Rural Women and the Millennium Development Goals
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Rural Women and the Millennium Development Goals
This fact sheet highlights the progress culturally assigned roles that severely
of rural women against key Millennium Women play an important limit women’s participation in
Development Goal (MDG) indicators, role, but face persistent employment opportunities (see also
pointing to some of the advancements structural constraints Goals 3 and 7).
made and gaps that still exist. It Rural women play a key role in
Faced with a lack of services and
suggests that globally, and with only a supporting their households and
infrastructure, rural women carry a
few exceptions, rural women fare worse communities in achieving food
great part of the burden of providing
than rural men and urban women and and nutrition security, generating
water and fuel for their households.
men for every MDG indicator for which income, and improving rural
In rural areas of Guinea, for example,
data are available. While data collection livelihoods and overall well-being.
women spend more than twice as
along these lines has improved in They contribute to agriculture and
much time fetching wood and water
recent years – in part because of rural enterprises and fuel local and
per week than men, while in Malawi
increased donor and government global economies. As such, they
they spend over eight times more
interest – there still remains a general are active players in achieving the
than men on the same tasks. Girls in
lack of data not only disaggregated by MDGs. Yet, every day, around the
rural Malawi also spend over three
sex, but also by rural and urban areas. world, rural women and girls face
times more time than boys fetching
This has an impact on our global ability persistent structural constraints
wood and water (Figure 1).
to confidently monitor progress toward that prevent them from fully
the MDGs for all people in all regions, enjoying their human rights and
urban and rural, and particularly where hamper their efforts to improve
progress is needed most. their lives as well as those of
others around them. In this sense,
they are also an important target
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme group for the MDGs.
poverty and hunger
Rural women’s poor access to
infrastructure in rural areas limits This fact sheet is a product of the
their opportunities to reduce Inter-Agency Task Force on Rural
poverty and hunger Women, which is led by FAO, IFAD
Rural women spend more time and WFP, and is composed of
than urban women and men in the following members: ITC-ILO,
reproductive and household work, SPFII, UNCTAD, UNDP, UNEP,
including time spent obtaining UNESCO, UNFPA, UNIDO,
water and fuel, caring for children UN Women and WHO. In
and the sick, and processing addition, a substantial contribution
food. This is because of poor rural was made by UNAIDS to the
infrastructure and services as well as section on MDG 6.
United Nations Enabling poor rural people
Educational, Scientific and to overcome poverty
Cultural Organization Empowered lives.
Resilient nations.
Figure 1 across the total adult population in sectors is usually equal to or higher
developing countries, although it than the male equivalent. Almost
Average hours per week spent
varies greatly by region (Figure 2). 70 percent of employed women
fetching wood and water in rural
The jobs of rural women who are in South Asia and more than 60
areas of selected Sub-Saharan
African countries employed tend to be shorter term, percent of employed women in Sub-
more precarious and less protected Saharan Africa work in agriculture.4
Sierra
Guinea Madagascar Malawi Leone than those of rural men and urban The substantial involvement of rural
(2002-03) (2001) (2004) (2003-04) people. The lack of flexible hours to women in agriculture, primarily
women 5.7 4.7 9.1 7.3 accommodate family work combined as unpaid or contributing family
men 2.3 4.1 1.1 4.5 with wage and job discrimination workers, highlights the importance of
girls 4.1 5.1 4.3 7.7 and limited representation of women developing policies and programmes
4.0 4.7 1.4 7.1
in workers’ organizations are partly that address the needs, interests
boys
responsible for this. and constraints of women as well
as men in the agriculture sector.
Source: UNDP, 2011.1 As an important source of This includes revamping and
Collectively, women from livelihoods for the poorest, strengthening extension systems to
Sub-Saharan Africa spend about 40 agriculture is a means to eradicate be more responsive to and inclusive
billion hours a year collecting water.2 extreme poverty, especially for of women, addressing structural
rural women barriers to women’s access to
For these reasons and because rural Despite women’s lower overall productive resources, and improving
women tend to underreport their employment rates, among employed financial systems to respond to the
employment as contributing family women the proportion working in needs of rural women producers and
members, according to available data agriculture as opposed to other entrepreneurs, including to move out
female employment in agriculture is of the less productive segments of
consistently lower than it is for men the rural economy.5
Figure 2
Improving rural women’s access
Employed population as a share to productive resources is central
of total adult population,
to addressing hunger
by sex and sector
On average, women make up about
developing males 43 percent of the agricultural labour
countries females
force in developing countries.
Evidence indicates that if these
East and males
Southeast Asia females women had the same access to
productive resources as men, they
Latin America
and the
males could increase yields on their farms
Caribbean females by 20 to 30 percent, raising total
Near East and males
agricultural output in developing
North Africa females countries by 2.5 to 4 percent,
in turn reducing the number of
males hungry people in the world by 12
South Asia
females
to 17 percent.6 For rural women
Sub-Saharan males and men, land is perhaps the most
Africa
females important household asset to
0% 50% 80% support production and provide for
food, nutrition and income security.
agriculture industry services
Yet an international comparison of
Source: FAO, 2011.3
Figure 3 Rural women’s economic to be less important than educating
empowerment can help reduce boys. Furthermore, while significant
Rural/urban ratios of percentage of the number of underweight progress has been made in reducing
children who are underweight children the gender gap in primary school
South America A large body of research indicates enrolment, a large gap remains
that putting more income in the between rural and urban areas.
Central America
hands of women translates into Household data from 42 countries
improved child nutrition, health show that rural girls are more likely to
Southern Asia
and education,12 yet data on child be out of school than rural boys, and
Southeastern Asia nutrition disaggregated by both rural/ they are twice as likely to be out of
urban location and sex are sparse. school as urban girls (Figure 4).
Northern Africa
In all developing regions13 of the
Sub-Saharan Africa world, rural children are more likely Figure 4
to be underweight than their urban
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 counterparts. From 1990 to 2008, Out-of-school children by sex and
Values above one indicate higher the proportion of children under area of residence, 42 countries
percentage of underweight rural five in developing regions who were 2000/2008 (%)
children compared to urban children
underweight declined from 31 per 35
cent to 26 per cent, yet in parts of 30
Source: FAO, 2011. FAO elaboration.
7
25
Latin America and the Caribbean, and 20
boys
girls
agricultural census data shows that Asia, the disparity between rural and 15
10
due to a range of legal and cultural urban children increased.14 Figure 3 5
constraints in land inheritance, indicates that in South and Central 0
rural urban
ownership and use, less than 20 America, rural children are about 1.8
percent of landholders are women.8 times more likely to be underweight Source: United Nations, 2010.16
Women represent fewer than 5 than their urban counterparts; other
percent of all agricultural land regions do not fare much better.
holders in North Africa and West Improvements in maternal nutrition,
Asia, while across Sub-Saharan access to water and sanitation and
Africa, women average 15 percent of health services, all of which are
agricultural land holders.9 lacking in many rural areas in least
developed countries (LDCs), would
Extensive evidence shows that rural also contribute greatly to addressing
female-headed households also this situation.
have more limited access than male-
headed households to a whole range
of critical productive assets and Goal 2: Achieve universal
services required for rural livelihoods, primary education
including fertilizer, livestock,
mechanical equipment, improved Poverty and inequality are barriers
seed varieties, extension services and to universal education
agricultural education.10 Similarly, in An extra year of primary school
seven out of nine countries across increases girls’ eventual wages by 10-
Africa, Asia and Latin America, 20 percent, encourages girls to marry
female-headed households were less later and have fewer children, and
likely to use credit than male-headed makes them less likely to experience
households.11 violence,15 yet in many areas of the
world, educating girls is perceived
In rural areas, there is often a greater are illiterate compared to 14 percent Figure 6
prevalence of social and cultural of rural men, while in Burkina Faso
barriers, labour requirements and 78 percent of rural women and 63 Participation in rural wage
distance “penalties,”17 that keep girls percent of rural men cannot read and employment, by sex (%)
out of school. In Pakistan, a half- write.20 Yet literacy and education can
kilometre increase in the distance to be powerful tools for empowering Ecuador
school decreases girls’ enrolment by rural women and fighting poverty Guatemala
20 percent.18 Decreasing the distance and hunger. In fact, women who Nicaragua
Panama
to school raises girls’ enrolment and are educated are more likely to be
attendance; building local schools healthy, generate higher incomes, Bangladesh
in rural communities increased and have greater decision-making Indonesia
Nepal
girls’ enrolment in Egypt, Indonesia power within their households.21
Tajikistan
and several African countries. The Viet Nam
cost of education is another barrier,
particularly for rural poor families.
Goal 3: Promote gender Ghana
equality and empower Malawi
Nigeria
Many of the world’s people who women
are illiterate are rural women 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Women make up over two-thirds of Rural girls are doubly women men
the world’s 796 million people who disadvantaged in global
secondary school attendance Source: FAO, 2011.23
are illiterate, and many of them live
in rural areas.19 In some countries, Secondary school attendance has
far fewer rural women can read and implications for future employment Rural women are less likely to
write than rural men. For example, in and economic opportunities as work for wages than rural men
Cambodia 48 percent of rural women well as health outcomes. Evidence Recent data from a number of
indicates that rural girls are less likely countries from Africa, Asia and Latin
to attend secondary school than rural America indicate that women are
boys, and they are far less likely to far less likely to participate in rural
attend than urban girls. According wage employment (both agricultural
to Figure 5, 39 percent of rural girls and non-agricultural) than men
attend secondary school compared to (Figure 6). Instead, they are most
45 percent of rural boys, 59 percent active in the informal rural economy,
of urban girls, and 60 percent of which operates outside of labour
urban boys. standards. When they do work
for wages, rural women are more
likely to be employed in part-time,
Figure 5 seasonal, and/or low-paying work.24
Men’s average wages are higher than
Global secondary school women’s in both rural and urban
attendance (%) areas, and in some countries, the
70 gap in wages between rural women
60 and men is also wider in rural areas.25
50
40 girls Rural women are also more likely
30 boys to be unpaid contributing family
20 members than rural men.26
10
0
rural urban
Furthermore, rural women typically
work longer hours than men, when
Source: United Nations, 2009.22
one takes into account both paid Figure 7 Goal 4: Reduce child
productive and unpaid reproductive
mortality
or domestic and care responsibilities. Physical abuse among urban
In Benin and Tanzania, for example, and rural women Child mortality rates in rural areas
women work, respectively, 17.4 and 14 remain higher than in urban areas
100
hours more than men per week, while Between 1990 and 2009, all the
90
rural Indian women work almost 11 regions of the world saw a significant
hours more than urban women and 80 decrease in under-five mortality
12 hours more than urban men.27 70 rates, with some developing regions
60 reaching or approaching 2015
In most regions, women are targets.31 Existing data, however,
50
under-represented in politics make it impossible to determine
40
and decision making how child mortality varies between
Progress has been made in women’s 30 rural boys and girls. Although
political representation since 1995, 20 levels of child mortality vary widely
including in Africa and much of 10 between countries, rural rates are
Asia, where there have been cases of 0
usually much higher than urban ones
notable increases in the presence of (Figure 8). Sub-Saharan Africa has
urban
rural
urban
rural
urban
rural
urban
rural
urban
rural
women parliamentarians. Strikingly, the highest rates of rural and overall
Rwanda made great gains, with Bangladesh Brazil Peru Thailand Tanzania under-five mortality, but rural areas
women now making up 56 percent are often equally disadvantaged in
percentage never physically abused
of the parliament, compared to 17 countries with much lower rates of
percentage of ever physically abused
percent in 1995.28 Globally, however, who sought help
under-five mortality – for example,
a gender gap in women’s access percentage of ever physically abused
in Honduras, rural children under
to power, inclusion in decision who did not seek help five are almost twice as likely to die
making, and leadership remains at
all levels, including in rural councils. Source: WHO, 2005.30 FAO elaboration.
Information available from Asia
for 2010 indicates that women female genital mutilation (FGM),
there represented between 0.2 early marriage, wife inheritance).
percent (Bangladesh) and 7 percent According to a multi-country study
(Cambodia) of chairs or heads of conducted by WHO, rural women
rural councils, while they represented report more experiences of physical
between 1.6 percent (Sri Lanka) abuse than urban women (Figure 7).
and 31 percent (Pakistan) of elected However, the data from the study
representatives in rural councils.29 show no clear pattern as to whether
more rural or urban women are
Many rural women experience accessing services to assist them in
domestic violence yet few dealing with the abuse. In general,
seek services women may doubt that services
A key to ensuring rural women’s will offer the help they require. They
empowerment and eradicating may also fear for their children’s or
poverty is to address inequitable their own safety if they report abuse.
gender power relations and persistent Police, counseling and legal services
norms and beliefs that maintain may be more difficult for women to
gender-based violence (GBV) and access in rural than urban areas due,
harmful traditional practices (e.g. for instance, to a lack of transport
and distance to services.
Figure 8 Figure 9 mothers with no education in the
Latin America and Caribbean region
Under-five mortality rate (per 1,000 Ratio of rural to urban under-five are 3.1 times more likely to die
live births), selected countries mortality rate, 2000/2008 than those with mothers who have
secondary or tertiary education and
Nigeria Latin America and the Caribbean
1.6 times more likely to die than
Niger
Chad Eastern Asia (excl. China) and South-Eastern Asia those whose mothers have primary
Guinea education.34 These facts suggest that
Cameroon
Southern Asia rural women’s deficits in education
Senegal have broader and longer-term
Northern Africa and Western Asia
Congo implications for family well-being and
Uganda Sub-Saharan Africa poverty reduction.
Tanzania
Lesotho Caucasus and Central Asia
Zimbabwe Goal 5: Improve
Pakistan developing regions
Haiti
maternal health
India 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 More rural women receive
Bangladesh Values above one indicate higher assistance during delivery, but
Indonesia under-five mortality in rural areas
Honduras
inequalities remain
Viet Nam Source: United Nations, 2011.33
Quality reproductive health services
0 50 100 150 200 250 and well-timed interventions are
fundamental for achieving good
urban rural
as urban children. Of the developing maternal health, yet hundreds of
Source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data regions, Latin America and the thousands of women die each year
Repository.32 FAO elaboration. Caribbean and Eastern Asia have because of a lack of such services.
comparatively low levels of under- In most developing regions, rural
five mortality, but they also have women have less access to skilled
the highest levels of inequality health personnel in delivery,
between rural and urban populations even though the long-standing
(Figure 9). Overall, rural children differences between rural and urban
under 5 in developing regions are areas have declined in all regions
about 1.4 times more likely to die and even been eliminated in a few
than their urban counterparts. (Figure 10).
Women’s education is a key Rural women see improvements
determinant in their children’s in antenatal care, but still lag
survival behind urban women
Available information from 68 Between 1990 and 2008, the
countries with data on under-five proportion of rural women receiving
mortality by mothers’ education antenatal care at least once during
indicates that a woman’s education pregnancy grew from 55 to 66
is a key factor in determining whether percent, while corresponding rates
her children will survive past the first for urban women increased from
five years of life. A child’s chances of 84 to 89 percent over the same
surviving increase even further when period. While this would indicate that
his or her mother has a secondary antenatal coverage has improved at a
or higher education. Children of
Figure 10 Figure 11 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS,
Rural antenatal care coverage –
malaria and other diseases
Ratio of urban women to rural
at least four visits (%), selected Rural women have a more limited
women attended by skilled health
predominantly rural countries understanding than urban women
personnel during delivery,
1990 and 2008 Zimbabwe of how HIV spreads, the first step
1994
2005 to avoiding infection
Sub-Saharan Africa
1996
Zambia Globally, women constituted half of
2007 the adults (15 years and older) living
Southern Asia Tanzania with HIV in 2010.38 Young women
1996
2004 are particularly vulnerable to HIV,
Oceania Uganda
1995 and they account for 64 percent of
2006 HIV infections among young people
Western Asia Rwanda
1992 worldwide.39 Yet only 33 percent
2005 of young men and 20 percent
Latin America and the Caribbean Nepal
1996 of young women in developing
2006 regions have comprehensive and
Northern Africa Namibia
1992 correct knowledge of HIV.40 Youth
2006 in rural areas, and especially young
Southeastern Asia Mali
1995 women, are even less likely to know
2006 about prevention methods or to
CIS in Asia Malawi
1992 use condoms than their urban
2004 counterparts.41 WHO data (Figure 12)
Eastern Asia
1993
Kenya from 25 countries indicate that rural
2003 women are almost always less likely
0 1 2 3 India
1992
2005
Values above one
indicate more access for Burkina Faso
1992
urban women
2003
1990 2008 Bangladesh
1993
2007
Source: United Nations, 2010.35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
faster pace in rural areas, a large gap Source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data
Repository.37 FAO elaboration.
still exists.36
Available information from the mid-
1990s to the mid- to late 2000s 20 percent coverage in 2007, while
indicates that some predominantly India and Nepal also improved, but
rural countries (where at least 60 remained under 30 percent coverage
percent of the population lives in in 2005 and 2006, respectively.
rural areas) have made substantial In Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia
progress in antenatal care coverage increased coverage by almost 20
(at least 4 visits) in rural areas percent between 1992 and 2006, but
(Figure 11). In Asia, Bangladesh made most other countries made little or
significant gains in antenatal care no progress, and many actually saw
coverage, but still remained under coverage decrease.
than urban women to report knowing Figure 12
about means of sexual transmission
of HIV, in some cases by margins as Women who report knowing about means of sexual transmission
large as 20-50 percent. Interestingly, of HIV/AIDS (%)
in several countries with high levels
Bangladesh
of HIV infection (Malawi, Namibia, Kenya
Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia
Benin
and Zimbabwe), the rural-urban Malawi
gap is low, possibly reflecting the Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
success of public interventions and Mali
awareness-raising campaigns in Burkina Faso
those countries. Namibia
Cameroon
Antiretroviral therapy Nepal
coverage is uneven Colombia
The number of people accessing Peru
antiretroviral therapy in low- and Dominican Republic
middle-income countries reached an Rwanda
estimated 6.6 million (47 percent of Egypt
those eligible for treatment) at the Turkey
end of 2010. Antiretroviral therapy Ghana
Uganda
coverage generally appears to be
higher among women than men. Haiti
United Republic of Tanzania
Across all low- and middle-income
countries, an estimated 53 percent India
Zambia
Indonesia
Zimbabwe
Jordan
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
rural urban
Source: WHO global health observatory data repository.42 WHO elaboration.
of women eligible for treatment terms of understanding differences
were receiving it at the end of 2010, in uptake by rural versus urban
compared with 40 percent of men. location, significant evidence from
Coverage was higher for women than generalized epidemics indicates that
men in East, South and South-East rural populations have less access
Asia, and in Sub-Saharan Africa. But to treatment services than urban
in Latin America and the Caribbean, populations, although the situation
the reverse was true.43 is improving in some countries
While research on utilization as services expand (e.g. Senegal,
patterns is still in its early stages in Uganda).44
Women assume the burden of Goal 7: Ensure Women’s presence matters, but
care giving, including in environmental sustainability the nature of their participation is
rural areas also important
Most of the care for people living Rural women and natural While women’s involvement has
with HIV is provided in the home, resources been associated with better local
and women and girls account Environmental degradation has a environmental management, their
for 66 to 90 percent of all AIDS great impact on natural resources, mere presence in institutions is
care givers (in addition to the which rural women rely on for not enough to overcome deep-
many tasks they already perform). their livelihoods. For example, rooted disparities. Institutional
Conditions are most difficult for evidence suggests that women with change and flexibility are needed to
women and girls in rural areas. The fewer occupational options and ensure that women can participate
disproportionate share of AIDS- less mobility rely on forests more effectively in decision making.
related care giving by women and than men do. Reduced quality and A recently published study of
girls imposes a heavy toll on their availability of land, game, forests, community forestry institutions in
own well-being, often leading to and genetic and aquatic resources India and Nepal found that women’s
their increased vulnerability to HIV increase rural women’s time burden, proportional strength in forest
infection. HIV-associated stigma reduce their capacities to cope with management committees has an
and discrimination, increases in the shocks and climate change, affect impact on the effectiveness of their
poverty of female- and child-headed where they live and provoke conflict, participation. The more women on
households and a higher probability which in turn undermine rural the management committee, the
of dropping out of school at an early health, education and livelihoods. greater the likelihood that they will
age could all add to the burden faced Furthermore, there is some evidence attend committee meetings, speak
by female caregivers.45 of causal linkages between gender up and become office holders.51
inequality and environmental
Food insecurity, property degradation. For example, gender
disinheritance and HIV inequality and deforestation were
among rural women causally related in more than 100
Women form the backbone of countries between 1990 and 2010.49
agricultural labour, especially in
Sub-Saharan Africa – which is the Women, policy and
epicenter of the HIV epidemic. The environmental sustainability
impact of HIV/AIDS on women, Research suggests that women
either in their own capacity or as express more concern for the
care givers, reduces their time environment, support policies
and energy and is associated with that are more beneficial to the
declines in agricultural productivity environment and tend to vote
and, therefore, food insecurity.46 In for leaders who care about the
the rural areas, households with environment. Evidence from 25
one or more persons affected by developed and 65 developing
HIV and AIDS are more likely to countries indicates that countries
be food-insecure than non-affected with higher female parliamentary
households.47 HIV also exacerbates representation are more likely to
property insecurity and the set aside protected land areas. A
disinheritance of women, especially study of 130 countries shows that
widows whose husbands have died women are also more likely to
from AIDS-related causes.48 ratify international environmental
treaties.50
Figure 13 Goal 8: A global partnership
for development
Percentage of population using different sources of water by wealth
quintile (urban and rural areas), Sub-Saharan Africa 2004/2009 A recent study of 23 members of
urban areas rural areas
the OECD Development Assistance
100
Committee indicates that in 2007-
100
08, bilateral donors committed
90 90 USD 4.6 billion to gender equality
80 80 and women’s empowerment in the
70 70 economic and productive sectors
(including agriculture).54 This
60 60
represents one-fifth of their total
50 50 aid in these sectors.55 Forty-two
40 40 percent of the aid for gender equality
30 30
in the productive sectors was
earmarked for agriculture and rural
20 20
development.56
10 10
While there is increasing donor
0 0 recognition of rural women’s
0%
%
%
%
%
0%
%
%
%
%
important contributions to
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
t2
t2
nd
e
th
st
nd
e
th
st
es
eradicating poverty and hunger
dl
es
dl
he
ur
he
ur
co
or
id
co
or
id
fo
ric
fo
ric
m
se
po
m
se
po
and to overall well-being in rural
unimproved sources other improved sources piped on premises households and communities, there
remains a lack of data on the actual
Source: United Nations, 2011.52 impact of aid on rural women’s
empowerment and gender equality.
Gaps in access to improved Progress towards such objectives
sources of water between urban is often translated into monitoring
and rural areas remain significant and evaluation indicators that assess
In urban areas, levels of access ‘progress’ by numbers of rural
to improved water and sanitation women participating in particular
are generally high and above the interventions rather than the quality
MDG target. In contrast, poor rural of those interventions and the
populations still face great challenges broader impacts on rural women.
accessing clean drinking water. There is an urgent need to invest in
Coverage in rural areas across all rural women and to develop more
regions lags behind urban areas comprehensive and nuanced metrics
(Figure 13). In 2008, an estimated and related measurement systems
141 million people living in urban to assess the different impacts of
areas and 743 million people living agriculture and rural development
in rural areas relied on unimproved policies and programmes, together
sources for drinking water. An urban with contributing aid allocations, on
dweller in Sub-Saharan Africa is 1.8 rural women and men.
times more likely to use an improved
drinking water source than a person
living in a rural area.53
10Data challenges and measure progress for rural and urban Notes
women and men, and to identify and
implications for future
address specific disparities. 1. UNDP. 2011. Human Development Report.
development goals Sustainability and Equity: A Better Future for
All. p. 58. New York. (http://hdr.undp.org/en/
Better indicators are needed media/HDR_2011_EN_Complete.pdf)
Some indicators are not gender- to monitor progress in rural 2. UNIFEM (now UN Women). 2009. Progress
sensitive, and those that are, are women’s lives57 of World’s Women. Who Answers to Women?
Gender and Accountability. p. 36. (http://www.
not necessarily sensitive to rural- As we work toward meeting the unifem.org/progress/2008/media/POWW08_
urban disparities MDGs and move toward developing Report_Full_Text.pdf)
To a great extent, the MDGs monitor new and better global targets, there 3. FAO. 2011. The State of Food and Agriculture
2010-2011 (SOFA). p. 17. Rome. (http:// www.
general progress, providing the global are a number of areas that must be fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e.pdf).
community and individual countries observed if we are to understand in Primary source: ILO. 2009. Key indicators
with useful information for policy of the labour market, sixth edition. Geneva,
greater depth the opportunities and Switzerland.
and planning purposes. Although constraints in rural women’s lives, 4. FAO. 2011. SOFA. pp. 16-17.
the MDG guidelines suggest that and to monitor progress towards 5. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural
all indicators be disaggregated by rural women’s empowerment and Employment Policy Brief #3. Rural women’s
entrepreneurship is “good business”! (http://
sex and rural-urban location, this is gender equality appropriately and www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2008e/i2008e03.
only occasionally done owing to the effectively. Indicators and data pdf)
nature of the indicators themselves, collected must be disaggregated, at 6. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 5.
low capacity and poor data systems, the very least, by sex and rural/urban 7. FAO. 2011. Ibid. pp. 125-131 (Statistical Annex,
Table A6).
or lack of interest. Some of the location. These indicators could 8. FAO. 2010. Gender and Land Rights
indicators – for example those under include, but are not limited to: Database. (http://www.fao.org/gender/
MDG 2 (Achieve universal primary MDG1: average annual dietary intake landrights)
education) and MDG 3 (Promote 9. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 23.
per capita; access to employment, 10. FAO. 2011. Ibid. (See Chapter 3. Documenting
gender equality and women’s including the informal sector and the gender gap in agriculture, pp. 23-38.)
empowerment) – are disaggregated agricultural self-employment; access 11. FAO. 2011. Ibid. p. 33.
by sex. MDG 5 (Improve maternal to productive assets and financial
health) focuses specifically on services (e.g. land, credit, extension
women. Others – for example MDG 7 services, agricultural technology);
(Ensure environmental sustainability) access to social security and safety
– are difficult to disaggregate by nets; MDG2: ratio of orphans to non-
sex. However, even when data are orphans (10-14 years old) attending
disaggregated by sex, they are rarely school; MDG3: prevalence of gender-
also disaggregated by urban and rural based violence (GBV) and GBV
locations. In addition, rural dynamics knowledge/attitudes/perceptions;
and women’s roles sometimes participation in institutions; MDG6:
require different types of indicators proportion of people living with HIV
to characterize and monitor progress who receive anti-retroviral treatment
than those commonly used. For compared to those who need
example, data to capture rural treatment; access to other health
women’s multiple job holding and services (e.g. malaria/tuberculosis
seasonal work are particularly difficult treatment); and MDG8: the impact
to obtain with existing systems. of aid to agriculture and rural
Overall, with a few exceptions, the development and of trade/debt on
MDG indicators provide a rather rural women’s empowerment and
limited base against which to gender equality.
1112. FAO. 2011. Ibid. p. 9. 19. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural sector progress towards Universal Access. p.
13. United Nations. 2011. Millennium Development Employment Policy Brief #2. Investing in 19. Geneva. (http://www.unaids.org/en/
Goals Report. p. 67 states: “Since there is no skills for socio-economic empowerment media/unaids/contentassets/documents/
established convention for the designation of rural women. (http://www.fao-ilo. unaidspublication/2011/20111130_UA_Report_
of ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries org/fileadmin/user_upload/fao_ilo/pdf/ en.pdf)
or areas in the United Nations system, this 02EducationAndSkills_WEB.pdf) 39. UNAIDS. Securing the future today: Synthesis
distinction is made for the purposes of 20. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Ibid. of Strategic Information on HIV and Young
statistical analysis only.” (http://www.un.org/ 21. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Ibid. People. p.2. Geneva. (http://www.unaids.org/
millenniumgoals/11_MDG%20Report_EN.pdf) 22. United Nations. 2009. Millennium en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/
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Goals Report. pp. 13 -14. New York. (http:// un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG_Report_ Synthesis_report_en.pdf)
www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG 2009_ENG.pdf) 40. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 38
%20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20- 23. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 18. 41. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. pp. 32, 39.
low%20res%2020100615%20-.pdf) 42. WHO Global Health Observatory Data
24. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural
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UserFiles/File/GlobalAgDevelopment/Report/ docrep/013/i2008e/i2008e04.pdf) 98, 102.
GirlsGrowReportFinal_v9.pdf)
25. FAO. 2011. Op. cit. p. 20. 44. UNAIDS, WHO. 2006. Progress on global access
16. United Nations. 2010. Op. cit. p. 18 to HIV antiretroviral therapy: a report on “3 by 5”
26. http://www.fao.org/economic/es-policybriefs/
17. World Bank. 2012. World Development Report briefs-detail/en/?no_cache=1&uid=29511 and beyond. pp. 23, 33. Geneva. (http://www.
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27. FAO, IFAD, ILO. 2010. Gender and Rural
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rural work to reduce poverty and boost economic
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i2008e/i2008e01.pdf) 46. FAO. 2005. Assessment of the world food security
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28. World Bank. 2012. Op.cit. p. 83.
29. UNDP. 2010. The 2010 Women in meeting/009/J4968e/j4968e00.htm)
Local Government Status Report. p.20. 47. http://www.fao.org/hivaids/
(http://www.undp.mn/publications/ 48. Philipose, Anadita. 2007. HIV/AIDS, Gender
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30. WHO. 2005. WHO Multi-Country study on 49. UNDP. 2011. Op. cit. p. 75.
women’s health and domestic violence against 50. UNDP. 2011. Ibid. pp. 63-65.
women. Statistical appendix, Tables 2(a) and 51. UNDP. 2011. Ibid. p. 65 (Box 3.4).
17. Geneva. (http://www.who.int/gender/
52. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 54
violence/who_multicountry_study/en/)
53. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. p. 54.
31. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p.28.
54. The 11 productive sectors are: public finance
32. WHO Global Health Observatory Data
management; employment policy; transport
Repository. (http://apps.who.int/ghodata/).
and storage; communications; energy;
Available WHO data on under-five mortality for
banking and business; agriculture and rural
rural and urban areas exist for 46 developing
development; industry; mining, construction,
countries from various years between 1999
tourism; trade, urban development.
and 2007.
55. OECD. 2011. Aid in Support of Women’s
33. United Nations. 2011. Op. cit. p. 25.
Economic Empowerment. p.7. (http://www.
34. United Nations. 2011. Ibid. p. 26 oecd.org/dataoecd/19/8/46864237.pdf)
35. United Nations. 2010. Op. cit. p. 32. 56. OECD. 2011. Ibid. p.9.
36. United Nations. 2010. Ibid. p. 33. 57. Note: These suggested areas for indicators
37. WHO Global Health Observatory Data were derived during the interactive research
Repository. Complete data set: 25 countries. undertaken with the participating UN agencies
Countries selected for the graph above are during the preparation of this fact sheet.
those that are predominantly rural (60 percent Further examination and formal discussion by
and over). UN member organizations is required before
38. UNAIDS, UNICEF, WHO. 2011. Global HIV/ finalizing a list of proposed indicators.
AIDS Response: Epidemic update and health
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