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$4.50 THE SCOTT SISTERS ART FROM THE ARCHIVES CAMELS IN - AUSTRALIA 'ROO HARVES TING PIG-NOSED TURTLE SOLOMON'S VOLCANOES WHAT'S 'NATURAL'l WINTER 1987 VOL. 22 N0.5
YouthSho Id Not be
Wastedo the Youn
P eople of all ages belong to
Youth Hostels.
From an old church at
Carrington to a colonial pub at
Narrandera, a schoolhouse at
swim at Springwood or bushwalk
at Bundanoon: Youth Hostels are
located in the most scenic parts of
NSW. Many are near national parks
like the Warrumbungles, Blue
Scone to a modern lodge at Mountains, Snowy Mountains,
Thredbo, Youth Hostels are cosier Kuringai and Barrington Tops.
than a caravan and cheaper There are hostels throughout
than a hotel. Australia and the world that YHA
Canoe at Coffs Harbour, birdwatch members can use.
at Bega, cycle round Canberra, Join now.
YOUTH HOSTELS ASSOCIATION OF NSW GPO Box 5276 Sydney
NSW 2001 176 Day Street, Sydney Phone: (02) 267 3044
Other YHA Offices: Brisbane (07) 831 2022 Adelaide (08) 51 5583 Hobart (002) 34 9617 Darwin
(089) 84 3902 Melbourne (03) 67 7991 Perth (09) 325 5844
YHA•NSW
Australian
Natural History
EDITORIAL Discoveries Diverse
D
Published by iscovery. The word usually ly to the early exploration of this coun
The Australian Museum Trust refers to finding something new. try (p. 220). But discoveries are not
6-8 College Street, In this issue we adopt a different always 'large'. Small things are easily
Sydney, N.S.W. 2000
Phone: (02) 339 8111 slant by looking back to discover some overlooked. The stunning close-up pho
Trust President: Robyn Williams thing old-some of the magnificent 19th tographs of bryophytes-miniatures of
Museum Director: Desmond Griffin century illustrations by Harriet and the plant world (p. 238)-will ensure
Helena Scott (p. 194). These two sisters that your eyes are kept well to the
EDITOR worked as scientific illustrators and their ground when next out in the bush. Dis
Fiona Doig paintings have been cloistered in the cover also in this issue what it is like to
SCIENTIFIC EDITOR library archives of the Australian live at the base of an active volcano in
Georgina1iickey, B.Sc. Museum for well over a century. Also the Solomon Islands. Find out how this
CIRCULATION looking back at Australia's past, Gordon affects the people who live there (p.
John McIntosh Grigg salutes the camel: the capabilities 210) and if Australia really is volcanically
ART DIRECTION and endurance of this large, arid dead. You might be surprised!
Watch This! Design
adapted species contributed enormous- -Fiona Doig, Editor
TYPESETTING
Love Computer Typesetting Pty Ltd
FILM WORK Contents
South Sea International Press Ltd
PRINTING Scott Sisters - 194
RodenPrint Pty Ltd Art Treasures of the
ADVERTISING 19th Century Revealed
Jean Barnet Marion Ord
(02) 939 6263
(02) 339 8234 Palm Cockatoos-Drumming to 199
a Different Beat
SUBSCRIPTIONS Graham Wood
Annual subscription (4 issues) Solomon's Volcanoes-Life 210
Within Australia $A 13.00 on the Verge
Other Countries $A 15.00 Bill Gladstone
Two-year subscription (8 issues)
Within Australia $A25.00 Camels-Humpbacks of the 220
Other countries $A30.00 Desert
Gordon Grigg
For renewal or new subscription please Warradjan-The Pig-nosed 230
forward credit card authority or cheque Turtle
made payable to: Arthur Georges
The Australian Museum
P.O. Box A285 Sydney South Bryophytes-Exquisite Miniatures 238
N.S.W. 2000, Australia of the Plant World
Subscribers from other countries please Patricia Selkirk, Alison Downing
note that money must be paid in and Helen Ramsay
Australian currency.
All material appearing in Australian
WILD FOODS
Natural History is copyright. Ground Orchids-Salute to Saloop 202
Reproduction in whole or in part is not Tim Low
permitted without written authorisation
from the Editor. FORUM
Opinions expressed by the authors are Kangaroo Harvesting-A 204
their own and do not necessarily New Approach
represent the policies or views of the
Gordon Grigg
Australian Museum.
The Editor welcomes articles or RARE & ENDANGERED
photographs in any field of Australian
natural history. Classifying Australia's 208
Threatened Fishes
John Harris
Published 1987 PHOTOART
ISSN-0004-9840 Outback Sentinels 235
Marianne Porteners
Front Cover
REGULAR FEATURES
The Dingy Swallowtail, Papilio anactus. Books 206
This painting, by Helena Scott, Quips, Quotes & Curios 215
complete with foxing spots and Vincent Serventy 218
correction marks, is from the library
archives of the Australian Museum. Letters 227
Robyn Williams 228
Poster Article 229
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 193
/ ·\
The
Scott Sisters
Art treasures
of the 19th century
revealed
By Marion Ord
"O h! you cannot think how
thankful I am that my dear
father allows me to place my
name to the drawings! It makes me feel
twice as much pleasure while I paint
them!"
Helena Scott was 30 when she
wrote those words to her childhood
friend Edward Pierson Ramsay, who
later became Curator of the Australian
Museum. It was 1862 and she and her Bombay, "a naturalist's paradise" not un
elder sister, Harriet, were already well like Ash Island. His father, Dr Helenus
launched on their careers as profession Scott, was botanist and physician to the
al artists and natural science collectors East India Company for almost 30 years
and illustrators. They were acquainted and Walker inherited his father's in
through their father with scientists terests. As well as his botanical studies,
around the world, and with many in the however, Walker took his MA at Cam
colony of New South Wales. These in bridge, studied law briefly, pioneered
cluded the Macleays; Dr George Ben several industries and institutions in vi
0
nett, who was the first Secretary, and Newcastle, and was a Liberal member u::
Gerard Krefft, an early Curator, of the of the first Legislative Assembly for �
Australian Museum. Northumberland and Hunter in 1856. ::c
Harriet and Helena were the He was also a trustee of the Australian �
daughters of Alexander Walker Scott of Museum in 1864-66 and 1867-79. �
Ash Island at Hexham, on the Hunter "I've entered into a very stimulat- 2
0
River. Walker Scott, "entomologist and ing association with a Mr. Robert Scott 11::
entrepreneur", was one of a large and and his brother, Walker Scott", wrote z
influential family who had migrated to Ludwig Leichhardt in June 1842, soon Q
New South Wales from England in the after his arrival in Australia. "Their sis- �
1820s. He was born in India, on the ter is married to a doctor named Mitch- �
reclaimed island of Salsette north of ell [Dr James Mitchell of the Rum ::::l
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 195
Australian Lepidoptera
...,;::i;;;-
Hospital]. These people have been in
terested in natural history since their
childhood and have been keen collec representation from life. Scott was a where he had emigrated, was prema
tors of everything that seemed worthy talented artist and his closest friend in ture. The Lepidoptera book, lacking
of remark. I have certainly found their England was the painter Edwin Land funds, was not published in Australia
collection of minerals and shells instruc seer, whose portrait of Alexander Walk but in England 12 years later, in 1864.
tive in the extreme." er Scott resides in the Art Callery of Five hundred copies were then printed.
Leichhardt visited Ash Island later New South Wales. Swainson noted:
in the same year: From early childhood the sisters "Of the execution of these drawings I
"Mr. Scott has very kindly come with had visited the family of Dr David Ram am almost afraid to write lest the pub
me on some of my tramps. He . ..is in say of "Dobroyd" at Ashfield, another lic may think that the desire of com
clined to proceed briskly, like a nimble Scottish emigrant obsessed with natur plimenting the fair artists . ..may have
huntsman, and his sharp eyes notice the al science and new plant species. His biased my judgment. I am willing,
less conspicuous of the new varieties of wife, Sarah, was the daughter of eman however, to hazard that scrupulous
plants more easily than mine do . ..It's cipist Simeon Lord.The mix of scientists regard for veracity which the scientific
a romantic place which I like well and emancipists formed a more liberal public has long given me credit for,
enough to think that-perhaps-I'd be minded community than that of the ex when I state that these drawings are
content to live and die there." clusives in the colony, who wanted to equal to any I have ever seen by
In 1846 Walker Scott married Har live like the English gentry and hated modern artists... Whether we look to
riet Calcott, daughter of a convict "freed convicts, emancipists, the Catholics and the exquisite and elaborate finishing,
by servitude", with whom he had been the Irish. The friendship of the Scott sis the correct drawing, or the astonishing
living. She was the mother of his daugh ters with E.P.Ramsay began at this time, exactitude of the colours, often most
ters Harriet and Helena, then 16 and 14. continuing throughout their lives. Let brilliant, and generally indescribably
After the marriage he took them all to ters to him remain their only surviving blended, there is no poetic exaggera
live on Ash Island, a grant of 2,560 acres correspondence. "You are one of the tion in saying: The force of painting can
which he had been developing since very few to whom I scribble just as I no further go'."
1829. Ash Island oranges were famous think so you may be sure I have confi Swainson then discussed the
in the colony and Scott experimented dence in you ", wrote Helena ("Nellie") Lepidoptera species under their differ
with flax and tobacco crops and grew in 1862. ent families, noting those not seen be
grapes for wine. In 1847 he imported In the Sydney Morning Herald of 30 fore and others which were important.
five German vine dressers to work for August 1851 appeared a long review of "Commencing then with the diurnal or
him. a work on moths and butterflies soon day-flying tribe, we have in Plate 52 the
To Harriet and Helena, who had to be published: Australian Lepidoptera newly discovered Amprisius Australis
been born in Harrington Street in Syd and their Transformations, drawn from [Ornithoptera australis, today known as
ney's Rocks area, Ash Island introduced the Life by Harriet and Helena Scott, 0. richmondia] a large insect of surpas
a freedom in which they could develop with Descriptions General and Sys sing beauty, recently discovered in the
and indulge their talents, at their own tematic, by A.W. Scott M.A. The neighbourhood of the Richmond River.
pace. Already their father had taught review, by the eminent botanist W. In its general colour it strongly resem
them his skills in observation and exact Swainson on a visit from New Zealand bles the famous Priam butterfly of Am-
196 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987
SCOTT FAMILY TREE
Dr Helenus Scott m. Augusta M.an.a Frederid 1796 (Bomb.ly)
August.a M.an.a Robert AUX.WAl.KER Patrid
b. 1798 b. 1799 d. 1&44 b 1800 d. 1883 1802-79 1806-117
m 1833 Dr J Mitchell m 1846 HARRIET CALCOTT
d 1871 b 1804 d 1866 m Sar.1nna R..,
A M.uia David Scott Margaret HARRIIT HB.ENA
b 1834 b. 1836 b 1837 ��
1830-1907 1832-1910
10 children d. 1907 m. Quigley m. Dr C.W. Morg.tn m. Edward Forde 1864
m. Ch 3 children 1882
Merewether
\
9 surviving children induding
Rose
b 1847
d 1925
boyna and the Indian isles . .. That an
,---
insect of such dimensions and so strik
ingly beautiful should only just have
been discovered, is but one of the
many proofs how little is yet known of
Australian entomology beyond a short
distance from the capital."
Under Noctuidae, Swainson wrote:
"The present series . .. contains one of
the most beautiful species known,
which see[T)s to be the same . .. or
closely allied to others found in India.
It is the Catocala Menispermi, Plate 17
of our author, and is as richly coloured
in its larvae as in its perfect state. This
drawing is one of the most beautifully
executed in the whole collection."
Many of the Lepidoptera were
drawn against landscapes of Sydney in
the style of Conrad Martens, a friend of
the Scott family and best-known of the
colony's painters. As a result of their
work, the sisters were elected honorary
members of the Entomological Society,
a unique honour for women of their
I
l_
time.
Later in 1864 Helena Scott married
an Anglo-Irish artist and navigator, Ed
ward Forde, who was working for the
Department of Harbours and River
,,
Navigation. They were married on Ash
Island and a young cousin, Rose Scott,
who was later to become famous as a ----)
social reformer, was one of the wit
nesses.
The couple moved to Sydney and
in 1865 sailed for Adelaide. Dr Lionel
Gilbert wrote: 4
"Edward Forde was sent to survey the [7�,:
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 197
the Mr. Scott that has the clever
r
daughters?'"
But early in 1866 Mrs Scott died.
Walker, Harriet and Mary Ann moved
to Sydney. Walker, inept in business
matters, was made bankrupt and the
Ash Island property sold, although
Scott's books and personal belongings
were returned to him by his creditor!i.
Harriet now gladly embraced the life of
the city "where we can be much hap
'
pier than at so very quiet a place."
For several years Harriet and Hele
na executed almost all the artwork for
scientific literature produced in Sydney,
including J.C. Cox's Monograph of Aus
tralian Land Shells (1868) and Krefft's
Snakes of Australia (1869) and Mammals
of Australia (1871). They also designed
the first Australian Christmas cards,
printed by Turner & Henderson in 1879.
In 1882 Harriet married Dr Cosby
William Morgan, recently widowed,
who was an old friend from the days
at Newcastle. They lived for several
years at Pambula on the south coast.
Harriet did little work after her marri
age although she illustrated the 1884
and 1886 editions of the Railway Guide.
After Walker Scott's death in 1883,
Helena persuaded the Australian Muse
um to publish the second volume of his
Lepidoptera in five parts (1890-98). As
'
a freelance with no other capital, she
had to earn her own living. "I must try
and earn a little money somehow to
keep the wolf from the door", she
wrote to a cousin in 1904 when she was
72. She had applied to the Museum for
"some scientific work which is all I am
fit for ...".
Harriet Scott died at Granville, Syd
ney in 1907 and Helena at Harris Park,
Darling River between Wentworth and "Hers was probably the most represen a few streets away, in 1910. They were
Bourke for obstructions to river naviga tative collection of plants from the low bypassed in history until Nancy Gray be
tion. Helena Forde accompanied her er Darling brought to Sydney up to this gan to collate the Scott family papers
husband and by August 1865 she was time." Part of it later found its way into in the Mitchell Library some years ago.
collecting and painting specimens the collection of Yon Mueller in Mel Fortunately their extraordinary work
around the survey camp near Went bourne. survives to speak for them, and to recall
worth, a noteworthy effort for a wom Meanwhile Harriet or "Hattie" lived the painstaking hours spent on Ash ls
an in such a remote area at that on at Ash Island with her parents and land recording the life cycles of moths
time . . . By March 1866 she had a half-sister Mary Ann. There were visits and butterflies. D
reasonable amount of material on hand to Wollongong where she painted
for her proposed illustrated 'Flora of the several landscapes, and to Sydney, and The Ash Island Series, the work of Har
Darling'. In the vicinity of Menindee, commissions for Ramsay and others. riet and Helena Scott, is scheduled for
however, both husband and wife con Harriet, who longed to have been "Har publication in 1988 by The Craftsman's
tracted fever. Helena recovered but Ed ry Scott instead of Hattie Scott"and to Press. The books, arranged and in
ward died on 20th June, 1866 'of low have had a university education, was troduced by Marion Ord, are: Histori
fever and exhaustion'." delighted and a little in awe of her own cal Drawings of Moths & Butterflies,
On the return to Sydney, Helena success: Vol. 1. From the Collections of The Aus
gave her material to William Woolls for "Fancy Mr. Krefft introducing Papa to a tralian Museum; and Historical Draw
his work A Contribution to the Flora of friend of his . . . a Mr. Pitt . . . and the said ings of Native Flowers, Vol. 2. From the
Australia (Sydney, 1867). Gilbert wrote: Mr. Pitt accosting Papa with 'Are you Collections of The Mitchell Library.
198 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987
worth further investigation!
So began a fascination with a truly
remarkable bird. I had come to Iron
Range, on north-eastern Cape York
Peninsula, to familiarise myself with
changes in the fauna, particularly the in
sects, brought about by the wet season.
But the course of my studies was about
to take a radical change in direction.
Several days later I woke to the
same sound. Moving along the edge of
the forest, guided by the drumming, I
found myself peering up through a
break in the canopy. Silhouetted against
a sombre sky was a Palm Cockatoo,
wings outstretched, turning from side
to side and beating the top of the hol
low trunk on which he was perched.
The large bill and superior size suggest
ed to me it was male. All too quickly
he departed, leaving me with the puz
zle of how such volume was produced.
Certainly he could not just have been
beating with his foot.
Several days passed until I wit
nessed the next, although brief, perfor
mance. The other member of the pair,
which was standing sentry, raised the
alarm and they were gone. But, on
departing, the performer dropped the
piece of branch he had been using as
a drumstick. This bounced noisily down
the interior of the stump, unfortunate
ly beyond my retrieval.
Being now familiar with this haunt,
I was determined to observe the whole
performance. Reward came quickly,
with the arrival of the pair before dawn
0 one morning. Following several minutes
0 of preening, the male flew to a nearby
0
3 tree. Clamping his beak around a two
� centimetre-thick branch, he rocked
:r: back and forth in pipe-cutter fashion. A
�
I.J 'snap' heralded success, a second 'snap'
and the foliage end was gone, leaving
Male Palm Cockatoo engaged in an early morning drumming performance using
a length of about ten centimetres. Fly
a Grevillea glauca seed capsule.
ing to the top of the display trunk he
spent several minutes chewing the
branch, removing pieces of bark. He
then beat the hollow trunk loudly with
the stick, which he held in his foot. This
time I was able to retrieve the
drumstick.
The drumstick produced by the
Palm Cockatoo is certainly the most
complex tool used by any bird and ar
guably the most complex used by any
0 animals other than humans. Only the
0
0 tools used by primates rival it in com
3
� plexity. Few of the devices used by
< other animals are actually produced
:r:
� and modified, as the drumstick is. The
I.J
drumstick is also the only tool produced
by a non-human animal that is not used
Drumming implements used by Palm Cockatoos. The round objects are the seed in procuring food and, to my
capsules of the Grevillea glauca tree. These were used by bushmen as clothespegs. knowledge, the only musical imple-
200 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987the urge to nest came the lining of a
number of hollows with a bed of shred
ded sticks. At this time the hollows
were most jealously guarded. There
was considerable competition for suita
ble nest hollows and disputes arose
when a rival pair approached too close.
The encroaching male was chased by
the resident male and attacked
whenever he landed. The resident flew
directly at the intruder, lunging feet first
and throwing his wings back prior to im
pact. The victim was usually knocked
off his perch by the blow but, on the
occasions that he managed to hold on,
his attacker flapped wildly in a persis
tent effort to drag him off the branch.
This attack was repeated until the en
croaching pair departed. Beaks were
never used in these conflicts-a sensi
ble restraint when one considers their
power. During the attacks the resident
females flew beside their partners,
screeching raucously but never making
physical contact.
0 Following the departure of the en
0
0 croaching pair the male prepared a
:!: drumstick and provided one of the best
�
< renditions I have witnessed. During this
I
� performance the female perched near
I.) by, in silence.
ment produced by any animals other Each pair of Palm Cockatoos had a During the last days before the
than humans. Its purpose is to acousti number of hollows that were regularly young bird left the nest many drum
cally delineate territory and probably visited at the beginning and close of ming displays were performed. On a
has a pair-bonding function. each day. A morning visit usually com number of occasions both parents
Months passed without the hint of menced with preening, followed by an drummed at the same time. As if on cue
a performance. As the 'dry' season examination of the hollow and the oc the young bird, a male, left the nest hol
progressed I moved toward the coast, casional drumming performance. In this low during one of these performances
setting up camp in open woodland open country the drumming imple and flew to a nearby branch. Immedi
main habitat of the Palm Cockatoo. ment, rather than being a stick, was ately he was attacked and knocked off
Here I identified many potential display usually the nut of the Crevillea g/auca his perch by his father. Although visibly
sites, which invariably focused on a tree tree, the so-called 'Bushman's shaken by this experience, he followed
hollow with possible use in nesting. To Clothespeg'. his parents, who departed immediate
avoid disturbing their performances I Drumming performances were ly after the attack. This established his
built hides at selected sites. From these most intense during nest preparation position in life until the next nesting sea
I was able to observe closely their mu and just prior to the single young (only son, still following his parents but keep
sical performances. one egg is laid) leaving the nest. With ing a respectful distance. D
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 201AUSTRALIAN WILD FOODS by Tim Low
Ground Orchids-Salute to Saloop cooking. These 'tubers' are actually
large fleshy roots, which accounts for
their fibrous texture. These were the
G
only orchids that required cooking to
round orchids are enchanting of globular tubers, 12 millimetres broad, improve the taste; the others I was able
plants. Each spring they bright with a watery bitter taste. The fourth or to eat raw.
en the forest floor with dainty chid, Pink Fingers (Caladenia camea) Incidentally, Hyacinth Orchids are
blooms of the oddest colours and had two pea-sized white tubers, tasting mysterious plants. lacking leaves, they
shapes. Enjoy them while you can, for sweet and juicy. grow only beneath certain kinds of eu
they flower but fleetingly; each summer I was intrigued by this hilltop orchid calypts and are said to be parasitic on
the leaves, stems and flowers die away. entree. The tubers of these four plants a fungus. They seem to have the largest
My fascination with ground orchids were as varied in flavour and form as tubers of any ground orchid, apart from
blossomed last spring, during a long were the flowers in colour and shape. those of Cinnamon Bells, also called
term study of the traditional foods of Although some of the tubers were not Potato Orchid (Castrodia sesamoides),
Aborigines. Most ground orchids appealing, together they afforded a another leafless saprophyte, once eat
produce 'tubers' and early colonial most interesting wild food snack. en by Aborigines in Tasmania.
writers listed these as Aboriginal foods. Since then I have sampled the Hyacinth Orchids flower through
For years I paid them no heed, for I en tubers of 12 genera and more than 20 summer but most orchids bloom in
countered ground orchids infrequently species of ground orchid. Some were spring, which is when the leaves ap
and the tubers I dug up were tiny. But quite unpalatable although all were ob pear. Ground orchids are not very leafy
then I came upon an intriguing article viously edible, and a few were excep plants, and many produce only a single
on Aboriginal diet by Melbourne tionally tasty-especially the leaf, others two or three. These soft,
botanist Beth Gott. She wrote: walnut-sized 'potatoes' of Brown Beaks succulent leaves cannot withstand the
"Accustomed as we are to the total pro (Lyperanthus suaveolens) and the scorching summer sun, and the plants
tection of orchids in most states of Aus fragrantly flavoured starch of the 'gestate' through summer in the form
tralia, we tend to dismiss the Horned Orchid (Orthoceras strictum). of those starch-filled tubers, so impor
Orchidaceae [orchid family] as an im Most filling were the glutinous tubers tant as foods.
portant food source, considering them of donkey orchids (Diuris spp.) and sun Tuber-producing is a common tac
to be rare; yet orchids are widespread, orchids (Thelymitra spp.) and I have no tic of small plants with soft leaves grow
even in quite dry areas, and are often doubt that these were important ing in a harsh climate with seasonally
locally abundant. They were widely ex Aboriginal foods. dry soil. Besides orchids, many of the
ploited as a food source." Although most of the tubers were smaller lilies and the Murnong or Yam
Beth wrote of finding Nodding tiny, those of the common Hyacinth Or Daisy (Microseris scapigera) depend on
Greenhoods (Pterostylis nutans) at the chid (Dipodium punctatum) were big. tubers. These plants often grow
extraordinary density of 440 plants per One plant had six long tubers, each be together in shallow soils and Aborigines
square metre, yielding 800 tiny tubers, tween seven and eight millimetres thick no doubt harvested them in large
although with a combined weight of and longer than my fingers. The tubers numbers.
only 126 grams. Orchid tubers are easy were watery and, for an orchid, un The tiny tubers could have served
to dig and, at densities like this, could usually fibrous although less so after as staple foods in spring, when these
serve as important foods.
I began to look out for orchids, and
last spring reaped a bountiful reward.
It began on a small knoll in southern
Australia where I chanced upon four or
chid species flowering side by side. The
first, a Common Waxlip (Clossodia
major), sported a single egg-shaped
tuber with a pointed tip. This tuber tast
ed watery and slightly sweet, with a bit
ter aftertaste. It was not nice. The
second, a leopard Orchid (Diuris
maculata), had two bullet-shaped
� tubers three centimetres long and six to
__, seven millimetres wide, with a glutinous
! sticky taste. The arrowroot-like starch,
8 although filling, stuck cloyingly to my The dark-flowered form of the Hyacinth Orchid flourishes in a patch of bushland
o gums. The third orchid, a Tall Green in Brisbane's western suburbs, close to a main highway. The roots measure up
it hood (Pterostylis longifolia), had a pair to 13 centimetres in length.
202 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987plants are in flower, but I was curious scanned the nearby forest and realised
to know if Aborigines would have har there were dozens of these dried pods,
vested them in other seasons, when the all signalling tiny stores of food hidden
plants are less obvious. in the hot earth. These tubers were so
At first it seemed unlikely. Last Oc common that a forager could have lived
tober, in the granite mountains near happily off the land. The different
Stanthorpe, I found colonies of Brown shapes and tastes of the tubers con
Beaks within which only half the plants firmed that several orchid species were
were flowering. This orchid has a sin present.
gle leaf remarkably similar to Blady Elsewhere in south-eastern Austra
Grass (lmperata cylindrica), and both lia it was the same. In southern Victor
plants often grow together so that the ia, in coastal New South Wales,
orchid is extremely difficult to locate wherever I looked I found tubers
without its flowers. On open ground sometimes by spotting a dainty flower
the leaf is noticeable but still easily over- but more often by finding dried cap
1 ooked. Could Aborigines have sules in the wiry grass. Occasionally I
gathered an orchid like this outside the made a mistake, confusing the capsules
flowering season? of trigger plants (Stylidium spp.) with or
Last summer I stumbled upon the chids. But there could be no mistaking
answer. I was photographing Hyacinth the significance of my find-that, for the
Orchids in disturbed bush in suburban Aborigines, orchids were a source of
Brisbane where, surprisingly, this orchid sustenance all year round.
is locally common. Many of the orchids Ground orchids are no longer on
were past flowering, and I took note of my menu. I cannot justify the continued
their distinctive oval capsules. Two harvest of these beautiful plants. Nor
weeks later, in South Australia, I was would I want others to follow my ex
tramping through the hills behind ample. Orchids are protected in some
Adelaide when I spotted a similar egg States, and rightly so. There is, however,
shaped capsule on a dried stalk. Could an interesting appendix to my tale. Dur
this be an orchid? I clawed into the dirt ing my reading on orchids I came upon
and, to my astonishment, unearthed a several old references to white people
shiny white tuber shaped like a grape. The flower of the Spider Orchid eating the tubers, both here and
This came from no Hyacinth Orchid but (Caladenia dilatata X patersoni,) is too overseas.
was obviously of orchid origin. Its crisp spectacular to justify the harvest of its Consider the following comment
white starch tasted sublime. Excitedly I tubers, which are tiny and watery. by colonial Australian botanist Joseph
Maiden, writing in 1898:
'There is hardly a country boy who has
not eaten so-called Yams, which are the
tubers of numerous kinds of terrestrial
or ground-growing orchids."
Even more surprising is Anne Pratts
description of 'salep' {orchid starch, also
called saloop) in her 1891 book Flower
ing Plants, Grasses, Sedges and Ferns,
of Great Britain:
"Salep is little used now in this country;
but less than a century since, the
Saloop-house was much frequented,
and the substance was a favourite
repast of porters, coal-heavers, and
other hard-working men. It is said to
contain more nutritious matter, in
proportion to its bulk, than any other
known root, and an ounce of salep was
considered to afford support to a man
for a day; hence those who travel in
The tubers of Brown Beaks resemble small waxy potatoes, and have a juicy and uninhabited countries have greatly
fragrant flavour. The flowers are shown at left. prized so portable a vegetable food." D
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 203pastoral country in central New South
Wales is to electrify existing fences so
as to raise goats, which eat everything!
Look at northern Africa!
Something must be done.
The best hope for restoration and
conservation of our fragile arid lands is
for the removal of sheep and cattle
not just to reduce grazing pressure, but
to reduce foot pressure as well. Kinche
ga National Park, a formerly over
grazed sheep property south-east of
Broken Hill, provides a practical exam
ple that many will be familiar with.
However, for stock to be removed,
there needs to be an alternate econom
ic base. If kangaroos can provide that
z alternate base, there will be a revolu
0
V,
z tion in land use in many of the areas
;;;;
f now only marginally useful for grazing
< and, wherever it happens, there will be
u.J
habitat restoration on a grand scale.
Graziers raise sheep deliberately
and kangaroos inadvertently on most
KANGAROO
sheep properties. They regard sheep as
a source of income, kangaroos as pests.
A property might have 6,000 sheep and
HARVESTING:
3,000 kangaroos. The grazier reaps a
financial benefit from the former, but
calls in a licensed kangaroo shooter to
A new approach kill and sell the latter. This is a paradox.
Its persistence is cultural (kangaroo
By Gordon Grigg , School of Zoology, University of Sydney work is, in many cases, beneath the dig
nity of most graziers) and financial (kan
W
garoos are not worth enough at
hat can be done to repair the overseas markets for kangaroo meat present).
habitat damage done by 100 and hides, and selling them at prices But, if the value of kangaroos in
years of overgrazing? A solu that do justice to their quality, instead creases, then graziers might think twice
tion in the marginal pastoral areas may of at prices that reflect their current sta before giving them away. There are iso
be to promote kangaroo products, in tus in Australia as pests. lated examples of this now, even at the
creasing their value so that it becomes You think I'm crazy? Hear me out, present low-market value of kangaroos.
more profitable to harvest kangaroos point by point. During 1986, when sheep prices were
there instead of sheep and cattle. Flying low over most of Australia, low, many graziers in central Queens
Consider what would happen if the as I have been doing regularly for more land harvested their kangaroos them
value of kangaroos suddenly jumped than ten years on kangaroo surveys, I selves. A dramatic price increase would
three- or four-fold. Many people would am always appalled by the extent of see more graziers doing this and fewer
immediately think that this is the worst habitat damage I see inflicted by sheep graziers would be forced off their land
thing that could happen; that the large and cattle grazing. The land is criss in times of drought and increasing in
species of kangaroos would come un crossed by tracks and beaten to pow terest rates.
der such harvesting pressure that extinc der. Much of our marginal grazing land How much of a price rise would be
tion would surely follow. I disagree. I is already well on the way to becom necessary? This question was addressed
believe that a big increase in demand ing desert. Just try to imagine what the by Michael Young and Allan Wilson of
for kangaroo products would not only country will look like in another 50 the CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ran
ensure their conservation but would years, let alone another 200. gelands Research (personal communi
lead also to the rehabilitation of areas Or do you think we know better cation). Even including the costs of
now becoming deserts under the pres now; that the lessons of the past have constructing and maintaining kangaroo
sure of hard-hoofed stock. This Forum been learned well and that pastures are proof fencing, which I consider to be
article will argue that, with conservation better managed nowadays? Well think counter-productive, they estimated that
motives, we should be finding better again! The latest trend in clapped-out a three- to four-fold increase in the price
204 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987of kangaroo meat would make farming these old chestnuts. After all, the sta should be able to work together.
profitable, first as a supplement to and tus quo is hardly anything to be proud In an article in this magazine in
then as a replacement for traditional of, and I'm sure I'm not the only one 1984 (vol. 21 no. 4, p. 123) I discussed
stock. who sees a need for new directions. the kangaroo question at length, includ
How could such a price rise be First of all, I'm not suggesting con ing population data and ethics. The ar
achieved? A basic principle of econom ventional farming, but free-range har ticle concluded that Red and Grey
ics is that if supply remains constant and vest of a natural resource (something Kangaroos were not threatened by con
demand rises, then price also rises. The closer to fishing than to farming). Fences trolled harvesting. This conclusion is ac
supply of kangaroos is limited by quo would not be needed. Indeed, fences cepted by most people nowadays.
tas set to ensure their conservation (as would probably be deleterious because What that article said, essentially, was
it should be), so we need only to in kangaroos need freedom of movement, that there are no reasons not to harvest
crease the demand. At present, kan particularly during droughts. So how kangaroos; what this present article is
garoos are undervalued, their present would you establish ownership over saying is that there are good conserva
price reflecting their status in Australia your kangaroos? Why would you need tion reasons to harvest.
as pests instead of something very spe to? Your kangaroos are the ones on Of course, if this proposal is put
cial on which, we should remember, your property. Next week they may be into effect, there will have to be many
we have a complete monopoly. The on your neighbour's but, if you look af changes in the structure of kangaroo
leather is excellent and is sought by ter your land better than he does (that marketing and stricter controls to en
manufacturers of many specialised is, by reducing or removing hard sure that the resource is managed
products, particularly sport shoes and hoofed stock), then they may stay on properly. Regular monitoring of popu
other sporting equipment. The meat, yours. Mustering? Not necessary. Shoot lations should continue, with effective
with less than one per cent fat com ing has already proved to be an effec- and intelligent control over the num
pared to 40 per cent for mutton, is a bers taken. There would need to be ef
nutritionist's dream. With better mar fective ways to be certain that only
keting, particularly in countries that legally-taken skins (tattooing?) and meat
have a protein shortage (such as Japan), "... if the value of enter trade markets, and there would
where there is a tradition of eating have to be a much higher level of su
kangaroos increases, then pervision than at present. This will be
game (such as Germany), or in any
country with a 'health food' industry,
graziers might think twice crucial, otherwise there will be exten
prices will inevitably rise. Even the moti before giving them away." sive poaching by unlicensed shooters,
vation for the harvest-that of reversing with all its unsavoury aspects. Many op
our grazing-induced desertification ponents of the industry have claimed
could be.a selling point in Australia and that there is considerable corruption
in all other conservation-conscious tive and humane method of harvest and that rules and regulations are not
countries. and doesn't require the process of policed. But, with a higher dollar value
In brief, my scenario is that kan mustering. Indeed, kangaroos could not on the resource, adequate controls and
garoos should be marketed at higher be mustered because they are prone to higher penalties are much more likely
prices, reflecting the special product post-capture myopathy, a stress-in to be implemented than they are at
they are. Graziers in marginal country duced deterioration of the muscles that present. While the proposal is aimed
will then see a benefit in encouraging degrades the value of the meat. mainly at the marginal grazing areas, I
kangaroo populations by reducing and, Worms, parasites, health aspects? In see no reason why the kangaroo indus
in some instances, replacing entirely South Australia, the only State where try should not continue in other areas,
their traditional hard-hoofed stock. This kangaroo meat can now be sold for hu as it does now, but with better regula
will result in a sounder economic base man consumption, it passes regular in tion. The greater value of kangaroos
in many areas and will promote the spections with flying colours. Note also would lead to more energetic controls
restoration of land that is turning into that overheads fall, there being no need in these places too.
desert under present land use. to maintain fences, to brand, drench, I am not so naive that I think this
You still think I'm crazy, don't you? crutch or spray. proposal is a cure-all for the problems
I can imagine many of the criticisms: And the Greenies? Well, I think this in our arid lands, or for the problems
"just another academic in his ivory tow proposal will be supported by more surrounding the commercialisation of
er, flogging his hobby horse"; "doesn't conservation groups than will oppose kangaroos. However, I am urging con
know anything about the bush"; "every it; after all, economically valuable spe structive discussion. I hope this article
body knows you can't farm kangaroos"; cies are those that everyone wants to will start some. The spread of deserts
"you'll need a big fence to keep them conserve and habitat restoration be is a problem in many countries. Perhaps
in, mate"; "what about the worms?"; comes a bonus. If there is local support, in Australia we may be able to do
"the Greenies'II never let you do it, any support from overseas will likely follow something about it. If switching to kan
way"; "you can't muster them" and so for the same reasons. In my view, this garoos works effectively even in just a
on. is a proposal on which producers, few areas, then that will be a good start.
Well let's concentrate on some of governments and conservationists How far it might go, who can tell?D
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 205BOOK REVIEWS Boles on Birds, Recher on Wrens
for the more irregular of concern to most people, it each species on the appropri·
vagrants, are illustrated with is a disturbing approach to ate plate. It does not have
one, sometimes more, high the initial presentation of the detail of text found in Piz
quality photographs from the original information. zey's book. In this respect it
National Photographic Index There has been a line of forgoes its usefulness as a
of Australian Wildlife (NPI notable Australian field more general reference for
AW). This is accompanied by guides, including the famous the specific purpose of field
text of variable length, dis What Bird is That? by Neville identification, yet permits the
cussing various aspects of the Cayley (first published in smaller size-a reasonable
birds' natural history; a short 1931 and many times since, trade-off in my opinion.
Reader's Digest synopsis of the description, including revisions) and the There are some rough edges
Complete Book of voice, nesting and distribu recent volumes A Field Guide such as the odd irregularity in
tion; and a range map. These to Australian Birds by Peter the presence of range maps,
Australian Birds. accounts are supplemented Slater (1970, 197 4) and Gra and the aspects of plates
Richard Schodde and Sonia by a short section depicting ham Pizzey's A Field Guide to mentioned above. There is
Tidemann. Reader's Digest, the variety of Australian the Birds of Australia (1980). also perhaps not enough
Sydney, 1986, 2nd ed., habitats and a general section Each has had its strengths and contrast in the black and
639 pp. $49.95 on bird biology and origins, weaknesses with none obvi white plate of underwing pat
The Slater Field Guide particularly in the Australian ously superior overall. Now terns of birds of prey and
to Australian Birds. context. The latter has been Peter Slater has collaborated ducks; at least one person
Peter, Pat and Raoul Slater. expanded and moved from with his wife and son to who has used the book in the
Rigby Publishers, Sydney, the rear to the front of the produce the best field guide field has remarked on this
1986, 1st ed., 344 pp. book. to Australian birds to date. point.
$29.95. The size is too large for Previous guides retained out A cost· conserving urge
The Birds of Australia. use anywhere except in the dated formats in which may be implicated in
A Book of home, and the photographs, plates, and often maps, were some striking omissions in
as beautiful as most are, have divorced from the text, forc the Slater Guide. Surprisingly
ldentification-760 drawbacks for identification ing the observer to refer to absent is a figure explain·
Birds in Colour. purposes. This, however, is several, often widely ing the parts or topography
Ken Simpson and Nicolas not the function of the book; separated pages for a single of the bird used throug hout
Day. Lloyd O'Neil Pty Ltd, presentation of an attractive species. The major improve· the book in the text descrip
Melbourne, 1986, 2nd ed., blend of quality photograph ment of the Slater Guide is to tions. Such a figure is a stan
352 pp. $35.95. ic portraits and interesting conform to the well dard part of most guides,
The number of newly pub text is. In this aim it succeeds established format used by a including Pizzey's and Slater's
lished books on Australian admirably. majority of the best overseas earlier guide. The single most
birds has proceeded at a sub In the first edition, the spe field guides: for each species astounding absence is the
stantial rate for several years cies accounts were written by the text and maps are on one lack of an index to scientific
and in the last few months of a number of authors who page facing the relevant illus names, an unbelievable solu
1986 reached a rather high were acknowledged in the tration. Other improvements tion to reducing the total
level. Among this outpouring front of the volume and in are the size, which is smaller number of pages. There is no
were several notable the rear. The second edition, than Pizzey's (perhaps still illustration of the introduced
volumes: two new editions of completely re-written by slightly too large for easy Blackbird (rumour has it that
previously published books Richard Schodde and Sonia back pocket transport) and this figure was at the rear of
and one striking replacement Tidemann, still has these the single volume, unlike the the book and disappeared in
for a standard Australian text. authors' lists, creating the un unwieldly two-volume ar· the company of the scientif
All were landmarks in Aus fortunate impression that rangement of Slater's earlier ic names index). My suspi·
tralian bird books when they they are still responsible for work. cions are that these
first appeared, and continue comments that few would The plates are probably omissions were beyond the
to be so in their updated have seen or had any input the best and most compre· control of the authors who
forms. in. The book frequently con hensive (more young should be congratulated for
When it first came on the tains apparently new infor· plumages included) of any of giving us the state-of-the-art
market ten years ago, the mation on species' biology its immediate competitors Australian field guide to birds.
Reader's Digest Complete that has yet to appear in (despite some occasionally The 'proper' format uti
Book of Australian Birds proper scientific format. distracting use of marbled lised in the Slater Guide did
made a major impact. While the first appearance of background and subdividing not first appear in that
The format remains the such information in a the page), with the added volume. In 1984, Ken Simp
same: each species, except popularised book will not be plus of including the eggs of son and Nicolas Day
206 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987produced The Birds of Aus the Reader's Digest book is their biology is therefore an only that it deals more or less
tralia set out in this manner. the best selection. For the important event. systematically with a single
It was also the first work to middle ground-the occa The Fairy-wrens was pub subject. Indeed, until now, I
attempt to illustrate any sort sional foray into the bush as lished in 1982; long enough had ignored it as yet another
of range of different well as a general introduction to have been reviewed by of the 'coffee table' genre
plumages beyond the obvi to Australian birds-Simpson others and discussed at that plagues the world of
ous adult ones. This section and Day's book suggests it length among ornithologists natural history; I only opened
of the book is followed by self. If, however, one is not and keen bird-watchers. The it to prepare this review. This
"The Handbook", an exten working under such con review by Ian Rowley in 1985 has been my loss as not only
sive presentation (70 pages) straints, one could do worse (Emu 85: 271), doyen of are the paintings superb, but
starting with a brief introduc than to have all three of malurid biologists, is certain the text is engagingly written
tion to the birds' biology, dis these worthwhile efforts in ly the most important and and informative, and the
tribution, habitats and history one's library. detailed statement yet to historical accounts of the
in Australia and concluding -Walter Boles appear. evolution of malurid taxono
with accounts of each Aus As presented by Rowley, my are akin to a good detec
tralian family of birds and
their natural history. The for
. TheTVL
R'atry- wrens
there are two major criticisms
of this book. The first and
tive story. Unlike Rowley,
who advises that you 'bor
mat and quality of paintings I ,1. II. " most important is that the row' and not purchase The
by Day, which remain among author, Richard Schodde, has Fairy-wrens, I think a copy is
the best in any Australian used it as a vehicle to publish money well spent. As Rowley
identification guide, ensured ideas and observations states, "much of the text is or
this book of a good recep without submitting them to nithologically important" but
tion. The second edition fol the normal review processes it is also the most detailed
lowed soon after, correcting that one expects for scientif (monographic) account of
some of the errors of the ic writings. Thus unsubstan this special group of Aus
original and replacing some· tiated statements and errors tra I ia n birds available.
of the plates. of fact or interpretation may Schodde has exhaustively
The field guide section enter the literature and be ac reviewed the literature, bring
holds its own in comparison cepted as correct by the less ing forth information that
The Fairy-wrens. A critical or those unfamiliar most of us would never rea
with Slater but most obser
Monograph of the with fairy-wren biology. The lise existed let alone search
vers will find it far too bulky
to be a convenient field com Maluridae. second is that the artwork, al for. If in places his observa
panion. "The Handbook" sec Richard Schodde. /1/ustrated beit very nice, does not add tions are unsubstantiated or
tion will appeal to a number by Richard Weatherly. significantly to the scientific the text simplified, the risk
of people who are pressed to Originally published by content of the text. For a that it will be misused is
find this type of information Lansdowne Editions, monograph, Rowley expects minimal. The author has
in any other source. Com Melbourne, 1982. Current illustrations that show the made it clear where he is
bined, the two different styles distribution Connewarran different plumages of males speculating on events and
of content make The Birds of Press, Mortlake, Victoria. and females, of young and has made no pretence of
Australia something between 192 pp. $70. old, of breeding and non having made any more than
a field guide and a reference The fairy-wrens (Maluri breeding birds or which a good naturalist's observa
book. dae) are a group of 26 species document egg colour and tions and study of the birds.
Anyone having to decide restricted to Australia and shape, nests and various I say 'good on him'-that's
between these three books New Guinea. Closely related aspects of the birds' be what books are for.
and given only a single to Australian warblers and haviour. To some extent The Fairy-wrens is not just
choice will need to consider honeyeaters, the fairy-wrens Richard Weatherly's paintings a coffee table volume. I
the role it is intended to ful are part of Australia's own, and sketches do this but, regret the format which
fill. If frequent field use is in home-grown avifauna. Be overall, are basically irrele makes reading difficult but it
tended, there is no doubt cause one species, the Su vant to the text and, Rowley is probably necessary to
that the Slater Guide is the perb Blue Wren (Malurus suspects, have been used to show off Weatherly's paint
obvious choice. Should there cyaneus), has made the ad sell the book. ings to advantage. I regret the
be little need of an identifica justments to suburbia and Not being a malurid biol absence of detailed plates of
tion guide but an interest in city parks, fairy-wrens occupy ogist, I have approached this morphological and life cycle
an attractive and informative a place in Australia's cultural book less critically than variation in plumage. But
book for reference with natural history along with Rowley. Nor was I swayed by mostly, I regret not having
greater concentration on in Kookaburras, wombats and the labelling of the book as read this book sooner.
dividual species' accounts, gum-nut children. A book on a monograph, which means -Harry Recher
AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY 207· . RARE & ENDANGERED Classifying Australia's Threat
T
he conservation status of Aus (Chlamydogobius n. sp.), Swamp Galax fluviatilis). Translocation of native fish
tralian fishes has become a to�i ias (Calaxias parvus), Pedder Galaxias between drainage systems was also
cal issue, mainly because of dis (Calaxias pedderensis) and seen as a threat. Although no species
cussions among the fisheries scientists, the Non-parasitic Lamprey (Mordacia were listed by the conference as 'ex
administrators, students and fish en praecox); and the three lower classifi tinct', it has since been reported that the
thusiasts who belong to the Australian cations: 'indeterminate' (two species), Lake Eacham Rainbowfish may have
Society for Fish Biology (ASFB). In 1980 'restricted' (32 species) and 'uncertain been exterminated by the translocation
a meeting of the ASFB recognised the status' (15+ species). into Lake Eacham of another small na
need to provide an authoritative up-to tive fish, the 'Mouth Almighty' (Clossa
date classification of the conservation Causes of Fish Conservation mia aprion).
status of Australian fishes. The Society Problems Fish often depend on the specific
set up an Endangered Fish Subcommit features of a particular habitat type.
The conference identified a varie
tee and circulated discussion papers Many of the critical features of habitats
ty of causes of fish conservation
among its members. When it became are vulnerable to change. For example,
problems. Some were due to the high
clear that a forum was needed to inte the many catadromous species (those
grate the numerous and diverse pieces ly localised distribution patterns of spe
cies, often in a single locality. Examples that breed in marine waters and whose
of information into the best possible young must migrate upstream) like
included the Lake Eacham Rainbowfish
classification of threatened fish, we Freshwater Herring (Potamalosa rich
from northern Queensland, the Blind
sought the support of other interested mondia) or Australian Bass (Macquaria
bodies for a specialist conference. As a Cave Eel (Ophisternon candidum) from
a small subterranean location on the novemaculeata) are critically dependent
result, funds were contributed by the on free passage through streams and so
fisheries authorities of Victoria, South central western Australian coast, and
the Swan Galaxias from a single small can be locally eradicated by impound
Australia, New South Wales and the ments. Other species depend on the
Commonwealth. Contributions were Tasmanian stream.
Biological interactions such as pre availability of particular habitats for
also made by the Australian Freshwater spawning, such as the sunken logs used
Fishermen's Assembly, Native Fish Aus dation and competition between spe
cies were often identified by the by River Blackfish (Cadopsis sp.) or the
tralia and ASFB. gravel riffles used by Macquarie Perch
conference as causing the threatened
status of various fishes. Examples of (Macquaria australasica).
The Threatened Fishes
such interactions included the competi The degradation of habitat, espe
Conference tive effects on native fish of the in cially through river regulation (dams,
The Society's Conference on Aus troduced Topminnow (Cambusia weirs, irrigation, etc.), stream siltation
tralian Threatened Fishes was hosted by affinist otherwise known as the Mosqui and catchment alteration, was recog
the Victorian Fisheries and Wildlife Di to Fish-an ill-deserved title since the nised as the greatest factor leading to
vision in Melbourne in August 1985. It small native fish it displaces probably generalised declines in fish abundance
brought together 52 people represent provide better control of insect pests. and distribution. While such diffuse
ing a broad range of expertise and Other examples include predation and broad-scale forms of habitat degrada
made a detailed analysis of the status competition by the introduced trout tion undoubtedly increase the vulnera
of Australia's fish fauna over two days. species (Salmo spp.) and Redfin (Perea bility of many threatened species, only
Dr Peter Maitland, Head of the Fish
Group of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources, was invited from Edinburgh
to be the conference's Guest Speaker.
The conference designed a seven-stage
scheme of classification for threatened
fishes. Sixty-two species were listed.
They included four 'endangered' fish:
Trout Cod (Maccullochella macquarien
sis), Swan Galaxias (Calaxias fontanus),
Eastern Freshwater Cod (Maccullochella
n. sp.) and Clarence Galaxias (Calaxias
johnstom); four 'vulnerable' species:
Flinders Ranges Gudgeon (Mogurnda n.
sp.), Honey Blue-eye (Pseudomugil me/-
CS /i s), Saddled Galaxias (Calaxias
� tanycephalus) and the Lake Eacham
� Rainbowfish (Melanotaenia eachamen
:i sis); five 'potentially threatened' species:
� the Australian Grayling (Prototroctes The Trout Cod was listed as 'endangered' at the Australian Threatened Fishes
G maraena), Elizabeth Springs Coby Conference, Melbourne, August 1985.
208 VOL. 22 NO. 5, WINTER 1987You can also read
