find that repeated articulation of conspiracy theorists, right-wing extremists and right-
contributes to a hardening of their far-right worldview. wing populists. The selection was based on several fac- Together, the framing narratives create a coherent pat-
Consequently, it must be assumed that about one-fifth tors. In some cases, the choices represent opinion lea- tern and represent elements of a meta-narrative that
of the German population holds at least a partially far- ders within the online-media environment. However, forms the overarching center of the far-right and popu-
right pattern of attitudes, for instance in the area of ra- other pages were also included in the selection in order list-right explanatory world.
cism.14 These opinions too can be reinforced and broa- to create a representative depiction of the broad spect-
dened through repeated articulation. Far-right positions rum of far-right and populist-right currents and actors.
Photo: Demonstration of Pegida NRW, January 9, 2016 in could in this way become socially acceptable again, sim-
Cologne ply due to their pervasiveness. The sites evaluated include the AfD’s, “Lügenpresse”
Source: Felix Huesmann (The Lying Press) and PI-News (“Politically Incorrect”)
10 11
Observed framing narratives and meta sub-narratives Foreigners are bad/barbarians Re-education
There are many variants of this sub-narrative, but at Emancipatory advances and equal rights are related in
their core they are always the same: foreigners are negative terms: Political correctness is responsible for
barbarians. More specifically, people from Islamic coun- bans on speech because terms that are marked out as
tries are immoral barbarians who do not respect the racist, sexist and antisemitic were not recognized as
The opposite of an utopia is a dystopia, a negative visu- The downfall of the Germans law; they are brazen and dirty, treat women badly and such “before.” Likewise, “our children” are being moul-
alization of the future. A sense of poor future prospects hate homosexuals. German culture is perceived as bet- ded into morally depraved people through early sexu-
arouses anxieties and encourages a compulsion to take This sub-narrative tells of the demise of the Germans. ter, and “the” Islamic culture as backward. This includes al education. Blame for these developments is laid on
action and is thus a good source of motivation. It’s a This can refer to the own culture, but also to its physical all of the sub-narratives in which Islam is portrayed as the “filthy left-green pack.” In this way, the correspon-
simple formula with a definite impact: Society is on the existence. This narrative is the dystopian threat scena- foreign and not capable of belonging to Germany. Also ding narratives construct the image of “everything was
decline and risks downfall; Germany is being abolished. rio that is the corollary of all other narratives. included are sub-narratives that Muslim men are mur- better in the old days,” thereby evoking a yearning for
derers and rapists. some indeterminate point in the past.
It is precisely this dystopian scenario that serves as the Germany is dying out
meta sub-narrative for the right-wing sphere. It forms Identically to the corresponding framing narrative, this The replacement of the people – migration as a we- Multiculturalism is destructive
the backdrop against which the framing narratives are sub-narrative tells that Germans are facing an imminent apon Narratives that interpret the concept of multiculturalism
given their context: there is a conspiracy against the downfall – cultural and/or physical – and thus also their This sub-narrative, known for many years in right-wing as harmful and destructive. Here, the coexistence of
Germans and the aim of this conspiracy is their destruc- extinction. extremist circles as “death of the people,” is experiencing peopleof different cultural backgrounds serves to dilute
tion. However, the means of eradication is not open war. a renaissance under the catchwords “replacement of the or destroy German culture and, in the worst case, leads
Indeed, there are many ways and means, including ex- The external threat people,” “the great replacement” (Identitarian movement) to violence and war. In some cases, this is also presented
termination via mass immigration and Islamization – in- and “migration as a weapon.” Thereby, the Germans are as a conspiracy narrative that sees multiculturalism as a
struments that are employed from the outside against This narrative cluster includes sub-narratives about the supposedly becoming the minority, that is, they are being concept for the destruction of Germany from within.
the Germans. At the same time, there are also internal threat posed to Germans by non-Germans. “destroyed” or “replaced” as a consequence of incoming
forces that are working toward the destruction of the refugees, migration and ➜ Islamization. As such, this The political opponent is bad
Germans. In this case, their tools are re-education and Migration leads to destabilization narrative is highly compatible with concrete conspiracy Sub-narratives that aim at the defamation of well-known
the undermining of the resistance. This conspiracy is or- Narratives about the consequences of immigration. The narratives about how this replacement is desired and politicians. For example, Justice Minister Heiko Maas is
chestrated by a global elite that lords over the press and assertion here is that if non-Germans come to Germany, planned, either by “the politicians” or “the elite,” which supposedly in favor of child marriage and pedophilia.
politics, using them as instruments for the eradication they will perpetrate acts of violence and terror. More ever connotes Jewishness more effectively. Here, the corresponding narratives pursue the simple
of the Germans. over, the welfare system will be exploited by unjustified aim of devaluing the opponent.
social benefits and health insurance services. Attack on German identity/culture
The meta-narrative is seldom found with this degree of While it remains unclear what exactly constitutes “Ger- Do-gooders hate Germans
clarity. It nevertheless offers a coherent interpretive Islamization man culture” or “German identity,” it is threatened by Catchwords such as “do-gooders,” “social welfare for the
pattern for many events in domestic and foreign poli- Behind this catchword is the narrative that Germany is ➜ the replacement of the people and ➜ Islamization. world” and “asylum lobby” refer to the sub-narrative
cy, as well as for social change processes, and is thus threatened with becoming an Islamic country. The mi- Specifically, these include sub-narratives on how Christ- that those parts of the general public that are in favor of
appealing. nority of Muslims would conceivably become the ma- mas is no longer permitted to be celebrated in kinder- welcoming refugees are guilty of treating newly-arrived
jority and would go on to enforce Islamic law, culture gartens, or how Christmas markets are being forced to people better than they treat Germans. Accordingly,
While stories arouse emotions, they cannot perform this and religion. rename themselves winter markets. These kinds of sub- they are accused of being more willing to “make an ef-
function indefinitely. The emotional effect diminishes narratives are a negative overstatement of the notion of fort for foreigners than for Germans” or, for example,
the more often we hear a story. For this reason, sub- Misuse of the asylum system tolerance and are presented as disadvantageous for the that they do not help the homeless. Also, these “do-
narratives are varied or only certain parts of a story are This sub-narrative tells of how the people who have fled own identity. gooders” would rather learn Turkish and Arabic than
narrated, with the aim of ongoingly stirring up emotions to Germany are not those who would actually have the work toward the integration of refugees. Thus, the cor-
and provoking an effect. In the case of the right-wing right to asylum. This is expressed using short phrases The internal threat responding narratives are diagnoses of the reputed self-
framing narrative, 27 narrations have been identified such as “economic migrants,” “they have no right to hatred of some sections of the population.
that were told with varying frequency at different times asylum,” “all just illegal immigrants.” Frequently, this This narrative cluster includes sub-narratives of the
during the study period. In the following, these meta narrative is served by the use of the word refugee in threat posed to Germans by other Germans. Betrayers of the nation
sub-narratives are elaborated according to their rela quotation marks. Narratives about politicians who do not represent the
tionship to the corresponding framing narrative. Attack on German identity/culture interests of the people. Instead, they even actively work
The downfall is upon us The own culture is described as threatened not only against their “people” and “betray” them, for example,
The listing of terrorist acts and the use of terms such as as a consequence of external dangers. There are also by allowing refugees into the country, through ➜ cen-
“flood of refugees,” “wave of refugees” and “mass immi- variants in which it is not “foreigners” but political op- sorship, or by helping to promote ➜ Islamization. Conse-
gration” equate incoming refugees with (natural) cata- ponents that are blamed for these attacks. These are quently, politicians are acting only in their own self-inte-
strophes. The catastrophe scenario invariably includes frequently in the form of sub-narratives in which, for rest, namely to maintain or extend their power, or they
the ensuing downfall and suggests that it is already un- example, the Green Party is said to be demanding some are agents of a ➜ world conspiracy. This heavy-handed
derway. thing that is deemed antithetical to German culture. criticism of the policies of the established parties is fre-
These demands are usually directly related to narra quently expressed using such catchwords as “traitor,”
tives about ➜ re-education. “Merkel must go” or the like.
12 13
The manipulative establishment →betrayers of the nation in which the idea that the popu- t here is a reference to an imagined point in the past The successes of the framing
lation can help shape policy is merely an illusion. This where “everything was better.” To paint this picture narrative
Included in this narrative cluster are sub-narratives that is exemplified by the election of the Federal President, more vividly, a time is constructed in which values such
the establishment has conspired against the Germans which is not really an election but a “jostling for posi as family, pride, homeland and tradition were of thor In the course of the 11-month study period, 2,908 nar-
and is working against their interests. tion.” oughly positive significance. This is also accompanied ratives were identified in 1,063 articles. Not every nar-
by positive references to soldiers of the Second World rative was related equally strongly; rather, there were
Censorship Russia – USA War and the assertion that May 8 is not a day of libera significant differences in the frequency of clusters. Ac-
Sub-narratives of supposedly ongoing censorship: The Sub-narratives for the interpretation of the role of Rus- tion. Through this narrative, an attempt is made to out- cordingly, it is possible to assign a ranking to the fra-
press and social media are being manipulated by the sia and the United States in world politics. This concerns line a positive counter-visualization to the imminent ming narratives.
state or are acting on the state’s behalf by not publi- the delineation of a simple idea of good and evil: the downfall.
shing or censoring undesirable opinions. United States and the West are evil, and Russia is good. Ranking of the main narratives:
Because Russia is a peace-making power, other interpre- The uprising will come n The external threat (853 occurrences, 29%)
The lying media tations must be propaganda from the West. The United A form of endurance narrative that promises an immi- n The threat from within (707 occurrences, 24%)
The catchword “lying press” (“Lügenpresse”) or “govern- States, on the other hand, wanted to instigate a war nent reversal in politics and society. If the current poli- n Resistance and solutions (633 occurrences, 22%)
ment press” refer to the sub-narrative that the estab against Russia. cy were to continue, then the result would soon be an n The manipulative establishment (198 occ., 7%)
lished media are not reporting the truth about events uprising and civil war. Violent resistance is ultimately n Global conspiracy (182 occurrences, 6%)
at home and abroad. Also behind these catchwords is Resistance and solutions the only means of combating ➜ Islamization, ➜ betray- n The downfall of the Germans (176 occurrences, 6%)
the assumption that the press is controlled by politics in ers of the nation, ➜ re-education, ➜ EU dictatorship, n Repression of resistance (159 occurrences, 6%)
order to manipulate the general public. This narrative cluster includes sub-narratives about va- ➜ censorship and ➜ replacement of the people. Fre-
rious forms of resistance and proposed solutions against quently found alongside this idea are such phrases as
Politicians lie the imminent downfall. “the people will not put up with this for much longer”
Narratives about politicians who are said to be lying to and “if nothing changes, the coming election will be the
the German population through the use of false figures Resistance to Islam, resistance to immigration last election.”
and reports. The Germans are supposedly being lied to Event such as a woman being thrown out of a bar be-
because politics is made up exclusively of ➜ betrayers cause she was wearing a burka are related as acts of The will of the people – bolstered by change
of the nation, who are hard at work secretly promoting resistance to immigration and the threat of ➜ Islamiza- Immediately following the sub-narrative that “too little
➜ replacement of the people and ➜ Islamization. tion. Similarly, accounts of Angela Merkel’s appearances is done for us” is the narration that a change in the po-
in Poland or the Czech Republic, where she was booed, litical system toward the greater use of referendums
are related as narratives of resistance. The interpreta- for major political decisions would show the real “will
Global conspiracy tion of such events as acts of resistance is intended to of the people.” This is essentially in contrast to current
promote empowerment and to convey the impression political decision-making (➜ betrayers of the nation),
This narrative cluster includes sub-narratives that there that there is widespread opposition to the imminent which is why more direct democracy would reveal the
is a global conspiracy – controlled by a small group – downfall. Demonstrations and actions by PEGIDA and actual “will of the people.”
that is directed against the Germans. For the most part, the Identitarian Movement are also included in this nar-
the connotation is that this group is Jewish. rative. The repression of resistance
World conspiracy Ethnopluralism This narrative cluster includes narratives about reac-
According to this narrative, the world is controlled by This is a catchword of the New Right, which is inten- tions to the “resistance” on the side of society and po-
a small elite, usually connoted to be Jewish. All events ded to convey a solution for combating the ➜ attack litics.
and developments are interpreted as being part of a on German culture/identity. The term refers to the idea Clearly, scenarios of threat form the most successful and
master plan, the goal of which is to control humankind. that German culture will be preserved and protected if Critics of asylum are persecuted and labeled “Nazi dominant narratives of all. These scenarios are derived
there are no external influences. Accordingly, only Ger- bludgeons” in part from terrorist attacks, because narratives are
Foreign rule mans should live in Germany, and only French people These two narratives about polarization within society most successful when they correlate with real events.
Narratives about foreign rule state that Germany is in France, which would call for the closure of European serve to connect accounts of the impacts of the “resis- This narrative of threat from external forces fluctuates
no longer a sovereign state; instead, it is the European external borders. Thus, ethnopluralism is merely racism tance.” If one were to openly state the problems with between 55 mentions in November 2016 and 124 in July
Union that determines German politics. Thereby, the EU in a new guise. This becomes apparent in the use of refugees and Islam, one would be called a Nazi and thus 2016. This account appears most frequently in July 2016
is portrayed not as a democratic system but as a dicta- phrases such as “cultural purity” and “we have nothing discredited. A catchword for this is the term “Nazikeu- (124 times) and in December 2016 (101 times). This is
torship (“European Union of Socialist Republics”) that, against foreigners, only that they should be somewhere le,” which translates as “Nazi bludgeon.” This is a part of most likely due to the terrorist attacks in these months;
among other things, represses the Germans and dictates else.” the ➜ re-education. The same applies to people who are in July there were three attacks in Germany and one in
free trade agreements. patriots and/or only critics of asylum policy and Islam, Nice. Even when it became apparent that the Munich
National pride who would be persecuted, publicly denounced or lose attack, in which an 18-year-old killed nine people and
Dictocracy Narratives about positive traditions from the homeland their jobs. Examples of this are phrases such as “What seriously injured ten on a shooting spree through the
The term “dictocracy” is an amalgam of the words demo- as well as vague “original values.” For example: “If there used to be the center ground is today Nazi; as soon as Olympia shopping center, was in part motivated by ra-
cracy and dictatorship. The dictocracy narrative states was more national pride in Germany, German culture you express criticism, you are muzzled.” cism, in right-wing circles it was generally associated
that Germany is not a democracy, but a dictatorship of would be more respected.” As with ➜ re-education, with the other attacks.
14 15
Less successful are conspiracy theories and concrete The ten most common sub-narratives: or mayor), 8 percent against representatives of the SPD Ein Prozent für unser Land Ich bin stolz, deutsch zu sein
narratives of decline. For both of these clusters there 1. Treason/enemy of the people (322 times, 30%) and one article each against Claudia Roth (Greens) and
were fewer triggers, or they were not as readily recei- 2. Immigration leads to terror/violence/chaos/deterio- Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU). Over the course of the year, KenFM
PEGIDA
ved. This shows that more explicit mention of conspira- ration (230 times, 22%) Justice Minister Heiko Maas also assumed a central role.
cy theories is less attractive to the wider public. 3. Foreigners are bad/barbarians (210 times, 20%)
4. Positive account of resistance (206 times, 19%) The “lying press” narrative appears in 12% of the posts PI-News
5. Downfall is already underway (178 times, 17%) checked; in Compact magazine and KenFM they are
Which sub-narratives were 6. Germany is being abolished/declining/being ruined/ among the ten most successful narratives. This narra
successful? taken advantage of (176 times, 17%) tive is consequently favored by “alternative” media, and
7. The political opponent is bad (135 times, 13%) thus fulfills a legitimizing function. By contrast, this Lügenpresse
The framing narratives are composed of 27 different 8. “Gutmenschen” (“do-gooders”) hate Germans (123 narrative does not appear in any of the most popular
sub-narratives. Although these narratives are connec- times, 12%) articles of the NPD.
ted to each other and often related together in articles 9. Lying press (123 times, 12%) Compact-Magazin
or posts, we can discern differences in their frequency. 10. Resistance against immigration (119 times, 11%) Although “lying press” (“Lügenpresse”) was declared
The following list shows the ten most common individu- Germany’s “non-word of the year” in 2014, the term and AfD
al narratives. Because many articles use and combine Even where the main narrative indicates otherwise, the associated narrative is increasingly popular. While fre-
Identitäre Bewegung
multiple narratives, there are higher overall percenta- most frequent narrative is “traitor/enemy of the people.” quency in August 2016 was low, it increased to a peak
ges here. It appears in 30% of all the posts that we checked. It is value (16) in November. In this month, the narrative was
most commonly seen with the Identitarian movement primarily used in the context of Donald Trump’s electo- Distribution of the “lying press” narrative by actor
and the AfD. ral victory in the United States; this association was seen
in over half of the articles (56%). This month saw a peak
n Lying press
In February 2017, “traitor” was a particularly common in popularity for the terms “lying press” and “system
n 0ne percent for our nation
word in the articles under examination (36 times). This media,” but there were also terms like “lumpen media”
n I’m proud to be German
Distribution of the “traitor” narrative by actor and month offers a particularly good example of the inter- (PI-News), “dirty leftist Bild” (Pi-News) and “journalistic
n Identitarian movement
chronology pretive space that this narrative can cover. In 36% of watchdog of the establishment” (KenFM).
posts the target was Angela Merkel, 36% were aimed at
n Lying press
an unspecific elite and/or establishment, 14% against a
n 0ne percent for our nation
current form of government (federal/state government
n I’m proud to be German
Frequency of the framing narrative, chronologically
n Identitarian movement
35
30
25
Frequency
20
Frequency
15
10
5
0 April 2016 June 2016 August 2016 October 2016 December 2016 February 2017
April 2016 June 2016 August 2016 October 2016 December 2016 February 201716 17
On the function of the narrative in populism Complex social contexts are broken down into simpli- distributed on the internet, brings together all of these
fied dichotomies (good-bad, friend-enemy, ruler-ruled, narratives – “global Jewish conspiracy,” the negative
etc.). The longing for theory and practice devoid of con- aspects of Capitalism, democracy as deception, and so
tradiction, which has broken new ground since the suc- on. Even when you take individual narratives from this
cess of the right-wing populist movement, is satisfied by collection, society’s inherited store of antisemitic stereo-
At first glance, there appears to be no connection major difference, however, lies in the fact that Jews are the idea of a homogeneous community of people which types means you can always trace ultimate responsibi-
between the large number of different narratives not just perceived as other/foreign, but in prejudices can react to every uncertainty in society ad hoc, as one. lity to “the Jews.”
distributed by hateful sites on the internet. However, a passed down from history they are also seen as the all-
model of populism enables systemization. There is con- encompassing “world’s evil,” or evil incarnate.22 So here,
tention in social sciences around the term “populism” in contrast to other minorities or “enemy groups,” they
Conspiracy theories as
as a description for political phenomena. Disagreement are also charged with responsibility for any aspect of integrative link
focuses above all on the question of whether this is a modern society perceived as negative. “No-one would
“thin” ideology, or a discursive tool of other ideologies.17 think to blame Islam for progress, secularization, female A particularly dominant narrative, which can be seen
Nonetheless, it serves admirably as a description of emancipation, the culture industry, Marxism or libera- in every German right-wing populist discourse, is the
commonalities between various forms of expression for lism, in other words all of the side effects of a univer- narrative of the coming decline of the German people.
group-focused enmity and the peculiarities of antisemi- sally oriented modernity that the right claim as dam- Depending on which tendency is circulating the scena-
tism. aging.”23 To bring about such upheavals requires power, rio, the explanatory models differ to greater or lesser
or a powerful position within society. degrees. The conception of “genocide” through “foreign
infiltration” or the “great replacement” (“Identitarian”
Anti-Semitism fosters a construction of Jews This real power is – in contrast to the potential power movement) is widespread. While some narratives only
as “the enemy” by depicting them as “foreign” within the people which is yet to be awakened – located separate “us” and “them” on the horizontal level, nar-
and the embodiment of the “world’s evil.” among the elite. And it is precisely here that we find ratives like the “weapon of immigration” or “great re
the interface between antisemitism, conspiracy theories placement” combine the two levels. Here, for example,
and populist constructions of “the enemy.” Jews are pri- the “elite” are said to have devised a plan to provoke or
In general terms, populism is dependent on other ideolo- marily described as enemies on the vertical level. They stage conflict situations in the world and cause mass mi-
gies and in its agitation it offers two different orientation are said to control the economy, politics, media – the gration to Germany. The goal is the destruction of Ger-
levels for describing enemies: horizontal (against “them” whole world, in fact. Therefore, it is hardly surprising man culture and the eradication of its representatives.
out there) and vertical (against “them” up there).18 Right- that Jewish or presumably Jewish names are constantly This is because a heterogeneous, “divided” society is ea-
wing populist argumentation generally relies on the de- circulated when it comes to naming names among the sier to dominate – such is the populist explanation, any-
lineation against “those” out there, as the emphasis on “puppet masters”: Rockefeller, Rothschild, Soros. way. This means that multiculturalism is ultimately a
and exclusion of the foreign is an essential aspect of the means for rulers to subjugate the world. (Not for nothing
extreme right’s ideological underpinnings. Those that does this recall the Nazi ideology of “degradation of the
don’t belong to one’s own community, presented as a
Constructions of people and body politic,” which incorporated antisemitic, racist and
homogeneous whole, are declared to be fundamentally community homophobic elements while also defaming left-wing ac-
different. In this model, individuals are decisively and tivists as “enemies of the people”).
irrevocably determined by apparently natural qualities The following analyzed narratives are anti-universalistic
such as their “race” or culture, which makes coexistence and anti-pluralist at heart. Rights are not accorded the This leads right-wing populists to call for a homogene-
with others impossible. However, these foreign out- individual, but rather to homogeneous constructions of ous body politic that can stand together in the struggle
siders are accorded the right to exist, as long as they the people. The individual must yield to the “will of the against this imagined threat. This type of homogeneous
stay in their own territory (“ethnopluralism”).19 people,” which represents the common good. The idea of “people,” of one will, stands against the pluralist, liberal
a homogeneous “people” suppresses the diversity of re- democracy and ultimately aims to dissolve the indivi-
The vertical orientation level functions differently. In its ligious, (sub-)cultural, sexual, political, rural and urban dual within the community. Conspiratorial ideological
simplest form it takes what is assumed to be a homo- identities and lifestyles within society. The achievement narratives offer populists and their supporters an expla-
geneous “people,” or a community of people, and sets of modern democracy is that all of these various groups nation for a perceived evil in the world and an identity
it in opposition to the interests-based, “parasitic elite.”20 and individuals have their own voice. An achievement, as victims of an “anti-popular” global conspiracy. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion are an entire-
In this conception, the elite represents an enemy from but at the same time a challenge. Within the “people,” ly invented document which is meant to prove the
within which must either atone and dissolve into the on the other hand, there is an assumption that there It is hardly surprising that antisemitic stereotypes are secret plan of the “global Jewish conspiracy.” The
community of the people, or face elimination. For the are no contradictions, but rather that one opinion, one constantly reproduced in these contexts, in either coded writings, thought to have appeared around 1900,
elite there is no territory, they simply have to go “away.” interest prevails. or explicit form. The myth of the “global Jewish conspi- are said to represent the Jews’ plan for global do-
racy” remains anchored in the cultural memory of mo- mination in the form of speeches by a rabbi. It
Here, antisemitism has traditionally played a particu- Modern populism is directed at the challenges, negative dern society. And it uses both orientation levels – the includes, for example, the charge that Jews control
lar role. It can serve as a hate figure in both horizon- aspects and contradictions of a modernizing or modern horizontal, in which the Jew is excluded as other, non- the media and global finance. The work had a major
tal and vertical levels. As a foreign, and presumably society. Instead of analyzing abstract mediation proces- German, and the vertical, in which the Jew is imagined impact under the Nazis and remains widely distri-
hostile element from within, of questionable loyalty, ses of societal power relations, populists reduce this to to be part of a powerful global elite. The fictional, anti- buted in the present day.
it functions like other groups (such as Muslims).21 The an identification of those who are apparently to blame. semitic Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which is widelyYou can also read
