THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN NEW ZEALAND
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The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference,
20-011 Tokyo, 27-29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)
THE MOVEMENT TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN NEW ZEALAND
Barbara Nebel Ph. D1
Karen Bayne2
1
Built Environment Unit, Scion*, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, New Zealand
2
barbara.nebel@forestresearch.co.nz
Built Environment Unit, Scion*, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, New Zealand
karen.bayne@forestresearch.co.nz
* Scion is the brand name for the New Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd.
Keywords: sustainable development, progress, New Zealand, environment, policy
Summary
Movement towards improving sustainable development of our urban environments is being driven by central
(and recently local) Government via a number of key strategies. Quality urban design through sustainable
development is seen as an essential component in the success of our towns and cities, due to the impact the
urban area has on the nation’s population. 86% of New Zealander’s live in an urban area, and although we
are still a mainly primary-producing nation, New Zealand has limited resources and a desire to preserve the
unspoilt wilderness of our unique natural environment. In 2003, the Ministry for the Environment’s released a
“Sustainable Development Programme of Action” that includes a programme of action for Sustainable Cities.
This paper reviews the background issues leading towards the perceived policy need for sustainable
development in the urban environment in New Zealand, and gives an overview of various policies and
strategies aimed at achieving sustainable development of the built environment, including the recently
released urban design protocol, aimed at urban practitioners and local government, leading into the New
Zealand Year of Built Environment in 2005.
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1. The New Zealand Built Environment
The New Zealand residential built environment is characterised by low-density suburbs of single-storey,
detached dwellings, arranged around roading transportation corridors. There are 4 main metropolitan
centres of Auckland (pop 1,165,278), Wellington (pop 179,100), Christchurch (pop 338,800) and Dunedin
(pop 121,200), with smaller provincial urban centres — Hamilton (pop 114,921) Tauranga (pop 98,500),
Gisborne (31,719), Palmerston North (pop 72,033), Rotorua (pop 64,473), Invercargill (pop 46,305), Nelson
(pop 43,500), Timaru (41,967), New Plymouth (pop 47,763) and Whangarei (pop 68,091)) — small
townships of 3,000 to 30,000 people, and rural villages. Approximately half of the population lives in the
upper North Island. (Statistics NZ, 2002)
The largest metropolitan centre, Greater Auckland, is home to a third of the resident population, and is
divided into 4 cities – Waitakere (pop 185,600), North Shore (pop 205, 000), Manukau (pop 317,500), and
Auckland (pop 415,300). (Statistics NZ, 2002)
New Zealand has one of the highest rates of urbanisation in the world — over 86% of our population lives in
an urban environment. Housing in New Zealand is an investment, as housing assets appreciate in most
centres, and in recent years, the trend of owning a second property as a rental investment is a favourable
retirement planning option. New Zealand's rate of home ownership is high by world standards (over 70%),
and over half of owner-occupants have a mortgage to service. Poor planning of neighbourhoods, and the
entrenched desire for further low-density sprawl is a fundamental barrier to sustainable development.
Increased infrastructure costs, health costs (in relation to increased reliance on private motor vehicles), and
loss of work productivity from increased separation of the work force from their place of employment are the
results of our past planning heritage.
1.1 Emerging urban issues
1.1.1 Population
The future demographic outlook for New Zealand shows different growth patterns, population dynamics and
structural make-up from that of the last five decades. The resident population of New Zealand at 30 June
2004 was estimated at 4,061,400. These are some of the projected characteristics of the people who will live
in our future communities (Statistics NZ, 2004b):
There are several major components to this possible future – New Zealand’s population is likely to be:
More cosmopolitan: Over 20% of the present New Zealand population is of non-European ethnicity,
and 20% were born overseas. Two-fifths of babies born in 2001 were of Maori or Pacific Island
ethnicity.
Larger: the projections are for 4.81million population in 2051, cf. 3.88million in 2001
Older: the projections suggest half of the population will be older than 40 years by 2020, and half the
population will be older than 45 years by 2045
More concentrated in Auckland Cities: 1.22million in 2001 (31% NZ popn) to 1.65million in 2021
(37% NZ popn).
In more households: from 1.44 million (2001) to 1.82 million in 2021— an increase of 26%. This
corresponds to both a projected rise in the number of families of 22 percent between 2001 and 2021,
and a decrease in household size from 2.6 people in 2001 to 2.4 people in 2021(c.f. 1951 with 3.7
people – so much of our existing housing was built for larger household size). (Statistics NZ, 2004)
1.1.2 Waste
Although every city council in the main centres currently offer kerbside recycling services, none currently
provide any construction and demolition waste recycling services. Every year, New Zealand industries and
households discard over 3 million tonnes of construction and demolition debris to landfills and cleanfills.
There is no kerbside recycling service in many smaller cities and communities, which means lower recovery
of materials from the waste stream in these areas. Surveys by the Ministry for the Environment show that
substandard landfills remain widespread, and many of these landfills are nearing capacity. (MfE, 1997)
1.1.3 Water
Average urban daily water use in New Zealand is 300 litres per day; in certain centres, however, this can be
up to 500 litres per day (PCE, 1998). With population increase comes an increase in the need for water.
Over the next 25 years, Greater Auckland expects to see a 30% increase in water use (PCE, 1998). All
urban centres greater than 5,000 people provide a reticulated, treated water system. To combat the
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additional cost of providing and treating water, and environmental issues with additional stormwater runoff
into surrounding harbours from increasing population, Waitakere City Council is advocating water reduction
technologies such as low-flow shower heads and low-flush toilets and rainwater harvesting for garden use
(WCC, 2004).
1.1.4 Energy use
New Zealand is a high user of renewable energy in the form of hydro, geothermal and wind energies.
However, over the past three decades, while New Zealand’s population has increased by 19%, energy use
has increased by 50% (MfE, 1997), and our energy use has doubled every 22 years (NEECS, 2001).
Although New Zealand’s energy use was closely correlated with our economic growth during the latter 20th
century (per capita GDP which rose by 43% from 1975 to 1996), most other OECD countries have had a
declining energy use per capita since the 1970s. The Ministry of Commerce predicts that consumer energy
intensity will now decrease at 1.5% per annum over the next 25 years for GDP growth of 3%per annum
(PCE, 1998), however, overall demand for consumer energy will increase from 460PJ to over 500PJ by 2012.
(NEECS, 2001).
1.1.5 Land use
New Zealand is still a mainly rural country, with only 3% of land used for urban purposes – but this is double
the land used for crops and orchards, and urban boundaries have expanded rapidly since the early 1990’s
(PCE, 1998). Since 1970, urban expansion has averaged 4% per annum and though the urban population
has only increased 30% in this time, the land used to accommodate the population is now three times what it
was in 1970 (MfE, 1997; Gow, 2000). This is in part due to the continuation of mainly low density (2000
people per square kilometre) urban development, although average section sizes in new suburban
developments have been reduced, and there has been an increase in higher density developments in the
main CBD’s of Auckland and Christchurch. In 2002, over half of all new housing developments in Auckland
were new apartments. Additionally, increased market pressure for land development in coastal areas
(Tauranga region grew by 16% and the Nelson district by 10% between 1996 and 2001), and the
Queenstown Lakes districts (Queenstown Lakes population grew 27% between 1996 and 2001) (Statistics
NZ, 2001), due to desirability of these areas is causing issues not only with affordability, but also significant
overload of the existing infrastructure and need for sustainable upgrades to sewerage, stormwater
dispersement and roading infrastructure.
1.1.6 Transport
Local Government transport strategies, while recognising a need to adapt to more sustainable transportation
forms, also show a reluctance to amend the status quo. In a 2003 Transportation Group Technical
Conference (Koorey, 2003) it was noted that “Hamilton’s Integrated Transport strategy (HCC 1999) almost
grudgingly seems to acknowledge that “alternative modes of transport to motor vehicles (e.g. passenger transport, cycling
and walking) do have merit, but they should be developed in a manner appropriate to the growth of the city". However, it reverts
to traditional form by then declaring "“most attention in the medium and short term should be directed to satisfy the needs of
the most popular mode, the car””. Similarly, the report indicates plans for Wellington’s Western and Hutt
motorways during 2000-2002 were “notable for their almost total absence of mentioning walking or cycling or
demand management”. In Christchurch, car and truck transportation represents over 80% of all city travel
(although Christchurch is well known for it’s cyclists!). Transfund New Zealand’s budget for new public
roading infrastructure over the next decade is three times the budget to be spent on public transport or
roading alternatives. Auckland city transport gridlock is estimated to cost the city $1 billion per annum, and a
2002 report estimated that exhaust fumes might contribute to 400 premature deaths per annum.
1.2 Political awareness of issues
Due in part to the low density development, and perceived ‘ready availability’ of surrounding land for further
expanding the urban area, the concept of sustainable development within New Zealand has only recently
been brought to the attention of not only policy makers, but the population as a whole. In 1998, the
Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE, 1998) stated “ With a few notable exceptions, the
concept of sustainable urban development is largely being ignored in new Zealand” and “ The concept of
sustainable development has not been widely adopted or implemented in New Zealand despite the
enormous influence of the Resource management Act 1991......The broad goals of sustainable
development...are not a feature of any legislation or policy, and Agenda 21 is not widely supported.” The
Resource Management Act of 1991, although aiming to promote sustainable management of natural and
physical resources, was a large, catch-all document that in many ways slowed progress of any kind of
sustainable development. This was mainly attributed to the effects-based management principles used that
did not address resource efficiencies, nor take the wider community needs into account (PCE, 1998).
During the 1990’s a number of incidents had resulted in bringing the need for more managed development
practices within New Zealand to the fore. The first of these was a relaxation in immigration policy resulting in
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population growth in the main urban centres, particularly Auckland, as these centres were the areas most
immigrant chose to settle. Demographic trends indicated a need to prepare for a more aging society, and
one with fewer people per household. Greater Auckland’s urban boundary was spreading south over highly
fertile pasture land, and indications showed that a further 300,000 hectares of arable rural land throughout
the country would be converted to urban real estate in the next 2 decades (PCE, 1998). The rise in cheaper
imported cars from Japan led to a higher than usual rate of car ownership, and increased transportation
density on roading infrastructure.
The PCE summarised the situation at the end of the 20th century with these words: “Sustainable
development of New Zealand’s urban environments has been plagued by a lack of vision, lack of concern
(‘urban denial’), and a history of many (small) starts but few finishes” and emphasised the requirement for
change was shifting to a global viewpoint “The sustainable development agenda is no longer one that New
Zealand has any real choice over, it is now a global agenda, with increasingly challenging global
‘performance targets’. ”(PCE,1998) As New Zealand became a more global society, it seemed apparent that
policies and ways of thinking about development of our urban areas needed to change.
2. Past Strategy Documents and Key Urban Sustainability Publications
In 1999, Mike Edwards’ report on urban sustainability (Edwards, 1999) was distributed publicly by the
Ministry for the Environment to encourage “discussion of resource management ideas”. At the time, the
Ministry for the Environment had three key initiatives in place:
Assisting the implementation of the Resource Management Act 1991
Preparation for implementing Agenda 21 (UNCED) within New Zealand
Developing a system of State of the Environment reporting for New Zealand
2.1 Smart Growth initiatives (Liveable Communities)
During 1999, urban form, and in particular the need for smart growth and intensification initiatives in our
largest metropolitan areas (Auckland and Christchurch) saw a number of publications and discussion papers
being written by local government, industry and ministerial officials concerning future growth strategies in our
cities. In 1999, a pan-industry study tour to ‘Liveable Communities’ in the United States and Canada was
also arranged, and the work resulted in the publication of this team’s insights and recommendations (Forest
Research et. al., 1999). A New Zealand Smart Growth Network was also established, with the aim of
encouraging debate and educating about the principles of Smart Growth, but is now defunct. During April
and May 1999, a sabbatical report (Gow, 2000) from a tour to the Western US was published by a senior
executive of the Ministry for the Environment. This report outlined five key ideas for New Zealand on how to
‘curb the sprawl’:
Ongoing support for the Auckland Regional Growth strategy
Using multi-party debates for urban policy and regulatory issues
Setting explicit and binding strategic directions for land transport infrastructure (including ports
and airports)
Including major infrastructure in metro strategic planning
Extending community planning past service provision to a creative and dynamic response for
and with the community
2.2 The Auckland Regional Growth Strategy: 2050
Auckland City Council, in response to the already increased growth rates in the urban area of the Auckland
Isthmus, and aware of the expected exponential growth in future populations in the area (30% increase in 20
years), published “Growing our city through liveable communities 2050”, based on the work of the Auckland
Regional Growth Forum (ACC, 1999). This strategy of growth would prepare the city for 1 million extra
residents over 50 years – in short, a doubling of the current Auckland population. The priority of the strategy
was to effect slow change upon the city, through consolidation and intensification as the Auckland Isthmus
has “no greenfields to develop”. This strategy will see the CBD residential population of 4,000 expanding to
29,000 by 2050, while the remainder of the Auckland region will double their residential populations
(Auckland Regional Growth Forum, 1999). Dedicated transport corridors will also be implemented to cope
with urban transportation needs.
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2.3 National Policy for Built Environment
In November 2000, the New Zealand Institute of Architects released a discussion paper (NZIA, 2000) calling
on the government to work in partnership with the architecture community in establishing “ a national
framework for a better built environment”. This was due to the “increased urbanisation and intensification of
our towns and cities”.
2.4 Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development
The New Zealand Government released a number of core strategies during 2001 and 2002, aimed at aiding
the movement towards a sustainable society and also established the Urban Affairs portfolio within the
Ministry for the Environment. Strategies released include:
Growth and Innovation Framework 2002 - “to deliver the long-term sustainable growth necessary to improve
the quality of life of all New Zealanders” (Office of PM, 2002)
National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy 2001– refer to section 2.5
Towards Sustainable Development in New Zealand - The Government’s approach to Sustainable
Development – a report released before World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in preparation
for the summit, and as a framework for a draft Sustainable Development strategy.
The New Zealand Waste Strategy 2002 – a new vision for minimizing waste and managing it better. The
strategy has targets of halving the 2005 levels of Construction & Demolition waste going to landfills by
2008.(MfE, 2002b)
The New Zealand Transport Strategy 2002.
An urban design guide (MfE, 2002) was also released with the intention of espousing quality urban design
principles and providing better standards for urban design in New Zealand.
However, The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment released an overview of the sustainable
development progress made by New Zealand in the decade 1992-2002 just prior to the WSSD, which
indicated the rush of strategies during 2001-2002 was seen as too little too late in terms of New Zealand’s
Agenda 21 commitments. In his report, he noted, “New Zealand had the opportunity to become a leading
light on sustainable development. Instead, sustainable development has not progressed in a coordinated
and meaningful fashion” (PCE, 2002). Some of his earlier statements made in 1998 about successive
governments disregard for the Agenda 21 commitments and lack of leadership were reiterated in this
report, however, he concluded that there was finally a flickering light of action being taken- “ It is only in
recent years that central government has made any significant commitment to developing a New Zealand
Strategy on Sustainable Development.” The report also praised the initiatives of lesser political business
and community groups, which had made significant progress independent of a national strategy. “ They
have endeavoured to incorporate sustainable development principles into their policies and activities, and
have encouraged others to do likewise. It is the 'local initiatives' dimension of sustainability thinking and
action that has made the biggest contribution to awareness of sustainable development in New Zealand.”
(PCE, 2002)
2.5 National Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy
The National Energy Efficiency Conservation Strategy (NEECS, 2001) has two key targets. The first is a
target of an additional 30PJ of consumer energy to be sourced from renewable supply by 2012, from 19%
renewables to 42% renewables. The second target is a 20% increase in energy efficiency. These are to be
achieved through the ratification of the Kyoto protocol, and a renewable energy programme with five sectoral
action plans. The aim is to reduce the per annum consumer energy rate from a current 1.7% increase to
0.7% increase. The building sector plan has the following objectives:
1. Progressively upgrade energy performance across all sectors of the existing building stock with the
following 15 year targets:
• All pre-1977 houses retrofitted with a suite of cost-effective energy efficiency measures, and
• Existing commercial buildings to achieve a mean energy performance less than 150kWh/m2.
2. Achieve best practice energy performance in new residential and commercial buildings:
• New homes are able to maintain an internal temperature of not less than 18oC and not more than
25oC
at reasonable cost and without resorting to significant external use of heating or cooling energy, and
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• New commercial buildings achieve a mean energy performance of less than 100 kWh/m2.
3. Improve appliance energy efficiency to best practice.
3. Current Initiatives
Since the inception of the Urban Affairs portfolio in 2002, a number of current initiatives appear to be making
ground in aiding implementation of the past strategies concerning sustainable urban development.
3.1 Sustainable Development Programme of Action
The Sustainable Development Programme of Action, released in January 2003 (DPC, 2003) is seen as a
way forward through partnership, and builds on the earlier sustainable development strategy document
released in August 2002 “Towards Sustainable Development in New Zealand” (MfE, 2002). It takes into
account some core recommendations of the Parliamentary Commissioner’s 2002 report (PCE,2002), such
as ensuring that a there is a strong vision and clear goals with collaborative responsibility for making things
in partnership with all sectors, and good information is provided through indicator monitoring to review
progress.
3.1.1 Sustainable Cities
One of five action programmes, Sustainable Cities has been established to enabling cities as centres of
innovation and economic growth as well as liveable communities that support social wellbeing, quality of life
and cultural identity. The immediate focus for implementation is the Auckland region, with this goal being
achieved via:
Transportation infrastructure and services
Removal of legislative impediments to sustainable medium and higher density developments
Whole-government co-ordination
Development of an urban design charter (the urban design protocol –refer 3.3)
Developing environmental standards for urban areas
Development of environmental standards for urban areas
Developing indicators and collecting data on these.
3.2 Quality of life in 8 cities
A series of urban amenity indicators were developed during 2000-2001, and the combined metropolitan
councils produced a report indicating the quality of life against a number of urban indicators. In 2001, six
cities collaborated in a combined study to survey their residents on a number of urban indicators. In 2002,
the study was expanded to eight city centres – the four Auckland cities, and the three remaining major
centres, as well as Hamilton city (AC Nielsen, 2003). The study was also expanded to include 56 key urban
indicators of quality of life, within the broad headings of: People; Knowledge and Skills; Economic Standard
of Living; Economic Development; Housing; Natural Environment; Built Environment; Health; Safety; Social
Connectedness; and Civil and Political Rights. (Refer www.bigcities.govt.nz)
3.3 Urban Design Protocol
The Urban Design Protocol released in March 2005 is a document espousing seven essential design
qualities – the seven ‘C’s:
Context: Seeing that buildings, places and spaces are part of the whole town or city
Character: Reflecting and enhancing the distinctive character, heritage and identity of our urban
environment
Choice: Ensuring diversity and choice for people
Connections: Enhancing how different networks link together for people
Creativity: Encouraging innovative and imaginative solutions
Custodianship: Ensuring design is environmentally sustainable, safe and healthy
Collaboration: Communicating and sharing knowledge across sectors, professions and with
communities.
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The purpose of the protocol is “to accelerate quality urban design to create places that work and people use
and value”. Practitioners have been invited to commit to adopting these principles in their work to create
more successful towns and cities. The protocol document also has an urban design toolkit, and practical
examples through case studies to aid practitioners.
3.4 Year of the Built Environment 2005
The 2005 national Year of the Built Environment (YBE) is “an opportunity to explore and celebrate our built
environment in New Zealand”(refer www.ybe.org.nz), and the progress to date on sustainable development
practices. The Government, the New Zealand Institute of Architects, and a consortium of local government,
industry, research organisations and professional institutes are driving the initiative via a collaborative effort.
3.5 Beacon Pathway Ltd. consortium
A consortium was launched in July 2004 between four New Zealand organisations – Building Research1,
Fletcher Building, Scion2, and the Waitakere City Council. The joint venture, Beacon Pathway Ltd., has been
set up to research ways of creating affordable, healthy homes that look good, feel good to live in and use
resources efficiently. The consortium builds from an historical basis of built environment research of the New
Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd. and Building Research Association of New Zealand, and the
collaborative nature of the ‘Now house’ project between the consortium partners. The Foundation for
Research, Science and Technology has provided a research grant of $6 million over six years to help this
consortium achieve its goals, matching the investment from consortium members. (refer
www.beaconpathway.co.nz)
3.5 Building Code Review
A new Building Act 2004 recently passed through parliament which repeals the Building Act 1991, and will
mean “significant change for the building industry and the public” (DBH, 2005). Within the act is the
requirement for amenity values and elements of sustainability. The Department of Building and Housing is
presently drafting a review of the New Zealand Building Code, due to be completed by December 2007.
3.6 The New Zealand Housing Strategy
During 2004, Housing New Zealand Corporation released a discussion document (HNZC,2004) setting out a
vision and strategic direction for all New Zealanders to have access to affordable, sustainable, good quality
housing appropriate to their needs. The full strategy will indicate the actions required to set the direction to
achieve this over the next 10 years.
4. Conclusions
From an attitude of ‘denial’ of the unsustainability of our urban areas during the latter part of the 20th century,
New Zealand appears to be heeding the Parliamentary Commissioner’s statement of 1998 that the nation
has little choice but to move towards a more sustainable society. This has been demonstrated via initial
investigations into how our major metropolitan areas might grow through incorporating sustainable urban
form into our urban growth strategies during 1999; to the Government’s commitment to outline a number of
strategies that will aid sustainable development during 2002 and 2003. These have now been translated into
a Programme of Action, further demonstrating that the political context (both national and local) shows an
increasing interest in issues that affect our urban areas, and that industry organisations wish to join with the
government in providing leadership in improving the quality of life in our towns and cities. This draws
together the various strategies into a set of definitive actions to enable sustainable development to occur,
and puts a monitoring programme in place to measure progress and adjust the programme as needed.
Linking with the already well-established Auckland Regional Growth Strategy, the Sustainable Cities action
programme is already providing local - national governmental partnership and both are working with the
private sector to build more sustainable developments. The Year of the Built Environment and Beacon
Pathway Ltd. consortium are already two examples of public and private sector partnerships to bring about
awareness and change in the way our urban environment is developed, and the Building Code review will
aid in allowing practical regulations that enable these changes to occur at the industry level. The framework
is therefore established for New Zealand’s movement towards more sustainable built environments, however,
it will take further commitment and willingness on the part of all sector players to see sustainable
development realised during the next decade.
1
Building Research is the new brandname of the Building Research Association of New Zealand Ltd.
2
Scion is the new brandname of the New Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd.
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