The History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001)
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The History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001)
Fernando Dario Francois Flores
Zusammenfassung
Geschichte der homöopathischen Medizin in Mexiko (1849-2001)
Im folgenden soll versucht werden, einhundertfünfzig Jahre Geschichte der Homöopathie
in Mexiko in groben Zügen darzustellen. Nach einer kurzen historischen und kontextuellen
Einführung werden im ersten Abschnitt (1849-1893) die Anfangsjahre untersucht, die
durch isoliertes Arbeiten homöopathischer Ärzte charakterisiert sind. Die Zeit zwischen
1893 und 1921 steht für die Jahre der offiziellen Anerkennung und dem daraus folgenden
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Aufschwung der Verbände und Schulen. Die Periode von 1921 bis 1940 beinhaltet die
wichtigsten Konflikte mit den Behörden. Der Zeitraum von 1940 bis 1960 ist
gekennzeichnet durch ein langsames Wachstum der Schulen und Studiengruppen. Der
letzte Abschnitt (1960-laufend) schließlich beschäftigt sich mit der Periode, in der es
gelang, die postgraduierten Studien in Mexiko weiterzuentwickeln.
The Historical Framework of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico since
18491
The coming to Mexico of the first homeopathic doctors in 18492 coincides
with the loss of more than half of its territory (2.1 million square km) after
the war with the United States and the end of the 10th presidency of Anto-
nio Lopez de Santa Anna. Many military governments took power in a
chaotic nation between 1848 and 1853, until Santa Anna returned and in-
stalled his 11th and last presidency. The War of Reform, the War of Consti-
tution of 1857, the Three Years War (1858-1860), and the European inter-
vention, the ephemeral empire of Maximilian and Carlota (1864-1867) and
the re-establishment of the Republic were the events which characterised the
first years of homeopathy in Mexico.
The long period of peace and prosperity from the Porfiriato (1876-1911)
finally allowed academic study to prosper so that homeopathic schools and
hospitals could be established.3 The brief period of fifteen months of
democratic government of Francisco I. Madero was followed, once again,
by war and destruction. The Mexican Revolution, a fratricidal and fateful
war, lasted more than a decade thereby isolating the country. After the
assassination of Alvaro Obregon in 1924, the General Plutarco Elias Calles
was the dominant figure of Mexican politics. His government, characterised
by a Marxist tendency and by religious persecution, led to the Cristeros
War (1927-1929) which involved greater popular participation than the
Mexican War. The period known as “Maximato” started in 1928 as Calles
1 Pazos (1993).
2 Martínez Camargo (1972).
3 Salinas Ramos (1984).
MedGG 23 2004, S. 219-241
Franz Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden GmbH, Sitz Stuttgart
Franz Steiner Verlag220 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
proclaimed himself the “Maximum Chief of the Revolution”. After the brief
government of Emilio Portes Gil and of Pascual Ortiz Rubio, General
Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940) became the last member of the military to be
President of the Republic. Social order was established and Calles was re-
moved from all political influence. It was during this period that homeo-
paths fought their most intense battles, leading to the defeat of the President
of the Republic when he tried to close the Free School of Homeopathy. Af-
ter a trial of two year’s duration, the school remained open.4
The country started a long period of recovery under the majority govern-
ments of Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952-1958), Adolfo Lopez Mateos (1958-
1964), and Gustavo Diaz Ordaz (1964-1970). This epoch, known by the
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economists as a period of “stabilising development”, allowed Mexico to
achieve economic stability. However, during the next period (1970-1976)
the economy started to deteriorate and a huge devaluation of the peso (from
12.50 to 20 pesos to the dollar) took place and the parity of the peso was
removed. This was the first of many crises to occur. Recent years have been
characterised by many monetary devaluations, representing continuing
economic problems. In January 1994 guerrilla activity was initiated in the
south of Mexico, under the leadership of the Ejercito Zapatista de Lib-
eración Nacional; a conflict which remains unresolved.
The First Homeopathic Practitioners (1849-1893)
The introduction and the practice of homeopathic medicine correspond to
the Spanish doctors who came from Cuba to Mexico. There are many ver-
sions of who was the first but it appears that Dr. Cornelio Andrade y Baz
was the first, arriving on the Mexican coast in 1849. He came as the family
doctor of the Bringas family and remained for six years, residing in
Orizaba, Veracruz.5 It is not clear if he was invited specifically as a homeo-
path or just as a general doctor. The entry of Dr. Ramon Comellas was
registered in 1850. He was a Catalan, a former professor at Valencia Uni-
versity and amongst other distinctions, founder of the Instituto Medico
Valenciano.6 He is the author of the first homeopathic publication in Mex-
ico, “Reseña sobre la homeopatía dedicada a los mexicanos” (A brief de-
scription about homeopathy dedicated to Mexicans).7 The twenty four
pages of this publication contain a brief historical introduction and the
principal indications for the homeopathic patient. As the author of the first
homeopathic publication and as the first to teach his disciples, Julian Gon-
4 Pirrón Q. Leonardo 1er Secretario del Juzgado 1° de distrito. Juicio de amparo 161-
939.
5 Martínez Camargo (1972).
6 Salinas Ramos (1984).
7 Comellas (1853).
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zalez and Rafael Degollado, make him the initiator of homeopathy in
Mexico.
Dr. Salvador Riera, also a Spaniard, holding degrees from the universities
of Madrid and of Havana, arrived in Merida, Yucatan in 1851, where he
publicised homeopathy for the first time in Yucatan.8 The entry of Dr. Jose
Maria Carbo was registered in 1854. He was a Catalan doctor who came
from Cuba specifically to fight an epidemic of yellow fever which was dev-
astating Veracruz.9 His distinguished work with the sick in the Castillo of
San Juan Ulua was recognised by the President, Santa Anna, and he be-
came the first who was allowed to practice homeopathy officially in the
Mexican Republic.10 Dr. Narciso Sanchiz arrived in 1855 and instructed
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the first Mexican practitioners, Alfredo Dominguez Ugalde and Pablo
Fuentes Herrera.11 These two doctors founded in 1861 the first
homeopathic association in Mexico, the “Sociedad Homeopática de
México”, with the intention of testing the national flora and fauna to create
a Mexican “Materia Medica”. The magazine edited by this society, “La
Gaceta”, was the first of its kind in Mexico.12 Unfortunately, political
conditions prevented the institution from lasting for more than a few
months.13 The first Mexican doctor converted to homeopathy was Dr.
Cresencio Colín. He was converted in 1870 by Dr. Jose Puig, a man of
exemplary dedication who can be seen as the principal promoter and
propagator of homeopathy in Mexico in these early days.14
The controversial figure of Julian Gonzalez played an important role. Some
authors consider him a doctor15 others consider him a practitioner16. He
was born in Burgos, Spain in 183217, became the first disciple of Dr.
Comellas and the second to publish on homeopathy in Mexico. His book
“Tratado práctico de homeopatía y guía de las familias” was published in
two editions in 187118 and 187919. This textbook contains a “Materia
Medica” with clinical references and an index of 656 remedies which he
8 Romero (1977).
9 Pulido Alvarez (1998).
10 Oseguera (1995).
11 Hill (1942).
12 Hill (1942).
13 Fuentes y Herrera (1942).
14 Martínez (1980).
15 Martínez (1980).
16 Such as Ignacio Fernandez de Lara. See Martínez Camargo (1972).
17 Martínez Camargo (1972).
18 Martínez (1980).
19 González (1879).
Franz Steiner Verlag222 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
kept in his pharmacy. He occasionally saw the residents in his pharmacy
and he dealt with dwellers in the countryside by mail.20 Julian Gonzales
also established the first homeopathic pharmacy in Mexico in 1867. The
pharmacy under the charge of Dr. Joaquin Salas was installed at 12, San
Francisco Street in 1869. Later on, the pharmacy moved to 17, Avenue 5
de Mayo, then to Tacubaya and, finally, to 47, Belisario Dominguez.21
The principal homeopaths of the time, thanks to the efforts of Fuentes
Herrera and Julian Gonzalez, got together during 1869 with the aim of
founding a new homeopathic organisation. There is no evidence of any dis-
putes between allopaths and homeopaths and on 18th August 1869, the
formation of the “Instituto Homeopático Mexicano” was announced. This
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group started its activities on 10th April, 1870 having not only the objective
of study and dissemination but also of scientific and rational discussion.
The results were published in “El Propagador Homeopático” edited by Drs.
Francisco Perez Ortiz and Jose T. Hidalgo.22
In 1871, Dr. Rafael Degollado founded the first homeopathic hospital in
Mexico in San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato. Unfortunately his life was
short.23 Organised resistance from allopaths was difficult as the political
situation was very uncertain.24 Homeopathy was practised in many parts of
the Republic. Dr. Francisco Marchena in Puebla; Miguel Cruz y Canto in
Toluca; Nemesio de los Santos Rubio in Yucatan; and Dr. Ismael Talavera
in Veracruz continued with the work initiated by Ramon Comellas in
1851.25 The “Sociedad Médico Homeopática Mexicana” was founded in
Mexico City in 1874.26 It was initiated, amongst others, by Drs. Enrique
Carrera Lardizabal, Valdes y Morales, Barona, Medina, Chavez, Antonio
Salas, Ramirez de Arellano, Jose T. Hidalgo, Rafael Navarrete and Pablo
Fuentes y Herrera. They established a consulting room where they gave
8,947 consultations during the first year.27 As in other homeopathic prac-
tices, the patients were ambulatory. The journal of the institution was “El
Faro Homeopático” which was first published on 15th April, 1874.28 Al-
20 González (1879).
21 Oseguera (1995).
22 Salinas Ramos (1984).
23 Oseguera (1995).
24 Although the building remains at Diez de Sollano and 15, Davalos, there are no records of
the hospital under Dr. Julián Gonzàlez. In 1980, the “Asociación de Médicos Homeópatas
Cirujanos y Parteros del Centro A. C.”, placed a commemorative plaque on the building.
See Barbosa (1998).
25 Márquez San Juan (1990).
26 Márquez San Juan (1990).
27 Oseguera (1995).
28 Hill (1942).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 223
though there are no further references to the journal, the institution re-
mained in existence until 1917.
The autumn of 1874 marks the re-organisation of the “Mexican Homeo-
pathic Institute” under new statutes and a co-ordinated programme for the
diffusion of homeopathy. The conferences were reinstated on 21st Novem-
ber 1874.29 Its new publication, “La Reforma Médica”, appears for the first
time in January, 1875 as the second version of the “Propagador Ho-
meopático”. The diplomas granted by the Mexican Homeopathic Institute
were beautifully designed. They contained, in the upper part, the image of
Samuel Hahnemann, enclosed in a square; in the lower part, an eagle with
extended wings; two columns at the sides with, on the left side, the legends
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of “Materia Medica” and Enfermedades Cronicas and on the right side,
physiological experimentation. It contained also the seal of the institution,
and the names of the president and the secretary as on the frontispiece of
the formal register.30 Two provincial legislatures officially recognised
homeopathic medicine in 1879 as a result of the efforts of two homeopathic
pioneers in the provinces, Francisco Marchena in Puebla and Ismael Talav-
era in Veracruz. Juan Crisostomo Bonilla, Governor of Puebla31 and Gen-
eral Luis Mier y Teheran, the Governor of Veracruz32 issued decrees
instituting the teaching and the practice of homeopathy in their states.
The Mexican Homeopathic Institute and the Mexican Medico Homeo-
pathic Society had fallen into a long decline and inactivity by 1885. No
homeopathic magazines were published between 1880 and 1885, possibly
indicating that all homeopathic activity had decreased. However, a new
stage of homeopathy emerged because of the interest of a French doctor
Cresencio Colin, Dr. Oriard, and a young aristocratic doctor Joaquin
Segura y Pesado.33 Dr. Segura y Pesado had been in contact already with
homeopathy through the “Organon” lecture and some of the writings of
Leon Simon. He travelled to Germany and France to learn about the new
medicine although he had prescribed previously homeopathic remedies
passed to him by Cresencio Colin.34 Dr. Segura was the first doctor to go to
Europe though it is not known whom he met. After Dr. Colin visited all the
29 Advertencia. In: La Reforma Médica 1 (1875).
30 Instituto Homeopático Mexicano. Diploma expedido al Dr. Luis Zaragoza el 10 de
abril de 1877.
31 Bonilla (1879).
32 Mier y Terán Luis, Gobernador Constitucional del Estado Libre y Soberano de
Veracruz Llave, Diciembre 15 de 1879 Archivo General del Estado de Veracruz.
Leyes y Decretos.
33 Formación del Círculo Homeopático Mexicano. In: La Reforma Médica. (Secunda
Epoca) 1 (1885).
34 Fuentes y Herrera (1942).
Franz Steiner Verlag224 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
homeopaths who lived in Mexico City35, the formation of a new group was
proposed. The new association, the “Circulo Homeopático Mexicano”, was
intended to bring together all the followers of homeopathic medicine in
Mexico and with the intention of creating ties of fellowship between them.
Seventeen homeopathic doctors were the founders. The journal of this
group, “La Reforma Medica”, was given the same name as the first publica-
tion of the “Mexican Homeopathic Institute”. Each publication included a
record of the meetings of the members from the “Circulo”, together with
homeopathic articles and communications from homeopathic doctors from
all parts of the country and from overseas. The use of high potencies in
Mexico is discussed for the first time in the first issue of 1st July, 1885, util-
ising the case of 200 ch given by Dr. Joaquin Segura y Pesado in different
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respiratory illnesses. The new society quickly fulfilled all its objectives as, in
each session, new members were proposed and the role of the “Circulo”
grew. When cholera again threatened the coast of Veracruz the homeo-
pathic doctors published a pamphlet and were prepared to use homeo-
pathic remedies.36 Many personalities of homeopathic society in Mexico,
such as Bernardo de Mendizabal, collaborator and participator in homeo-
pathy since the foundation of the “Mexican Homeopathic Institute” by Drs.
Puig and Perez Ortiz met together on 11th April, 1886, during the 131st an-
niversary celebration of Samuel Hahnemann’s birth and the first year of
existence of the group. Mr Mendizabal inaugurated the foundation of the
homeopathic hospital in the Architects colony, a quarter of old Mexico
City.37 All homeopathic doctors agreed with the idea of crystallising the
ideals and efforts of the pioneers of homeopathic medicine in Mexico and
the final toast of the celebration was dedicated to them.38 There was a surge
in affiliation to the “Circulo” and a great desire to promote homeopathy
resulting from this celebration.
The next issue of “La Reforma Medica” appeared in July 1886. However, it
was no longer the organ of the “Circulo”, once again the name of the
“Mexican Homeopathic Institute” appeared on the cover. The magazine
publishers, Joaquín Segura y Pesado, Joaquin Gonzalez, and Juan N. Ar-
riga, gave an explanation in the editorial entitled “Ave Fenix”.39 At the re-
quest of Francisco Aguilar with the objective of restoring the name of the
prestigious institution, recognised by the legislations of Puebla and Ve-
racruz, all the members of the “Circulo Homeopatico Mexicano” following
the same rules, decided to name once again the group as “The Mexican
35 Arriaga (1889).
36 Círculo Homeopático Mexicano. In: La Reforma Médica (Segunda Epoca) 3 (1885).
Círculo Homeopático Mexicano. In: La Reforma Médica (Segunda Epoca) 4 (1885).
37 Colín (1886).
38 Colín (1886).
39 Ave Fénix (1886).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 225
Homeopathic Institute”. The homeopaths, in defending their doctrine in
this editorial, appealed to the Superior Court to resolve the legal restrictions
on homeopathic practice. This renaissance had the objective of a civilised
appeal to help the future of homeopathic medicine in Mexico. There was a
selective translation of “Materia Medica”, in addition to the normal mate-
rial, though there were no records of meetings from their members.40 Dr.
Francisco Felix Mendoza published “El Articulo 3º y el ejercicio de la
Medicina” in the July 1887 issue of “La Reforma Medica”. After summa-
rising previous studies and thoughts on homeopathic medicine in other
parts of the world, he proposed the establishment of an homeopathic medi-
cal school by the doctors of the “Mexican Homeopathic Institute”, to be
recognised by the government. The last two paragraphs stated that:
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Mexican Government it is not your mission to impose the sciences but it is your mis-
sion to protect their liberty; achieve with this constitutional precept only this way you
will do as the epoch requires.
Mexican Homeopathic Institute, go on build as early as you can schools where you
can teach with perfection our doctrine and from there will be born truly Mexican ho-
meopathic doctors, with the official guarantee provided by the government as the only
law in this country, be the Alma Mater.41
At the beginning of 1888 the “Mexican Homeopathic Institute” inaugurated
a free dispensary under the auspices of Dr. Ignacio Fernandez de Lara. The
location of the dispensary was provided by Dr. Panfilo Carranza in his
own house.42 The patients were poor like those of all the homeopathic
dispensaries. Unfortunately, no records of this dispensary were published.
The project for the school was to crystallise under the second presidency of
Dr. Joaquin Segura y Pesado in 1889 with the establishment of a medical
academy to provide lessons on general medicine and to teach homeopathy.
The school initiated its classes with Dr. Segura y Pesado as director and Dr.
Bernabe Hernandez as secretary. The lessons were taught by: Joaquin
Segura y Pesado, Anatomy; Ignacio Fernandez de Lara, Clinical Medicine;
Pablo Fuentes y Herrera, Materia Medica; Juan N. Arriaga, Pathology;
Miguel Bachiller, Hygiene; Joaquin Gonzalez, Surgery; Pablo Barona,
Physiology; and Manuel M. de Legarreta, Pharmacology.43 The Medical
Academy initially started its work at 6 and 7 Canoa (now Donceles) Street
and later at 18 Santa Teresa Street (now Republica de Guatemala). Its first
student was Fidel de Regules.44 Although there are no extant records of this
first stage it is likely that it had few students as, ten years later, there were
only six graduates. The role of the “Mexican Homeopathic Institute” and
40 Ave Fénix (1886).
41 Mendoza (1887).
42 La Reforma Médica (Segunda época) Bd. III 6 (1888).
43 Salinas Ramos (1984).
44 Salinas Ramos (1984).
Franz Steiner Verlag226 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
its academy had become very important by 1892. Dr. Segura y Pesado at-
tended a great number of patients, without charge, at a small private hospi-
tal in Tacubaya. He recorded carefully its clinical files, and established the
efficiency of homeopathic medicine.45 It was a homeopathic cure which
predisposed the President of Mexico, General Porfirio Diaz, to help homeo-
pathy. The President was treated for an old osteomyelitis by Dr. Joaquin
Segura y Pesado. The injury was a consequence of the battle of Veracruz
and it healed in ten days.46
1893 was a key year in the history of homeopathy in Mexico. The most
important event was the foundation of the National Homeopathic Hospi-
tal.47 The foundation of the “Hahnemann Society”, replacing the “Mexican
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Homeopathic Society”, was also of significance.48 This new organisation
was formed by Drs. Luis Alva, Juan N. Arriaga, Pablo Barona, Rafael V.
Castro, Manuel Cordoba y Aristi, Feliciano Gomez Puente, Lino Mora,
Jose I. Muñoz, Librado Ocampo, R. C. de los Rios, Amalio Romero and
Mariano Valdez.49 Soon they were joined by new members from Mexico
City and from many states of the Republic, such as Chihuahua, Guerrero,
Michoacan, Sinaloa, Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Mexico, Hidalgo
and Tlaxcala.50 There were forty-five members by the end of the first year.51
The journal of the organisation, “La Homeopatía”, deserves a special men-
tion because of its contents and its continuity. It was edited, without inter-
ruption, until 1913 when political conditions made further publication im-
possible as Mexico was engaged in war.52 The editors during 1893 were
Juan N. Arriaga, Rafael V. Castro and Amalio Romero. The magazine con-
sisted of a social directory, family section, scientific section, clinical notes
and other matters. It was accompanied by supplements for doctors includ-
ing the second edition of the “Materia Medica” of Farrington, the facsimile
of a “Marvellous City” (illustrated chapters of anatomy and physiology)
written by Juan N. Arriaga, “Characteristics of the Materia Medica” of Al-
len, and “Characteristics of Homeopathic Therapy” by Nash. The first edi-
tion of “La Homeopatía” was recognised with a diploma and a medal and
was exhibited at the University of Paris in 1900.53 The second stage of the
magazine was initiated in 1933, and the third in June 1941, when the
45 Salinas Ramos (1984). There are no extant records of this short-lived practice.
46 According to an account of one of his daughters. Flores Toledo (1995).
47 To be discussed later.
48 Gacetilla (1893).
49 Directorio Social (1893).
50 Directorio Social (1895).
51 Salinas Ramos (1984).
52 La Homeopatía Jg. XVI 11 (1913).
53 Salinas Ramos (1984).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 227
“Similia Laboratories” reinstated the publication. It took the name of “La
Homeopatía de México” in July 1941.54 The “Hahnemann Society” worked
hard for the practice and diffusion of homeopathic medicine under the title
of “Constancia y estudio”.55 It was widely known and the magazine acted
as an interchange with many countries in the world. “La Homeopatía”, the
scientific sections and the work of their associates was suspended at the end
of 1913 because of the Revolutionary War.56 The “Mexican Medico
Homeopathic Society” functioned continuously until 1917. The last direc-
torate consisted of Juan N. Arriaga as the president, Luis G. de Legarreta as
the secretary and Manuel A. Lizama as pro-secretary.
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Towards Official Recognition (1893-1921)
Four doctors of the Homeopathic Medicine Academy, Joaquin Segura y
Pesado, Ignacio Fernandez de Lara, Ignacio Maria Montaño and Fernando
Gomez Suarez made a request to Romero Rubio, the responsible minister,
to acquire a place where they could practice homeopathy and prove its effi-
cacy. They provided extensive written evidence of the benefits of the Hah-
nemanian method and of the international standing of homeopathy. They
requested specifically the granting of a building, recently equipped and
ready to use as a hospital.57 The government finally paid for the “Viejo Pol-
vorín” or “Polvorín del Virreinato” which had been equipped to face the
epidemic which was devastating Mexico City. 58 The building, bearing the
emblem of a lion and a castle, had a façade of quarried stone. It was
located in the area of “Cuartelito” and the government ordered a bridge to
be constructed to link with Resguardo Street.59 The four doctors initiated
the work of the hospital, using their own money, and in October 1893, 48
beds were occupied. The hospital would be inaugurated officially on July
15th, 1894 in the presence of the President of the Republic, General Porfirio
Diaz; Manuel Romero Rubio; and the Governor of the Federal District,
Jose Ives Limantour.60 It would be known in the future as the “Hospital
Nacional Homeopatico”. Two years later, the government analysed the
results of the project, which were overwhelmingly in favour of homeopathic
medicine. Once again homeopathy had demonstrated its merits in practical
54 La Homeopatía de México (Tercera época) 2 (1941).
55 Gacetilla (1895).
56 La Homeopatía Jg. XVI 11 (1913).
57 Segura y Pesado, Joaquín u. a.: Solicitud de apertura del Hospital Nacional
Homeopático. 26 de junio de 1893. Archivos del Hospital Nacional Homeopático de
la Secretaría de Salud. México D. F.
58 Archivo Histórico de la S. S. A: F-BP, S-EH, Sc-HNH, Lg-1, Exp-1.
59 Archivo Histórico de la S. S. A: F-BP, S-EH, Sc-HNH, Lg-1, Exp-1.
60 Peréz Vargas (1943).
Franz Steiner Verlag228 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
terms. There followed the establishment of an official school for the first
time when General Porfirio Diaz issued the presidential decree in favour of
the “Escuela Nacional de Medicina Homeopatica” on June 31st, 1895.61 He
also formulated the school regulations.62 The school was established at the
National Homeopathic Hospital after a solemn inauguration ceremony on
January 4th, 1896.63 Both institutions functioned, under the direction of Dr.
Segura y Pesado, without any problems under governmental protection.
The “Mexican Homeopathic Academy” was built in 1909 with the stated
ideal of the practice and diffusion of orthodox homeopathy according to
Hahnemann’s teachings. The founders were Higinio G. Perez, Alfredo
Ortega, Francisco Castillo and Luis F. Porragas. The presidency and vice-
presidency were granted to Joaquin Segura y Pesado and Ignacio
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Fernandez de Lara respectively.64 Soon new members such as Rafael Isaias
y Fernandez, Jose M. Nicoli, Rafael Conde Perea, Manuel Machado Sosa
and Manuel Lizama enrolled in the academy and joined in its work.65 The
group functioned for less than a year; its final act being the sorrowful
commemoration of Samuel Hahnemann’s death on July 2nd, 1910.66
Although it is not known why the “Mexican Homeopathy Academy”
disappeared, its members would play an important role in the history of
homeopathic medicine in the future.
Dr. Higinio G. Perez founded the “Escuela Libre de Homeopatia” on Octo-
ber 12th, 1912 with the motto of “Por la verdad y por el bien”. The end of
the dictatorship of General Porfirio Diaz saw a spirit of freedom and de-
mocracy in Mexico and an accompanying period of renewal.67 Dr. Perez
was a professor at the “National Homeopathic School of Medicine”, a state
school. After his retirement he was visited by a group of ex-students and
was asked to give his thoughts on homeopathic medicine. As the years
passed, the idea emerged of founding a homeopathic school independent of
government and specifically orientated towards the working class. Dr.
Perez, together with a group of homeopathic doctors, initiated such a pro-
ject.68 The “Free Homeopathic School of Medicine” was established with
the objectives of free professional teaching, the possibility of the working
61 Decreto Presidencial número 13, 137.
62 Decreto Presidencial número 13, 143.
63 La Homeopatía Jg. III 6 (1896). The book of activities ends on this date.
64 Libro de Actas de la Academia Homeopática de México. Archivos de la Escuela
Libre de Homeopatía de México I. A. P. Mexico D. F.
65 Libro de Actas de la Academia Homeopática de México. Archivos de la Escuela
Libre de Homeopatía de México I. A. P. Mexico D. F.
66 La Homeopatía Jg. XVI 10 (1910).
67 Pazos (1993).
68 Delgado Crespo (1979).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 229
class acquiring a high level education and the attaching to the orthodox
canons of the teaching and practice of homeopathic medicine. The opera-
tion of the school was very special. It was established by Dr. Higinio G.
Perez at 6 Sta. Lucia in the populous district of Peralvillo, and was sup-
ported at his expense. The professors did not charge for their classes and
the low fees paid by the students were used to defray the expenses of the
institution. The classes started in January 1913, a few days after the
“Decena Tragica” and continued throughout the whole period of the
Mexican Revolution.69 The schedules were orientated towards the working
class as the classes were from 6.30a.m. to 9.00a.m. and from 6.00p.m. to
10.00p.m. The dissection exercises took place at the Dolores cemetery
amphitheatre, where the students of the “Free Homeopathic School of
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Medicine” also practiced. A characteristic of the school was the unity and
fellowship of teachers and students. A preparatory establishment annexed
to the institution was initiated in 1917. This regularised the studies of the
students as it was a requirement for preparatory studies to be completed
before entering the “Free Homeopathic School of Medicine”; a requirement
not required by all schools at the time.70 The legal background was the 3rd
Article of the 1857 Constitution which guaranteed the freedom of teaching.
During the difficult years of the Mexican Revolution, the students of the
“Free Homeopathic School of Medicine”, guided by Pastor G. Rocha
visited Venustiano Carranza’s encampment, before he entered the Mexico
City. They emphasised the necessity of specific legislation for the “Free
Homeopathic School of Medicine”. He received them and promised
support in preparing the new constitution which was issued on February
5th, 1917. Section XXVII, Article 73 of the 1917 Constitution supported the
existence of higher education though it did not provide for financial
support from the state.71 In the same year, Dr. Alfredo Ortega founded the
“Free Homeopathic Institute of Mexico” which merged with the “National
Homeopathic School of Medicine” in 1946 as it was unable to gain official
recognition.72 The first monument to Hahnemann was unveiled on 2nd July,
1918 because of the efforts of Higinio G. Perez and the “Free Homeopathic
School of Medicine”. It was a bust on a decorated column by Dr. Trinidad
Alvarado who had graduated from the Free School and placed in the
National Academy of Bellas Artes. The name of Hahnemann was put
between two triumphant lictors.73 Throughout the Mexican Revolution,
both the school and the hospital functioned without any problems, though
the difficult political situation with governmental reorganisation prevented
69 Moheno (1924).
70 Jaramillo (1934).
71 De la Barrera (1961-1962).
72 Salinas Ramos (1984).
73 Moheno (1924). Lictors were the Roman guardsmen who protected the principal
magistrates. They carried fasces as a symbol of the office.
Franz Steiner Verlag230 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
the Secretary of Health from observing directly the homeopaths and their
practice.
The War Years (1918-1940)
These twenty-two years are characterised by terrible conflict and persecu-
tion against homeopathic doctors and their doctrine. Unfortunately, it was
characterised also by conflicts between homeopaths themselves, since the
two schools did not have a good relationship with each other. The doctors
of the National School never accepted the Free School nor its students as
the Free School had been established by teachers and students who were
defectors from the National School. The Free School was of a particularly
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orthodox character whilst the National School had official approval and
followed poli-pharmacy.
The first attack was against the Free School of Puebla in 1918, when the
Governor, the allopathic doctor Alfonso Cabrera, issued a decree to punish
and to close the school. He forbade the practice of homeopathy in the state
whilst Dr. Juan Ollivier defended the name of all homeopaths against such
an injustice. The case went to the Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico and,
after two years of legal argument, the Governor was defeated.74 The role of
the patients during this trial is not known. The Free School in Mexico City
was in trouble from 1921, when the XXVIIth section of the 73rd Article of
the Constitution was derogated. The death certificates issued by the doctors
from the Free School were declared invalid, alluding they did not have any
official status. Querido Moheno, a substantial personality in the juridical
field, took the judge to the Supreme Court of Justice75 and won a judgement
in favour of the doctors from the Free School. The new sanitary codes of
1926 required the Free School to register its degrees with the National
Autonomous University of Mexico. However, the university denied the
registration even though the doctors from the Free School fulfilled the re-
quirements for practice in the United States of America. Doctors such as
Dr. Eliud Garcia Treviño were members of North American homeopathic
institutions.76 The Free School was inspected by distinguished Mexican
politicians, such as the Principal, Jose Vasconcelos, who offered to incorpo-
rate it into the National University in 1920 in the famous phrase: “The
University is disposed to support the Free Homeopathic School of
Medicine any moment it requires”. However, the Director, Dr. Higinio G.
Pérez did not accept. His was a prophetic vision, since the National School
was incorporated in 1923 and was about to disappear.77 The words of
Vasconcelos were insignificant ultimately as Dr. Alfonso Pruneda, Principal
74 López (1998).
75 Moheno (1924).
76 De la Barrera (1961-1962).
77 Oseguera (1995).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 231
of the University in 1926, did not even accept the request by doctors from
the Free School to be examined in order to obtain their degrees.78 President
Plutarco Elias Calles sympathised with the problems of the homeopaths
and sent the Minister of Education, Dr. Jose Manuel Puig Casauranc, to
inspect the school. However, the government took no action to solve the
problem despite the report being completely favourable to the school.
Despite these problems, the Free School organised the first International
Homeopathic Congress in a Latin American country during the centenary
of Samuel Hahnemann from 10th to 16th August, 1929. Previously the cele-
brations had taken place only in Europe.79 This event was supported by the
Public Education Secretary and the main events took place in the Pan-
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American Room of the National Palace. The speakers were from Spain,
France, Brazil, USA, Yugoslavia, Cuba, India, Germany, Puerto Rico,
Holland, and England. It is not known how many participants attended.
It was in October of the same year when Emilio Portes Gil, a graduate of
the Free School of Law and Provisional President issued a decree support-
ing the existence of the Free School, and a further decree gave legal status to
the institution in 1930.80 The Representative Chamber ratified the 4th
Article of the Constitution in 1933. There was a campaign against
homeopathy and the legislators were about to succeed.81 However, the
campaign was frustrated thanks to the vigorous response of the
homeopaths, and one of the representatives, Dr. Castro.82 At the same time,
the Free School of Puebla was taken over by a group of students, coming to
blows with the school porter and the principal, Dr. Victor Manuel Oropeza
who seized the flag of the institution from the attacking students.83 The
National School also suffered hardship after dependence on the Secretary of
Health ceased in 1923. It was incorporated into the UNAM where, initially,
it was given a budget which was managed badly by its members.84
Homeopathy was made a specialty subject in the Higher Studies Faculty.
However, the principals did not move to help homeopathy.85 The school
formed part of the Secretariat of Public Education from 1928 under a
decree of President Calles.86 First, it was located at the Homeopathic
78 De la Barrera (1961-1962).
79 Rodríguez/Emygdio (1936).
80 De la Barrera (1961-1962).
81 De la Barrera (1961-1962).
82 Flores Toledo (1995).
83 López (1998).
84 Flores Toledo (1995).
85 Oseguera (1995).
86 Flores Toledo (1995).
Franz Steiner Verlag232 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
National Hospital and then, without any support, moved to the houses of
the principals, Fidel de Regules and Jose Mayoral Pardo. The school, after
multiple attacks from allopaths and from the authorities, was about to close
in 1934 when the suspension of the classes was ordered. However, a group
of students, who had formed a civil association in 1933, used legal pressure
to prevent this disaster. The leaders of the group were Luis R. Salinas
Ramos, Pedro Castellanos del Saz and Juan Manuel Ortiz de Zarate.87 This
conflict involved legal costs and the Workers Trades Union and the
professional organisation together mobilised strike action against the
technical schools. This resulted in the National School, under the leadership
of Ing. Juan de Dios Batiz, moving from the Technical Teaching
Department in 1935. It finally formed one of the foundation institutions of
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in 1937.88
However, the closure of the Homeopathic School of Medicine in Yucatan
and of the Hahnemann Hospital by the arbitrary action of the Governor,
Ing. Canto Echeverria, on February 11th, 1938 were achieved without going
against the authorities. Nevertheless, there was a decree from the state legis-
lature and a trial of the principals, Drs. Rafael Colome and Alonso V.
Gamboa, who were attacked and threatened with death as the Governor
wanted to close the school and the hospital.89 Unfortunately, the politicians
behaved like gangsters and both principals offered no resistance, resulting
in the disappearance of the school and the hospital. Indeed, in 1939, the
President himself, influenced by enemies of the Free School, tried to abolish
the decree which gave legal support to the institution and, thereby, de-
stroyed it. This is notable as at the school principals were invited to the in-
auguration of General Cardenas who, later, would issue a presidential de-
cree to close the school.90 All kinds of actions were taken to defend the
institution, from a trial of protection and the idea of closing and hanging
the strike flags on the doors to prevent official closure. The supposed strik-
ing teachers would not require a payment. In the most critical moments the
students moved on to the roof armed with bricks and stones to defend the
school. There were no public or press reactions as the President had abso-
lute power and a free press was in the future. After a year of difficulty and
pain, Dr. Julio Ulloa, the school principal, and members of the Technical
Administrative Council obtained a judgement in favour of the school. Un-
der the Protection Judgement no. 161-939 issued in 1940, the anti-constitu-
tional acts of the President, the Secretary of Public Education and the chief
87 Oseguera (1995). The number of students involved is not known.
88 Oseguera (1995).
89 Flores Toledo (1995).
90 Diario Oficial de la Federación. 23 de Enero de 1939. Decreto por el cual se deroga el
que otorgó el reconocimiento y los privilegios de ley, a la Escuela Libre de
Homeopatía de Mexico.
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 233
of the Federal District Police were declared illegal.91 Once again homeopa-
thy had won.
Stability and Progress (1940-1960)
These years are characterised by homeopathic congresses being held in
Mexico and a quiet and slow period of growth and reconstruction of the
institutions.
The National School brought to Mexico the first Pan-American Medico-
Homeopathic Congress on its XIth celebration in October 1940. The Free
School celebrated the centenary of Hahnemann's death with the First Na-
tional Congress of Homeopathic Medicine in July 1943.92 The Lth anniver-
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sary of the National Homeopathic Hospital was celebrated on July 15th,
1943. Another festivity was the construction of a monument dedicated to
the four founders of the hospital.93 The monument was a beautiful obelisk,
on which was placed a plate alluding to homeopathy and a further bronze
garland which encircled the date of the institution’s foundation. The IInd
National Congress was celebrated in Michoacan in 1944 and ended in
Mexico City in 1949, under the auspices of the Free School. The XVIIth
Pan-American Medico-Homeopathic Congress was celebrated in Oaxaca.94
Although the worst had passed, problems still remained. The National
School moved to many places, including the National Homeopathic Hospi-
tal in 1949 where it remained for some time.95 In the State of Jalisco the
history of official institutions was unfortunate.96 The officially recognised
institutions of the Free Homeopathic School of Guadalajara, founded in
1925 by Dr. Higinio G. Perez, and the Homeopathic Institute of Jalisco,
founded in 1930 by Dr. Luis Jauregui, were merged in 1945 to form the
Homeopathic Medicine School of the Occident. This new institution was
subordinated to the National School to provide a solution to solve their
requirements which were being increasingly restricted by the Secretary of
Public Education. Unfortunately, the new school lasted only four years be-
cause of internal instability and of the requirements of the National
School.97 The act of dissolution was put into effect on August 22nd, 1949
and the teaching of official homeopathy in Jalisco disappeared.98 The Med-
91 Pirrón Q. Leonardo 1er Secretario del Juzgado 1° de distrito. Juicio de amparo 161-
939.
92 Primer Congreso Nacional de Homepatìa en México (1943).
93 Peréz Vargas (1943).
94 La Homeopatía de México (4a. Epoca) 4 (1946).
95 Salinas Ramos (1973).
96 Michel (1994).
97 Flores Toledo (1995).
98 Formación del Círculo Homeopático Mexicano (1885). Michel (1994).
Franz Steiner Verlag234 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
ico-Homeopathic and Surgery Association of the Centre A.C. was estab-
lished in 1951, the first institution to allow doctors from both the Free
School and the National School to come together, a situation not consid-
ered previously.99 This group still functions as a college, it being one of the
most durable permanent postgraduate institutions in Mexico. A new stage
starts at the Free Homeopathic School in 1951, when Dr. Leonardo
Jaramillo stands down from the office of principal. He was the last disciple
of Dr. Higinio G. Perez who was to lead the school. His departure led to
detrimental changes within the institution as all the other directors were
surgeons and did not maintain homeopathic orthodoxy.
The IIIrd National Congress was celebrated in November 1951 under the
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auspices of the two schools.100 However, the IVth National Congress in July
1954, under the same auspices, was the last to be celebrated for 17 years.101
The XXVIIth Pan-American Medico-Homeopathic Congress, was cele-
brated in Mexico City in October 1956.102 The celebration of the XXXIst
Pan-American Medico-Homeopathic Congress in Mexico City in 1960 is a
suitable conclusion to this stage of the history.103
The Postgraduates (1960- )
The fifth stage of homeopathic medical history in Mexico is characterised
by the flourishing of schools, congresses and study groups, especially at
postgraduate level. More meetings are held and many more schools
opened. Six monuments are constructed in Mexico and the existing two
reconstructed.
However, there are conflicts with the authorities and between homeopathic
doctors. The expulsion of the last orthodox homeopaths from the Free
School in 1962 by the directors, who were surgeons and did not want the
opposition of the orthodox homeopaths, had the consequence of enforce-
ment by “Homeopatia de Mexico A.C.” which had been founded on Sep-
tember 23rd, 1960 by Proceso Sanchez Ortega, David Flores Toledo and
Ranulfo Romero Moreno. It had the objectives of the diffusion, study and
practice of Hahnemannian homeopathy. After 1962, “Homeopatìa de
México A.C.” remained and remains as the last fortress of Hahnemannian
homeopathy in Mexico. The study group, founded with the intention of
keeping alive the flame lit by Perez in 1912 was the first to teach homeo-
pathic medicine at a postgraduate level. Thus, a solid foundation is given to
the area of study which characterises the very nature of the school world-
99 Barbosa (1998).
100 Informes del III Congreso Nacional de Medicina Homeopática (1951).
101 La Homeopatía en el Mundo Jg. 5-II 3 (1954).
102 La Homeopatía en el Mundo Jg. Año 7-IV 2 (1956). Editorial y Noticiero.
103 La Homeopatía de México 242 (1960).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 235
wide. “Homeopatia de Mexico A.C.” also promoted the return of Mexican
homeopathy to the international field by organising general assemblies and
two congresses of the “Liga Medicorum Homeopathica Internationalis” in
1980 in Acapulco, Guerrero104, and in Oaxaca105 in 1995. In addition, their
teachers participated in courses in other countries in Latin America. The
general assemblies of “Homeopatia de Mexico A.C.” were initiated in 1964.
These meetings involved international participation and have been cele-
brated on twenty-two occasions, including the world congresses of 1980
and 1995. Twelve meetings, involving foreign groups together with national
participants, have been celebrated which, for many years, were the only
homeopathic events celebrated regularly at a national level. The Pan-
American Congress was celebrated once again in Mexico in Merida, Yuca-
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tan in 1964, as their XXXVth meeting.106 The XXXIXth meeting was cele-
brated in Mexico City in 1968.107 It has been celebrated a further eight
times in different states of the Republic: XLIst in Mexico City, 1970108,
XLIIIrd in Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, 1972109, XLIVth in Mexico City,
1973110, XLVIth in Mexico City, 1978111, XLIXth in Guanajuato, Guana-
juato, 1981112, LIst in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, 1984113, LIInd in Monterrey,
Nuevo Leon, 1987114, and the LIIIrd in Monterey, Nuevo Leon, 1991115.
The National Homeopathic Medicine Congress was reinstated in 1971116
104 Ecos del XXXV Congreso Internacional y la IX Asamblea General de Homeopatía
de México A. C. (1980).
105 Memorias del 50 Congreso de la Liga Medicorum Homeopathica Internationalis
(1995).
106 La Homeopatía de México 271-272 Vol. XV (1964).
107 La Homeopatía en el Mundo (6a. Epoca) 30. Vol. XV (1968).
108 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 330 Vol. XV (1970).
109 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 350 Vol. XVI (1972).
110 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 351 Vol. XVI (1972).
111 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 412 (1979). Informe del XLVI Congreso
Médico Homeopático Panamericano.
112 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 443 (1981).
113 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 464 (1984). Informes del LI Congreso Médico
Homeopático Panamericano.
114 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 508, 509 (1987). Premiaciones en el LII
Congreso Médico Homeopático Panamericano y XI Congreso Nacional de Medicina
Homeopática.
115 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) 547 (1987), 558 (1992). Informes del LIII
Congreso Médico Homeopático Panamericano y XIV Congreso Nacional de
Medicina Homeopática.
116 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) Vol. XVI 332 (1971).
Franz Steiner Verlag236 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
with the Vth, and in 1973 the VIth meetings117. Subsequently, their celebra-
tions were irregular until 1996, after which they became annual meetings
with the twentieth meeting being celebrated in Tepic, Nayarit in October,
1999. Other international congresses celebrated in Mexico, have been the
First International Homeopathic Meeting organised by the National School
in 1976 and the O.M.H.I Congress celebrated in 1990, both in Mexico
City. Three National History Fora were held during 1994, 1996 and 1998.
At the present time, there are eight monuments of Hahnemann and of his
followers: Hahnemann’s monument at the Santiago Tlatelolco park
(1973)118, the Mausoleum to Higinio G. Perez at the Free Homeopathic
School (1978)119, Hahnemann’s monument at the Escuela Nacional de
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Medicina y Homeopatia (1985)120, Hahnemann’s monument in Oaxaca
(1991)121, Hahnemann’s monument in Guadalajara (1992)122 and the
Centenary monument at the Escuela Nacional de Medicina y Homeopatia
(1997)123.
The nineteen-eighties proved to be rich in problems and difficulties, par-
ticularly at the National Homeopathic Hospital. A general health law was
formulated in 1984 to regulate all sanitary politics in Mexico. Homeopathic
medicine was not included and an intention of closing the hospital was
mentioned. Marches, standstills, protests and newspaper publicity organised
by approximately three hundred students, doctors and patients together
with the doctors of the hospital and school pressured the authorities into
including homeopathic medicine in the law.124 This conflict initiated the
formation of one organisation which would unite all the existing homeo-
pathic institutions in Mexico, the “Consejo Consultivo Nacional Medico
Homeopatico A.C.”. This grouped together all homeopathic schools, labo-
ratories, colleges and associations, and is directly responsible for all dia-
logue with the Mexican authorities.125 The hospital was threatened once
again in 1986. After the earthquake of 1985 and the subsequent destruction
of hospitals, the government pretended to install allopathic equipment and
personnel, thereby, losing the special character of the institution. Doctors
and other personnel guarded the hospital day and night to prevent the
117 La Homeopatía de México (6a. Epoca) Vol. XVI 348 (1972).
118 Hermoso Monumento al descubridor de la homeopatía (1973).
119 Francois Flores (1998).
120 Nuestra Portada (1985).
121 Francois Flores (1998).
122 Monumento a Hahnemannn (1992).
123 Francois Flores (1998).
124 Salinas Ramos (1985).
125 Consejo Consultivo Nacional Médico Homeopático (1984).
Franz Steiner VerlagThe History of Homeopathic Medicine in Mexico (1849-2001) 237
diminution of their hospital, while they organised protest movements and
publications against the abuse. Finally, the government denied their inten-
tion of installing personnel and equipment from the Juarez Hospital in the
National Homeopathic Hospital.126 The Free School suffered the worst cri-
sis of its history in the same year as the slow process, initiated in 1951, con-
cluded with its students not having a registrable qualification. There was
anarchy and violence in the school at the time as the institution’s authorities
were not fulfilling the requirements of the General Education Law which
prevented the registration of the professional titles. The internal conflicts
and the conflicts with the health and education authorities culminated in an
assault on its students which provoked total chaos. Further attacks and con-
flicts left the school without any recognised authority. Nevertheless, the stu-
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dents achieved an agreement with the government in order to gain a title at
the National School. Thus, many students could gain legal recognition.127
Finally, after thirteen years of conflicts, the Free School moved into a
period of reconstruction. The relationship with the Secretaries of Health
and Education have been normalised and the title procedures have been
newly re-opened, so the school now enjoys all the rights from the decree
issued by President Emilio Portes Gil on January 18th, 1930.
The numerous postgraduate institutes, which are significant in the final
stage of homeopathic medicine in Mexico, are spread throughout Mexico.
Those that have official recognition from the authorities and offer classes at
a specialty level produce about seventy graduates every year. The Escuela
Nacional offers postgraduate studies on homeopathic therapy and has been
officially recognised since 1982.128 The Instituto de Estudios Superiores of
Oaxaca provides classes with homeopathy as a specialty and was legally
recognised in 1985.129 El Instituto Superior de Medicina Homeopatica, En-
señanza e Investigacion of Monterrey, Nuevo Leon obtained official recog-
nition at the end of 1988.130 The Instituto de Estudios Tecnologicos y
Superiores “Matatipac” A.C. of Tepic, Nayarit obtained official recognition
of its courses in 1991.131 Finally, the Escuela de Posgrado of Homeopatia
126 Salinas Ramos (1986).
127 Diario Oficial de la Federación. Secretaría de Educación Pública. Acuerdo número
162 por el que se establecen las normas para la titulación de los egresados de la
Escuela Libre de Homeopatía A. C. 31 de julio de 1992.
128 Pulido Alvarez (1994).
129 Periódico Oficial del Gobierno del EStado de Oaxaca. Acuerdo No 24. 8 de
Noviembre de 1985.
130 Flores (1994).
131 Periódico Oficial del Estado de Nayarit. 10 de Abril de 1991. Decreto N 7403. Se
autoriza y reconoce validez oficial a los estudios realizados en técnica y rediología y
terapéutica homeopática en el Instituto de Estudios Tecnológicos y Superiores
“Matatipac” A. C.
Franz Steiner Verlag238 Fernando Dario Francois Flores
de Mexico teaches the specialty of homeopathy, being officially recognised
in 1996.132
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