The Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting: How Gender-Stereotypical Expectations Contribute - Psi Chi
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https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN26.1.21
The Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting:
How Gender-Stereotypical Expectations Contribute
Mariah Chobany and Debra Hull*
Department of Psychology, Bethany College
ABSTRACT. One hundred three students from a small liberal arts college
rated statements about potential stigma associated with unmarried teen
parents. After reading a scenario describing an unmarried teen couple’s
pregnancy and early parenting experiences, participants indicated their
level of agreement with 11 statements for either the mother or the father.
Multivariate analysis of variance comparisons of the items indicated that
the focus of attention was on the mother, in both positive and negative
ways. Compared to unmarried teen fathers, unmarried teen mothers were
seen as more sexually promiscuous, and too young to be a parent. On the
other hand, mothers were also rated significantly as spending more time
with their child, and assumed as more responsible. Unmarried teen fathers
were seen as significantly more ambitious, whereas respondents thought it
was more important for mothers to continue their education. Results
reinforce the idea that unmarried teen mothers are expected to bear a
disproportionate amount of the burden of care for their child. Knowledge
of these results could lead to greater sensitivity toward unmarried teen
parents and lend to more helpful support, which could assist them, and
their children, to succeed despite their circumstances.
Keywords: gender stereotypes, pregnant and parenting teens, stigma
A
gender stereotype is a generalized view, parents are implicitly guided. When women
or preconception, concerning the roles become mothers, society assumes that they are
and characteristics of women and men. caring for their children and less ambitious in
Gender-stereotypical expectations influence the their careers. Whereas, when men become fathers,
way people judge the abilities of women and they do not receive that negative assumption.
men. Ellemers (2018) found that stereotypes Instead, fathers are looked at as hard working and
affect the way people interpret and attend responsible (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Lyness and
to information about themselves and others. Judiesch (2014) found that, when both women and
MacNell (2015) indicated that gender stereotypes men with children applied for the same job, women
could have significant consequences for the with children were less likely to be recommended
career development, education experience, and for a job. However, their male counterparts, with
income level for women and men. Not only could the same credentials, were more likely to be recom-
these stereotypes impact a person’s career and mended. Etaugh and Folger (1998) found that,
educational experience, but they could also affect because of gender roles and expectations, mothers
how they are perceived as a parent. who are employed full-time are perceived as less
According to Fuegen et al. (2004), gender nurturing and less professionally competent than SPRING 2021
stereotypes could interfere with parental roles, full-time employed fathers. Gender stereotypes of
affecting the judgments of mothers and fathers. parents between the ages of 25 to 45 have been PSI CHI
JOURNAL OF
Because of gender-stereotyping, attitudes toward extensively researched, but less is known about PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
*Faculty mentor COPYRIGHT 2021 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 26, NO. 1/ISSN 2325-7342) 21Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting | Chobany and Hull
mothers and fathers who take on the parental role Method
during adolescence. Participants
Existing research has suggested that pregnant The sample was comprised of 103 Bethany College
and parenting teens are negatively stereotyped undergraduates (43 women; 60 men). The mean
and stigmatized (Weed & Nicholson, 2014). For age of participants was 19 with a standard deviation
instance, teen mothers reported that they received of 1.32 (range = 18–22). Participants were currently
negative judgments involving their age and being living on Bethany College’s campus, located in the
unfit to be a mother. Some mothers were perceived northern panhandle of West Virginia. Using a con-
as sexually promiscuous, whereas teen fathers just venience sampling method, 92 of the participants
felt the pressure to provide for, and be involved were recruited from Greek organizations and/or
in, the life of their child (Wilkes et al., 2012). enrolled in a psychology course, and were given
Weber (2012) conducted in-depth interviews with extra-credit for their participation.
unmarried teen fathers concerning their experi-
ences and found that young men were labeled as Materials and Measures
selfish and uncaring. Many of these fathers said Prior to data collection, Bethany College’s
they felt as if they had to prove their masculinity, IRB, known as Bethany Ethical Research and
and that their involvement in the pregnancy was Animal Care Committee, approved the project.
one way to signify their manhood (Weber, 2012). Participants were asked to read and sign consent
An earlier study by Richards et al. (1977) found forms. Completed consent forms were placed in a
that, in the first year of their child’s life, teen folder separate from where the completed surveys
fathers regularly played with their children, but
were kept, to ensure anonymity. After all consent
rarely engaged in caretaking activities. Compared
forms were gathered, participants received the
to more recent studies, their findings may indicate
scenario describing the teen parenting situation
how the expectations and roles of teen fathers had
(see Appendix A). Participants then responded to
changed over time.
11 items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
In comparing the stigma experienced by moth-
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree; see Appendix
ers and fathers, Weed and Nicholson (2014) found
B). Participants were randomly assigned to one of
that mothers were more likely to experience nega-
two groups; the first group rated the mother, and
tive stigma associated with their pregnancy—from
the second group rated the father in the scenario.
strangers, educators, and healthcare providers—in
Questions for the mother and father version were
the form of disapproving facial expressions and
identical and included common stigmas that young
body language, judgmental comments, and harsh
parents face. Participants completed their surveys
treatment. Comments indicated that pregnant and
independently and were treated in accordance with
parenting teen mothers are too young, irrespon-
APA ethical standards.
sible, ruining their lives, that they got pregnant
because they are lazy, and that having a baby is
Procedure
an easy way to get in the welfare system (Yardley,
Participants were given the made-up scenario,
2008). Very little research has been conducted on
which followed a teenage couple throughout
adolescent parents and the adversities they face.
pregnancy and into the first years of parenthood.
The research previously conducted has not shown
Both the mother and father were portrayed. In
the difference in stigma and treatment based on
the scenario, the mother held off graduating high
the gender of the adolescent parent.
school to care for the child, and the father contin-
The purpose of the present study was to inves-
tigate how college students stigmatize unmarried ued his education, but was involved in the child’s
teen mothers and fathers, potentially in different life. All participants received the same scenario, half
ways. We asked colleagues their opinions of a of the participants were asked to evaluate the male
stereotypical teen parenting situation. After we teen, and half were asked to evaluate the female
heard their opinions, we drafted a scenario and teen. After reading the scenario, participants were
questionnaire that highlighted the main ideas provided with one of two short surveys, where they
SPRING 2021 from the discussions, along with common themes rated statements regarding the parent they were
found in the literature review. We hypothesized that randomly assigned; items included their opinion
PSI CHI students rating the mother would respond more on the young parents’ judgement, age, sexuality,
JOURNAL OF
PSYCHOLOGICAL negatively than the students rating the father. and ambition.
RESEARCH
22 COPYRIGHT 2021 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 26, NO. 1/ISSN 2325-7342)Chobany and Hull | Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting
Results given the gender expectation that women are
This study assessed stigmas and stereotypes of primary caregivers. The only stereotype that we
pregnant and parenting teens, specifically the dif- uncovered about fathers is a positive one—that they
ferences in stigma between teen fathers and teen are more ambitious than mothers.
mothers. Each of the 11 items were analyzed using The results of Richards et al. (1977) revealed
a multivariate analysis of variance to compare the that teenage fathers regularly played with their
difference in responses for the mother and the children; however, our results show that teenage
father in the given scenario. The mean ratings fathers were perceived as less likely to spend time
for each variable are presented in Figure 1, and with their children. Our finding contradicts their
significant findings are discussed below. Results research. This shows a potential change in the
showed significant differences in mother and father expectations toward young fathers. Based on Wilkes
ratings for several of the items. et al. (2012) results and ours, we can assume that
Participants rating mothers were more likely to the gender expectations for young fathers has
agree with the negative stigmas surrounding teen shifted—they are less likely to spend time with their
pregnancy and parenting. Participants were asked child, and more likely to show ambition.
about their feelings regarding if the mother or In addition, one might expect that the need to
father was sexually promiscuous. Analysis revealed complete one’s education would be seen as more
that mothers were more likely to be seen as sexually important for fathers, especially in light of their
promiscuous compared to fathers, F(1, 102) = 32.10, stereotypical need to provide. However, we found
p < .001, ηp2 = .24 . When asked if the mother/father that participants thought it was more important for
was ambitious, participants were more likely to mothers to complete their education. That result
agree that the father was ambitious compared to makes sense if one also thinks that the mother will
the mother, F(1, 102) = 13.02, p < .001, ηp2 = .11. be more involved in their child’s care than the
Participants were more likely to agree that teen father, as our participants did. Taken together, our
mothers were too young to be a parent, yet were findings suggest a gender-based double standard,
less likely to agree that teen fathers were too young in which the focus, both positive and negative, is
to be a parent, F(1, 102) = 18.37, p < .001, ηp2 = .16. on mothers with fathers more or less getting a pass
In addition, we found that participants were more when it comes to teen pregnancy.
likely to label teen mothers as irresponsible, unlike We are aware that our results directly reflect
their male counterpart, F(1, 102) = 5.49, p = .02, ηp2 = the scenario participants read. The scenario was
.05, who was rated more responsible (M = 3.25, framed from the mothers’ point of view, with little
SD = 1.31) than the mother (M = 2.98, SD = 1.25). information about the father. The framing of the
However, participants agreed that mothers spent scenario and the information provided might have
more time with their child, F(1, 102) = 2.70, p < created bias in our results. It may be that certain
.001, ηp2 =.14, and that pursuing an education was characteristics of it prompted some of the ratings,
the best thing they could do for their child, F(1, and if we just asked participants to imagine an
102) = 4.14, p = .04, ηp2 = .04. unmarried teen pregnancy situation, we might have
Although not of statistical significance, we gotten different results. Our conclusions are also
found that teen mothers were more likely to be
FIGURE 1
perceived as better parents (M = 3.41, SD = 1.09)
than teen fathers (M = 3.02, SD = 1.24). There Mean Responses of Parental Stereotypes Between Teen
were no significant differences between pregnancy Mothers and Teen Fathers
prevention, cuteness of parent, responsibility of
Promiscuity Mother
parent, if the parent is a good parent, and whether Father
Irresponsible
or not the parent is doing their best. Cuteness
Good parent
Discussion Time spent
Ambitious
Consistent with our prediction, the results of our Too young
study show that the focus in evaluating teenage Responsible
pregnancy continues to be on the mother. The only Best they can do
Prevent
positive stereotype that we came across about moth- Education is best
ers is that they are more likely to spend adequate 0 1 2 3 4
time with their child. This result is understandable,
COPYRIGHT 2021 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 26, NO. 1/ISSN 2325-7342) 23Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting | Chobany and Hull
limited by the items we created. If we had asked in that response. In all, our study shows that
participants if they knew of any teenage parents judgments about teen pregnancy continue to fall
or if they themselves were a teen parent, then we disproportionally on young mothers and that there
would have been able to identify any biases or is need to support them more fully.
potential effects of our results. In retrospect, if
we had included items about selfishness and an References
uncaring attitude, we might have picked up more Ellemers, N. (2018). Gender stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 69,
275–298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011719
stigma associated with the father reflecting Wilkes Etaugh, C., & Folger, D. (1998). Perceptions of parents whose work and
et al. (2014) findings. parenting behaviors deviate from role expectations. Sex Roles, 39(3–4),
In the future, we would like to recreate the study 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018850404838
Fuegen, K., Biernat, M., Haines, E., & Deaux, K. (2004). Mothers and fathers in
with a more diverse sample to generate more varia- the workplace: How gender and parental status influence judgements of
tion in responses and to potentially identify patterns job-related competence. Journal of Social Issues, 60(4).
among the different generations. We would also https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00383.x
Lyness, K. S., & Judiesch, M. K. (2014). Gender egalitarianism and work-life
ask participants to envision their own idea of a teen balance for managers: A multi-source perspective in 36 countries.
pregnancy situation to see how that alters the results. Application of Psychology International Review, 63(1), 96–129.
Additionally, we would like to create a scenario in https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12011
MacNell, L., Driscoll, A., & Hunt, A. N. (2015). What’s in a name: Exposing gender
which the mother gets an abortion in order to see bias in student ratings of teaching? Innovation of Higher Education, 40(4),
how she might be viewed differently from a young 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-014-9313-4
mother who carries her pregnancy to term. We would Richards, M. P., Dunn, J. F., & Antonis, B. (1977). Caretaking in the first year of life:
The role of fathers, and mothers’ social isolation. Child: Care, Health and
also like to see whether unmarried parents in general, Development, 3(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.1977.tb00023
and especially those over 40, would be perceived Weber, J. B. (2012). Becoming teen fathers: Stories of teen pregnancy,
differently. Again, we think that it would be more responsibility, and masculinity. Gender and Society, 26(6), 900–921.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243212459074
negatively stigmatized for mothers than fathers based Weed, K., & Nicholson, J. S. (2015). Differential social evaluation of pregnant
on their age and the gender expectations. teens, teen mothers, and teen fathers by university students. International
Our study has the potential to inform school Journal of Adolescent and Youth, 20(1), 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2014.963630
counselors, social workers, healthcare providers, Yardley, E. (2008). Teenage mothers’ experience of stigma. Journal of Youth
and counselors about stigma facing (especially) Studies, 12(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260802392940
unmarried teen mothers so that they can help
Author Note. Debra Hull https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8450-
teen parents navigate interactions with their peers, 9984
teachers, doctors, and religious leaders in more Special thanks to class peers and Mark A. Affeltranger for
positive ways. Awareness of the stigma associated reading and commenting on an earlier draft of this article.
Thank you also to Debra Hull for also reading and providing
with teen pregnancy may be the first step in input. Copies of the scenario, surveys, and informed consent
addressing it directly and helping to change it. for are available from the author.
Perhaps our study also sets forth a method that will Correspondence concerning this research should be
addressed to Debra Hull, Department of Psychology, Bethany
prompt others to study the nuances of responses College, 31 E. Campus Drive, Bethany, WV 73008.
to teen pregnancy and look for mediating factors Email: dkhull@bethanywv.edu
Appendix A
Teen Parenting Scenario
I guess you could say I was popular in high school—it was fun because I fit in. I was a cheerleader and I did color guard. I've never been the type to party, and I never drank or did
drugs or any of that. School was so important to me. However, I did have a boyfriend. It was the classic high school romance: I was the cheerleader, and he played football, baseball,
and basketball.
One Friday night over Christmas break, he got me some chicken for dinner, and it made me throw up. I told him that I was late, so we thought we should take a test. Finally, four
positive results later, I realized that I was pregnant, and I just cried. He told me he would stay with me. I decided to tell my mom three or four days later. She was so supportive and I
was lucky for that.
About five months into the pregnancy my boyfriend asked to talk to me. He met me and told me, “I think it'd be better for both of us if we took a break from each other for a while.
We might get back tomorrow, you never know, I just think we should take a break." I was pregnant at 16 and now alone.
We never got back together, but he said he would still be there for the baby. At 35 weeks pregnant I went into labor and had our baby boy. His father never made it in time for his
birth. After spending a few days in the hospital I was cleared to go home. I had to parent this child with only support from my mom and his father. I was scared.
After having my son, life was hard. I had to drop out of high school so I didn’t have to pay for childcare. I had to be home with him, change his diapers, feed him, take him to doctors
and just be his person. I was living at home with my mom, so thankfully I didn’t have to pay bills or worry about working. I was eligible for welfare, which was a big help.
The first two months of my son’s life his father came around a lot. He was over to visit him on the weekends and would even take him for walks so that I could rest. Sometimes he
SPRING 2021 would change his diaper for me, but not when he pooped—I don’t blame him. After the first few months his father stopped coming around as much because he was working and
preparing for college. He would sometimes give me half of his paychecks to help with the child. He was a huge help.
PSI CHI Now, our son is three years old. I am still living at home with my mom, but I am now studying and working towards my GED. My baby’s father is in his last year of college—He lives
JOURNAL OF across the state, so we don’t see him much. Though we don’t see him as frequently, he still comes to visit once a month and continues to send money for support.
PSYCHOLOGICAL
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24 COPYRIGHT 2021 BY PSI CHI, THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 26, NO. 1/ISSN 2325-7342)Chobany and Hull | Stigmas Associated With Teen Parenting
Appendix B
Teen Parenting Survey
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
1 2 3 4 5
Please use the scale to rate the following statements about the FATHER in the scenario.
____ 1. This parent is sexually promiscuous.
____ 2. This parent’s actions are irresponsible.
____ 3. This parent’s role is adorable or cute.
____ 4. This parent is a good parent.
____ 5. This parent spends enough time with their child.
____ 6. This parent is ambitious.
____ 7. This parent is a responsible parent.
____ 8. This parent was too young to become a parent.
_____9. This parent is doing the best they can.
_____10. It was this parent’s responsibility to prevent the pregnancy in the first place.
_____11. The best thing this parent can do for the child is get a good education.
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