The Case of Frozen Land and Autumn Ball - Global Multi-Protagonist Trends in a Local Setting: Sciendo
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
Article
Global Multi-Protagonist
Trends in a Local Setting:
The Case of Frozen Land
and Autumn Ball
TEET TEINEMAA, The University of Warwick, UK; email: t.teinemaa@warwick.ac.uk
42
DOI: 10.1515/bsmr-2017-0011BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
ABSTRACT
This article explores whether a specifically regional
quality can be identified in the following Finnish and
Estonian multi-protagonist/network narrative films:
Aku Louhimies’ Frozen Land (Paha maa, Finland, 2005)
and Veiko Õunpuu’s Autumn Ball (Sügisball, Estonia,
2007). The article begins by providing an overview of the
discussion regarding multi-protagonist films – a film form
in which several lead characters are commonly connected
via accidental encounters. Thereafter, an examination is
made of how the form’s widely recognised generic qualities
are represented in the Northern and Eastern European
examples. As an overview of the discourse illustrates,
multi-protagonist film is mainly interested in urban
spatiality, contingency and human interconnectedness.
It is also shown that these examples from the cinemas of
small nations follow global trends rather closely. At the
same time, Frozen Land and Autumn Ball can be seen as
representing a specifically regional sensibility that is not
only interesting in its own right, but which can also be
understood as directly influencing the character-action.
FOREWORD films’ (Lübecker 2015: 2), i.e. films that both
Both Aku Louhimies’ Frozen Land (Paha thematically and formally aim to disorient
maa, Finland, 2005) and Veiko Õunpuu’s and depress the audience. Just like Carol
(Sügisball, Estonia, 2007) offer a deeply (Julianne Moore) from Safe (Todd Haynes,
unflattering representation of Finland and UK/USA, 1995), which is a prime example of
Estonia (respectively) – an image that dras- the feel-bad form for Lübecker, the charac-
tically differs from the innovative and ‘one ters in Frozen Land and Autumn Ball behave
with nature’ image that the countries them- as if haunted by an unidentifiable disease
selves put forth.1 The capital cities, Hel- that is draining their will to go on living.
sinki and Tallinn, where most of the films’ However, unlike the isolated occurrence of
action takes place, are depicted as drab Carol’s illness, the multi-protagonist format
and almost uninhabitable environments. of Frozen Land and Autumn Ball universal-
Because of the highly unfriendly take on ises this quality as a common feature of
the life in these countries, the films appear all the Finno-Ugric characters. Below, I will
to present themselves as typical examples explore to what extent the films’ utilisation
of what Nikolaj Lübecker terms ‘feel-bad of the widely recognised generic devices of
multi-protagonist film can be understood
1 See, for example, http://www.visitfinland.com/
to evoke the specifically regional notion of
and https://www.visitestonia.com/en. kaamos – a word of Northern Sami origin
43BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
(also a Finno-Ugric language) that is spelled already emerges from the fact that many of
the same in both languages, and that con- the characters in Frozen Land are united by
notes not only the polar night but also the something as mundane as a €500 bill, while
far-reaching anguish emerging from the some of the characters in Autumn Ball are
cold and darkness. connected by poetry – a quote by Fernando
Tracing the connections between Fro- Pessoa. Although the tactic employed by
zen Land and Autumn Ball a bit further and Autumn Ball proved more successful, with
continuing the comparisons with Safe, we the film becoming the first Estonian film to
see that a clear difference exists between win the Venice Film Festival’s Horizon Prize
the films. While Carol is in her vulnerable among other awards, it appears that both
state, her supportive family seeks to iso- films try to take advantage of the general
late her from the rest of society, but the popularity of multi-protagonist film at the
characters in Frozen Land and Autumn Ball time. Mette Hjort highlights the importance
are left on their own and turn to alcohol, of the Academy Awards for the recognition
drugs, random sex, and even murder, in an of the cinema of small nations (Hjort 2005:
attempt to find their way out of their emo- 5). And although neither of these films was
tional deadlock. Perhaps the most definitive nominated for the award it seems signifi-
difference between Safe on the one hand cant that the films’ release dates paralleled
and Frozen Land and Autumn Ball on the what in retrospect appears to be the peak
other is that the latter two begin by evoking of fame for multi-protagonist films. At the
a much darker atmosphere – one starts off time such films as Crash (Paul Haggis, USA/
with a funeral and the other with a scene of Germany, 2004), Syriana (Stephen Gaghan,
domestic violence and attempted suicide, USA, 2005) and Babel (Alejandro González
very unlike the seeming suburban bliss Iñárritu, USA/Mexico/France, 2006) were all
that surrounds Carol. Lübecker (2015: 2), being recognised at the Oscars.
citing a quote by Aristotle, i.e. ‘the end is Another similarity between the two
everything’, believes that Safe is a feel-bad films is that both Frozen Land and Autumn
film throughout and offers no redemption Ball represent countries where a small
at the end. On the other hand, the Finnish Finno-Ugric language is dominant. These
and Estonian characters return to the same languages are very closely related, and
setting as in the beginning to offer some since they are not Indo-European lan-
hope at the end. Thus, initially it could be guages, it is generally believed that Finland
said that while Safe examines an excep- and Estonia are culturally more closely
tional case where the protagonist’s situ- related than Estonia is to its other Baltic
ation keeps deteriorating, the fates of the neighbours of Latvia and Lithuania (the
numerous lead characters in Frozen Land only countries where the Eastern Baltic
and Autumn Ball suggest that the difficul- languages are spoken). However, for various
ties they face are not unprecedented, but a reasons, not the least being the prestige of
usual part of life in those countries – some- the affluent Scandinavian countries, Fin-
thing that people have to learn to cope with land would like to associate itself with the
if they are to survive. latter. Yet, Estonia and Finland, similarly to
In addition to the circular multi- the other states that had gained independ-
protagonist narrative structure of Frozen ence from Russia in the aftermath of World
Land and Autumn Ball, the films share a War I, were once both considered Baltic
number of common features; even if it could states (Maude 2010). Interestingly, Frozen
be argued that Frozen Land targets a more Land also seems to point to this somewhat
mainstream audience and Autumn Ball has supressed history by modelling itself after
a clear arthouse inclination.2 This difference Leo Tolstoy’s 1912 novella The Forged Cou-
pon (Фальшивый купон, 1912; see Tolstoy
2 Nonetheless, Autumn Ball was also popular in Estonian 2006) – a story set in tsarist Russia about
cinemas with over 38,000 viewers (see Eesti filmi
arengusuunad 2012–2020). an evil deed setting off a chain reaction
44BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
through its various characters. It would be [Woody Allen, USA, 1986] and The Big Chill
useful to provide an overview of the genre’s [Lawrence Kasdan, USA, 1983]), or unite its
more general features before exploring the characters for a single goal (e.g. The Great
films’ regional specificity and the issue of Escape [John Sturges, USA, 1963]), multi-
the relationship between the environment protagonist films tends to connect the
and the characters. characters – often only for the viewer – con-
tingently, i.e., the characters usually share
THE EARLY DEBATE no other relationship other than the fact
Since the 1990s a ‘new’ form of film nar- of their meeting.5 Evan Smith (1999/2000)
rative has increasingly gained popularity. provides an excellent illustration of the
These films, in which several lead charac- dominant current of the early criticism –
ters and their storylines intersect through although he does not claim that multi-pro-
happenstance, are usually called either tagonist film challenges the 2,000 year-old
‘multi-protagonist films’ (Carmago 2002, legacy of Aristotelian storytelling, he does
Azcona 2010, Melzer et al. 2004, Tröhler express noticeable excitement over the ‘new
2010, Smith 2005) or ‘network narrative template’ that is questioning the dominance
films’ (Bordwell 2006 and 2008, Silvey of the classical Hollywood narrative.6 Also
2009 and 2012, Beal 2009, Ciafone 2014).3 since the early 1990s terms such as Alt-
Because the form is well represented inter- manesque and Tarantinoesque have come
nationally, it is deemed by some authors to into use – primarily signifying films with
be a ‘global genre’ (Silvey 2012), while others several interlinked lead characters – and
have even referred to it as the ‘royal genre’ become part of the related critical literature
(Deleyto 2012: 231) of the present – mean- and even the popular vocabulary.7
ing that the form, with is broad interests Another characteristic of the discus-
(such as globalisation, social interconnec- sion concerning this form has been the
tion, etc.) and tendency to downplay individ- large amount of ad hoc terminology that
ual heroes, is seen as being very suitable for critics and academics alike have used to
representing the contemporary Zeitgeist. describe the central qualities of multi-pro-
The prominence achieved by multi- tagonist film. Terms such as ‘hyperlink cin-
protagonist film in the middle of the first ema’ (Quart 2005), ‘alternative plots’ (Berg
decade of the 21st century builds on the 2006), ‘tandem narrative’ (Aronson n.d.),8
accomplishments of earlier examples, par- ‘modular narrative’ (Cameron 2006), ‘multi-
ticularly from the 1990s. After the success ple-draft films’ (Branigan 2002), ‘database
of films such as Short Cuts (Robert Alt- narratives’ (Manovich 1999, Kinder 2002),
man, USA, 1993) and Pulp Fiction (Quentin ‘puzzle films’ (Buckland 2009) and ‘com-
Tarantino, USA, 1994), critics were quick plex narrative films’ (Simons 2008) have
to praise the ‘new’ and innovative way of all been used to discuss multi-protagonist
storytelling. Unlike the classical Hollywood films. Yet, these terms often define a larger
narrative that relies mostly on an individual
(usually male), goal-oriented protagonist 5 Nonetheless, drawing a clear dividing line between
the two forms is not a simple task, see Azcona 2010: 20.
and his/her love interest or sidekick/friend, 6 The fact that the article considers the increasing
the exploration in a multi-protagonist film emergence of multi-protagonist film to be a significant
change in the traditional Hollywood story model is
is conducted through an array of lead char- already indicated by the subtitle, ‘Rewriting the
acters.4 However, unlike ensemble films, Hollywood Formula’ (Smith 1999/2000: 88).
7 This being largely the case even when considering the
which most often focus on families and fact that Robert Altman’s earlier multi-protagonist
friendships (e.g. Hannah and Her Sisters examples, such as Nashville (USA, 1975), the artistic
merit of which some have argued exceeds his later work
(Rich 2009), were released almost twenty years prior to
3 Terminology regarding the form varies to a much Short Cuts.
greater extent as I will explain below. However, in the 8 Although Linda Aronson also uses the term ‘the multiple
interest of clarity I will use the term ‘multi-protagonist protagonist narrative’, she describes it as a more
film’ throughout the article. traditional ensemble film, while preserving the term
4 The main qualities of the classical narrative model ‘tandem narrative’ for multi-protagonist film as it is
are explained in Bordwell et al. 2005: 12. understood in this article (see Aronson n.d.).
45BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
group of qualities than simply ‘a multiplic- multi-protagonist film and highlighted the
ity of characters of similar narrative rel- form’s long history (Tröhler 2010, Azcona
evance’, which is how Maria del Mar Azcona 2010: 9–25). Bordwell succinctly illustrates
(2010: 2) defines multi-protagonist film. the extended history of multi-protagonist
In other words, these terms also tend to film, as well as the form’s surprising con-
include examples that cannot be classified stancy, when he states that most of the
as multi-protagonist films. Evan Smith’s form’s central traits were present already
(1999/2000: 95) usage of the term ‘thread in some of its earliest examples. According
structure’ – focusing mainly on the differ- to Bordwell, it was Grand Hotel (Edmund
ent narrative lines, rather than the number Goulding, USA, 1932) that ‘laid down some
of lead characters – is an example of how basic conventions [of multi-protagonist
difficult it is to describe the precise qual- film]: in one locale, a star-packed cast
ity that separates this seemingly new type portrays characters linked by contingency’
of film from the rest of cinema. Concen- (Bordwell 2006: 94). Leaving the spatial
trating on the number of storylines leads restriction and the preference for contin-
Smith (1999/2000) to discuss The English gency aside for a moment, it is evident that
Patient (Anthony Minghella, UK/USA, 1996) the third feature of Bordwell’s claim – a
alongside Pulp Fiction, although it could be star-packed cast – is highly dependent on
argued that the former, a love story told via the context. While Grand Hotel features
flashbacks, has much more in common with such internationally recognised cinema
classical narrative cinema than the latter.9 icons as Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford, John
Barrymore and Lionel Barrymore, in the
THE NEW IS THE context of North/Eastern European cinema
FORGOTTEN OLD no performer wields similar star power.
Thanks to the fact that authors such as Yet, the question of stardom as it relates to
David Bordwell (2006 and 2008), Margrit multi-protagonist film has received rela-
Tröhler (2007 and 2010) and Maria del Mar tively little attention. It is not within the
Azcona (2005, 2008 and 2010) wrote exten- scope of this article to try and fill this gap
sively about multi-protagonist film a certain in scholarly knowledge, but the importance
consolidation of the terminology occurred. of the topic should be noted, especially in
Although articles that introduce new terms regard to the cinema of small nations. The
to describe the form are still being pub- issue needs further scrutiny, because as
lished today, Bordwell’s ‘network narrative the criticism concerning the two examples
film’ and Tröhler and Azcona’s ‘multi-protag- discussed here indicates, the characters
onist film’ have become the main terms and actors from less well-known cinemas
that have been used repeatedly since their are constantly mistaken for one another.11
introduction.10 Among others, these authors This suggests that the central tension of the
also began to stress the global reach of form, i.e. between its interest in contingency
and the artifice emerging from the repeat-
edly criss-crossing lead characters, does
9 The multiple storyline approach is still a minor trend not manifest itself in the same way in the
considering the fact that a recent book (Parshall 2012) cinema of small nations as it does in films
also focuses on this aspect. It has also led the author
to include single-protagonist examples that have featuring famous superstars.
multiple storylines, such as Run Lola Run (Lola rennt, As several authors have noted, the
Tom Tykwer, Germany, 1998).
10 ‘Puzzle film’ is also a widely used term, but it is rarely profound interest of multi-protagonist film
used to discuss films with a large number of lead in accidentality and contingency – repre-
characters, although in the introduction to Puzzle Films:
Complex Storytelling in Contemporary Cinema Warren sented by the randomly criss-crossing lead
Buckland (2009: 11) does mention examples of multi-
protagonist film, such as Amores perros (Iñárritu,
Mexico, 2000) and 21 Grams (Iñárritu, USA, 2003). Cloud 11 For instance, regarding Autumn Ball one critic
Atlas (Lana Wachowski et al., Germany/USA, 2012) (Lanthier 2009) mixes up Mati (Rain Tolk) with
would be another more recent example of a film that Laura’s ex-husband (Ivo Uukkivi), thus merging the
could fit both criteria. different characters’ storylines.
46BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
characters – is an uneasy fit with the form’s to the characters’ emotional disdain.12 Like
own rigid structure, where almost nothing is in Terrence Malick’s film Badlands (USA,
left to chance. Allan Cameron calls this ten- 1973) with a similar name that also makes
sion between form and content ‘a fraught use of the double meaning, the environment
relationship between contingency and in Frozen Land plays such a significant role
narrative order’ (Cameron 2006: 65). Viv- that it could be argued that it is one of the
ian Silvey identifies the central question of characters. In the film, it is mostly dirty piles
multi-protagonist film as ‘how to relay the of snow that haunt the characters where
postmodern promise of endless complex- ever they go. Badlands, as the title suggests,
ity, without subordinating difference to a depicts an aimless journey towards the
simplified reduction of totality’ (Silvey 2009: clay-rich soils of Montana, but Frozen Land,
n.p.). Bordwell notes a similar artificiality like most multi-protagonist films, focuses
when he explains that ‘unlike coincidences primarily on an urban landscape.
in real life, movie coincidences create “small Frozen Land begins with an ecstatic
worlds” in which characters will intersect and fast-paced club scene, shot in warm
again and again, especially if the dura- tonality, only to have this warmth con-
tion and locale of the action are well cir- trasted in the next scene, which shows a
cumscribed’ (Bordwell 2006: 98). Although drifter named Niko (Jasper Pääkkönen)
these authors mostly see this problem as emerging from the metro into Helsinki’s
a potential weakness of multi-protagonist cold and greyish winter. After this, the film
film that downplays the credibility of the cuts to a quote from Eppu Normaali, one of
worlds depicted, Azcona finds that the Finland’s most popular rock bands, describ-
conflict between chance and order is pre- ing an innocent soul being born into the
cisely what makes the form ‘a template freezing northern lands. As an additional
perfectly equipped to deal with a tension of reference to the local setting, the title of the
this sort’ (Azcona 2010: 55). It is a tension song containing the quote is called A Land
that Azcona, based on Mary Ann Doane’s of Mournful Songs (Murheellisten laulujen
(2002) study on the relationship between maa). The film then cuts to a different set-
contingency in cinema and modernisation, ting, in this case to a funeral taking place
understands is also present in real life – on in a barren forest, where Niko – looking in
the one hand, people are fascinated by the better shape than in the previous scene
unexpected and obscure, on the other, they (as it later turns out, this is the film’s end-
find comfort in routine and value rationality ing) – gives a speech about hope for a better
(Azcona 2010: 55). future against all the odds. As a sign of the
fragility of this dream, the sound of a nearby
IT IS A COLD WORLD freight train grows increasingly louder,
(IN THE NORTH) until it eventually drowns out all the other
Practically all the commentators who have sounds.
written about Frozen Land have commented The emotional tenor of Õunpuu’s fea-
on the film’s cold emotional tonality (see ture length debut Autumn Ball equals that
Dawson 2006, Fundin 2006, Gronvall n.d., of Frozen Land. In the film, there are six
Murray 2006, Foster 2010). The film con- characters that could be considered the
nects eight different characters that could ‘lead characters’, although, as is often the
be considered central to the film’s narrative case with multi-protagonist film, the lead
web of solitude, betrayal, alcohol and drug character of one scene can be a minor char-
abuse, attempted suicide and murder. Since acter in another. Autumn Ball also deals
the direct translation of the film’s title is ‘a with loneliness, alcoholism, adultery and
bad land’, the film, which is set in Helsinki, violence (potentially also murder, which
plays on the dual meaning of bad/frozen as
they refer to the barren land and climatic 12 Such double play is continued with Louhimies’ next
film, titled in English Frozen City (Valkoinen kaupunki,
coldness of the setting, and metaphorically Finland, 2006).
47BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
takes place off-screen). The film opens with It is apparent from the opening shot
a quote from Antonio Tabucchi – mistakenly that Tallinn’s cold and unwelcoming scen-
attributed to Fernando Pessoa in the film ery plays a similarly central role in Autumn
– ‘I was like grass and they didn’t pull me Ball as Helsinki does in Frozen Land. In
up’ (Tabucchi 1992: 63). Tabucchi’s work of the beginning of the film we see a central
prose that contains the line is indeed about character, a writer named Mati, desperately
Pessoa; and later in the film, a woman from holding on to the railing of his apartment’s
a literature conference (Katariina Unt, as balcony as if he were about to be blown
Katariina Lauk) correctly quotes Pessoa’s away by the cold autumn wind surround-
The Tobacco Shop (Tabacaria, 1933) to a ing him. The scene is accompanied by an
waiter named Theo (Taavi Eelmaa), saying, ominous musical score (by Ülo Krigul) and
‘I made of myself what I was no good at lingers on for quite a while, until the viewer
making / And what I could have made can almost feel Mati’s physical suffer-
of myself I didn’t’ (Pessoa 1998). Theo is ing.13 When the film finally does cut from
secretly impressed by the beauty of these a medium-close up to a long shot, we see
words and later repeats them meaning- Mati dwarfed to almost insignificance amid
fully to his casual sex partners, only to be the endless Plattenbauten, gigantic con-
laughed at and having his words countered crete housing blocks reaching for the sky.
by an obscene proverb. This is one of the The dark sky as seen in the film seems to
many futile attempts made by the charac- belong exclusively to the pitch-black sea-
ters to establish more meaningful connec- gulls that are flying around aimlessly with
tions. no chance of escaping the strong Arctic
The constant emotional rejections winds. Mati then goes back into his apart-
add to Theo’s frustration and his inability to ment, having just contemplated suicide
change his life for the better finally culmi- as it soon turns out, and begins strangling
nates in a violent outburst in which he seri- his ex-girlfriend Jaana (Mirtel Pohla) after
ously injures, if not kills, a local cultural dil- she rejects his feeble attempts at intimacy.
ettante (Raivo E. Tamm). The scene, like the Just another day in the post-Soviet North,
rest of the film, takes place in Lasnamägi, Autumn Ball seems to be saying with its
Tallinn’s largest Soviet-era residential dis- neutral colour palette and distancing cin-
trict. The prefab concrete slabs of the build- ematography (by Mart Taniel) – the camera
ings are deliberately shot in unfavourable is handheld, but kept still most of the time,
light with debris laying all around. The film’s thereby giving the scenes an uninvolved
colour palette is dominated by shades of documentary feeling.
grey and faded blues. As the scenes focus- Despite their shared linguistic, cultural
ing on drab sites and bittersweet quotes and historical roots, Finland and Estonia
at the beginning of both films suggest, the are two very different countries today. For
northern (in one case also post-Soviet) instance, Finland’s nominal GDP per capita
landscape is not merely a decorative setting is twice that of Estonia’s (IMF 2017a and
for the films, but more like a force of nature 2017b). However, the films are strikingly
that actively works against the hopes and similar when it comes to the unflattering
dreams of the films’ numerous characters. way in which they depict the countries and
Nonetheless, in addition to the coldness of their citizens. Compared to Mati Unt’s novel
the environment, which could be seen as
specific to Finland and Estonia, the films 13 Such expressions of physical suffering appear to be
suggest regionality by implying that this a common feature in Õunpuu’s films. In one scene of
his The Temptation of St. Tony (Püha Tõnu kiusamine,
environment reflects the Finno-Ugric char- Estonia/Finland/Sweden, 2009), the lead character Tony
acters’ inability to connect with each other. (Taavi Eelmaa) runs around naked for an extended
period in a freezing Estonian winter, covered only by
In other words, both films strongly support the national flag. Eva Näripea and Ewa Mazierska
the stereotypical image of Finno-Ugric peo- associate such explorations of (emotional) coldness in
Õunpuu’s films to a rejection of neoliberal discourses
ple as being especially introverted. about intimacy (Näripea, Mazierska 2016).
48BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
of the same title (Unt 1979), Autumn Ball, et al., USA, 2008). The most popular loca-
the film, has moved from Mustamägi to tions are Los Angeles (Short Cuts, Twenty
Lasnamägi and ventures to the industrial Bucks [Keva Rosenfeld, USA, 1993], Pulp
areas outside Tallinn in order to convey an Fiction, 2 Days in the Valley [John Herzfeld,
‘authentic’ impression of the post-Soviet USA, 1996], Magnolia, Things You Can Tell
cityscape. Therefore, the film actually cre- Just by Looking at Her [Rodrigo García, USA,
ates a unique vintage setting that is simi- 2000], Crash and Valentine’s Day [Garry
lar to the world familiar from many of Aki Marshall, USA, 2010]) and New York (Do
Kaurismäki’s films. Frozen Land’s strong the Right Thing [Spike Lee, USA, 1989],
focus on the less fortunate members of Crimes and Misdemeanors [Woody Allen,
the population brings the film’s represen- USA, 1989], Smoke [Wayne Wang, Paul Aus-
tation of Finland closer to Autumn Ball’s ter, USA, 1995], Everyone Says I Love You
view of Estonia than the reality in either [Woody Allen, USA, 1996], Thirteen Conver-
country would lead one to believe. Niko sations About One Thing [Jill Sprecher, USA,
has to forge some money to buy back a 2001] and New Year’s Eve [Garry Marshall,
stereo from a pawnshop, which his father, USA, 2011]).
a sacked schoolteacher named Pertti There are thematic and formal ben-
(Pertti Sveholm), had pawned to buy alco- efits related to choosing a city as a location
hol. The forged bill is then obtained by Isto for multi-protagonist films. A central one is
(Mikko Kouki), who in turn must pawn his that the contingency and interconnected-
television set to impress his ex-girlfriend, ness that characterises multi-protagonist
whereas Teuvo (Sulevi Peltola) later has to film would seem even more artificial than
give up the van in which he lives to cover his already noted by academics, if the acciden-
expenses. Considering the film’s multi-pro- tal encounters between the main charac-
tagonist form, which tends to leave a uni- ters occurred in less populated areas than
versalised impression of the state of affairs, in metropolises. How often does anyone
and the large number of poverty-stricken meet a stranger who has a significant effect
characters in Frozen Land, one could say on his/her life in a forest or a field? But it
that this is hardly a fair depiction of Finland, is easy to arrange such encounters in city
a country that is known for having one of settings, for example, via a traffic acci-
the world’s most generous social support dent – the latter being a highly common
systems. trope in multi-protagonist films, used also
by both Frozen Land and Autumn Ball. In
DO YOU REMEMBER THE short, a cityscape allows multi-protagonist
QUESTIONS WE ASKED EACH film to approach ‘the big issues’ it is mostly
OTHER AS KIDS? interested in – i.e. how people’s lives affect
The great attention paid to exploring the those around them. These are the ques-
cityscape, as exemplified by Frozen Land tions we used to ask when we were kids, as
and Autumn Ball, is a very common feature Niko says at both the beginning and end of
in multi-protagonist films. An interest in Frozen Land. However, a regional quality can
spatiality, particularly in a contemporary also be noted in regard to the central prob-
urban environment, is often expressed in lem of multi-protagonist film, i.e. its interest
the titles of these films. For example, this in contingency and its rigid structure. While
is the case with Nashville, Night on Earth Celestino Deleyto has recently demon-
(Jim Jarmusch, France/UK/Germany/USA/ strated how even multi-protagonist films
Japan, 1991), Les Rendez-vous de Paris are unable to fully capture the complexity
(Éric Rohmer, France, 1995), Magnolia of megacities such as Los Angeles (Deleyto
(Paul Thomas Anderson, USA, 1999), Paris, 2016), some of the accidental connections
je t’aime (Olivier Assayas et al., France/ that multi-protagonist films typically uti-
Liechtenstein/Switzerland/Germany, 2006), lise to depict social complexity seem more
Babel and New York, I Love You (Fatih Akin probable in a city the size of Tallinn with
49BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
less than half a million citizens than in Los L’argent (France/Switzerland, 1983) into a
Angeles or New York. For instance, there is local context ‘to say something about the
very little artifice involved in the scene from present-day circumstances of people in
Autumn Ball where Mati receives a park- Finland’ (Megahey 2007). As both Tolstoy’s
ing ticket from somebody that he knows novella and Bresson’s film are interested in
personally. While not everybody knows each accidental connections, it remains unclear
other in Tallinn, such occurrences are none- how this contingent interconnectedness is
theless much more probable in small cities specific to Finland. It is interesting to note
than in large metropolises. that Megahey uses both the terms ‘chaos
Although Frozen Land and Autumn Ball theory’ and ‘butterfly effect’ to explain the
choose cityscapes for the same reasons connectedness of strangers in Frozen Land.
as their global counterparts – in order to Similar vocabulary is commonly used by
explore socio-philosophical concerns via both critics and filmmakers to describe
random encounters between strangers – multi-protagonist films.14 Azcona has
for the local audience the environments argued that one of the main reasons why
in these films have specific regional con- multi-protagonist film can be considered to
notations. I do not mean the obvious ones, be a fully developed genre is the very con-
i.e. that most local viewers will recognise stant nature of the terminology that is being
the shooting locations, but rather that the used to describe examples of the form
cold and dark northern environments are (Azcona 2010: 1). It appears that Frozen
recognised as having a significant impact Land and Autumn Ball are following generic
on the characters’ motivations. Because qualities of multi-protagonist film closely
regionality is strongly emphasised in both enough to be easily recognised as such by
films, the setting has also been noted by the critics.15
several international critics. For instance, In the case of Frozen Land it should
commentators called Frozen Land an ‘epic be noted that the film is very self-aware of
wallow in Finnish despair’ (Murray 2006) its interests. Via Pertti, a literature teacher,
and ‘an over-extended slice of Scandinavian the film makes a direct reference not only
miserabilism’ (Dawson 2006). In Autumn to Tolstoy, but also to the principle that one
Ball, critics (Rizov 2009, Anonymous 2009) character’s actions have a direct conse-
noticed the way the film openly questions quence on another’s. Later in the film Antti,
the Baltic consciousness by having the a physics teacher (Petteri Summanen), who
woman from the literature conference that in a way assumes Pertti’s position when
Theo meets ridicule the idea of a Baltic con- the school fires the literature teacher to
sciousness as an artificial construct. Vadim hire a physics teacher, explains the chaos
Rizov claims that, although the film explic- theory to his class. Although Antti explains
itly denies such a unifying idea, the ‘miser- this idea as it is understood in physics, the
able people moping around horrendous film suggests that this inclination towards
apartment towers of the finest Soviet vin- disorder also applies to life more gener-
tage, chain-smoking and drinking their way ally – during the lecture Antti finds out that
through despair’ are in fact a perfect repre- his wife, a police officer named Hannele
sentation of the Baltic consciousness (Rizov (Matleena Kuusniemi), has died in the line
2009). Having put forth such a provocative of duty. Some commentators have seen this
idea, it is unfortunate that the author does self-reflexivity as ‘unfortunate’ and said that
not develop it any further.
Noel Megahey also draws attention
14 See, for instance, Lorraine Ali’s interview with Iñárritu
to both regionality and the form’s socio- where he talks about his earlier multi-protagonist
philosophical interests when he claims trilogy, consisting of Amores perros, 21 Grams and
Babel (Ali 2015).
that Frozen Land successfully expands the 15 For instance, the term ‘Altmanesque’ is used by a critic
source material from Leo Tolstoy’s novella (Lanthier 2009) to describe Autumn Ball and Pulp
Fiction is mentioned in a review (Foster 2010) of Frozen
The Forged Coupon and Robert Bresson’s Land.
50BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
the director ‘has a tendency to spell out to cold environment and a contrast between
the audience the film’s ideas’ (Dawson 2006), overwhelming happiness and utter (self-)
without really elaborating why self-reflex- destructiveness.
ivity should be considered a shortcoming of Because most of the key scenes in
the film. The tendency of openly exemplify- both of the films occur entirely outdoors
ing the film’s structural logic is a very com- or when moving from indoors to outdoors
mon feature in multi-protagonist film.16 One or vice versa and a number of night scenes
example of this similarity is a scene in Thir- are depicted, the dark northern landscape
teen Conversations About One Thing when a could be seen as having a direct influence
physics professor (John Turturro) is giving a on the characters’ actions. For instance,
lesson about almost constant deceleration/ Theo drags the drunken cultural dilet-
acceleration by bringing up the examples of tante out of the restaurant where he works
a braking car and a falling body. This lesson before he starts attacking him. The isolated
directly precedes a car accident caused by landscape offers him a perfect backdrop
another lead character (Matthew McCo- for violently attacking a person during
naughey), and later in the film, one of the broad daylight. However, it appears that the
students in the class (Rob McElhenney) dies landscape around the men – a dirty field
by jumping off a building.17 of broken glass and concrete – truly repre-
sents their pitiful states. Just recently, the
DATED EXISTENTIALISM OR A married director had attempted to initiate
QUESTION OF VERISIMILITUDE? an affair with a single mother named Laura
Although critics have no trouble recognis- (Maarja Jakobson) and Theo has been
ing the global multi-protagonist trends in repeatedly unsuccessful in forming more
Frozen Land and Autumn Ball, they appear lasting relationships with women, despite
somewhat perplexed about how to interpret his sexual allure. Before Theo’s attack, the
the films’ excessive pessimism and seem- viewer had seen him falling in love with Ulvi
ingly dated explorations of existentialistic (Tiina Tauraite), the wife of another cen-
angst. One author, when writing about tral character, only to be rejected with the
Autumn Ball, openly expresses this dif- remark that he has mistaken adultery for
ficulty by saying: ‘Americans with limited love. This serves as yet another contrast
knowledge of Baltic culture will spend the between extreme happiness and utter
duration [of the film] puzzling over what despair, similar to the one suggested at the
additional dimension their ignorance might beginning of Frozen Land, where an ecstatic
be shrouding’ (Lanthier 2009). Thus, while club scene is contrasted with Niko freezing
both regionality and the cold emotional in greyish Helsinki. Just like Autumn Ball,
tonality, or the ‘epic wallow’ as one com- Frozen Land repeats these sharp emo-
mentator puts it (Murray 2006), are regu- tional contrasts throughout the film. Most
larly noted, the two are largely treated side- pronouncedly in a scene in which Isto and
by-side, without being connected. However, Teuvo’s drunken frenzy – involving mas-
based on even the few scenes that I have turbation, vandalism, reckless driving on
described, a couple of constant features a snowfield in a pitch-black Finnish night,
can be highlighted: an emphasis on the and random sex – ends suddenly with the
sexually frustrated Teuvo killing both Isto
and his partner (Eija Koskimaa) and then
16 Tröhler has made a similar argument regarding, among
other elements, the ‘reflexiveness of actor performance’ attempting to take his own life.
that creates a tension with ‘the chronicle-like The warm-toned club scene at the
presentation of a fictional everyday world’ (Tröhler 2010:
470). beginning of Frozen Land is replayed in full
17 Additionally, the professor in Thirteen Conversations later in the film, right after Niko’s handsome
goes on to explain entropy by bringing an example of
two gases mixing that cannot themselves unmix or and successful best friend Tuomas (Mikko
‘go back’ to the way they were, the latter being one of Leppilampi) is arrested because Niko, who
the central ideas of the film that is regularly brought up
by different characters. was supposed to act as the
51BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
getaway driver, left him behind during a After representing the collapse of one’s
heist. In the club, Niko takes advantage of world Autumn Ball cuts to its title, displayed
Tuomas’ fiancé Elina (Pamela Tola), whom over a frozen pool of dirt amid Lasnamägi’s
he has secretly been desiring, and uses her endless apartment buildings. A sharp con-
vulnerable emotional state by offering her trast with the dull scenery is created by a
drugs in order to sleep with her. Thus, the sweet folklore lullaby (interpretation by Veljo
greyish winter at the beginning of Frozen Tormis) that can be heard over the scene.
Land could be seen as representing Niko’s The audio cue is followed by scenes of Jaana
emotional reality, much like Lasnamägi and Mati shot in soft lighting to indicate
echoes Theo’s feelings, while the club scene an earlier and much happier time in their
represents Niko’s temporary excitement relationship. Alluding to the scene’s post-
over being part of Tuomas’ world. But, simi- Soviet setting, the characters find humour in
larly to Autumn Ball, the landscape not only reading Talking Openly about Marriage (Ava-
represents Niko’s state, but to an extent meelselt abielust [Paloheimo et al. 1974]),
guides his actions. After Niko’s father Pertti an outdated account of sexuality that was
kicks him out, the freezing Finnish winter is ground-breaking for its ‘openness’ during
one of the reasons why Niko seeks out Tuo- the early 1970s in the Soviet Union. This
mas in the first place – he has nowhere to reference to Estonia’s recent social transfor-
stay, and the cold streets of Helsinki are not mation is echoed by the song’s lyrics, which
ideal for wandering outside (Isto and Teuvo ask where all the innocent girls are going as
randomly meet largely for the same reason). the night falls. The contrast between Mati
During the heist it is the endless masses of and Jaana’s past and present – along with
dirty snow we see surrounding Niko, along the song, titled How Can I Recognise My
with the car that won’t start, that make him Home (Kust tunnen kodu) – suggests the
nervous and cause him to leave Tuomas difficulty of finding one’s way in the cold and
behind. The scene begins with a shot of the dark borderland.
getaway car parked between piles of snow, In Frozen Land, the climate is also a
and later, when Niko flees prematurely, he nemesis in the characters’ lives. When Pertti
can be seen as constantly falling because is told that he will be fired, atmospheric
of the deep snow and slippery icy fields music (by Samu Heikkilä) drowns out the
around him. When Tuomas exits the building principal’s (Susanna Mikkonen) dialogue,
from which he had stolen some digital data as the camera slowly studies Pertti’s facial
and looks for the getaway car, he is also expressions. As a further reference to the
greeted by masses of snow that he has to shock suffered by Pertti due to the sacking,
cross in order to escape. Tuomas’ nightmar- the film cuts to an unfocused shot of the
ish situation creates a sharp contrast with principal. The film then shows Pertti strug-
the prior scenes where Tuomas had pro- gling to get home by climbing over endless
posed and made love to Elina (who, as piles of snow. The next scene cuts forward in
we later learn, had become pregnant from time to again show Pertti crossing a similar
this intercourse). landscape, now as an alcoholic. The implica-
Highlighting the centrality of the tion of this ellipsis is clear – the land around
northern post-Soviet environment in the Pertti is entirely indifferent to where his
lives of the Autumn Ball characters, Mati is life may lead him. A similar impression is
seen thinking on his drab balcony before he created with Isto, a simpleton with money
enters his apartment and starts strangling problems, who tries to reconnect with his
Jaana. Once Mati manages to force Jaana ex-girlfriend. Despite his best intentions,
to the ground, he starts choking and groping Isto ends up in prison for paying with a
her. However, after realising the futility of his counterfeit €500 bill, which, as mentioned
actions, he turns the violence against him- above, he received when he pawned his
self – demonstratively consuming a handful television, and which Niko had forged and
of pills and washing them down with alcohol. used at the same pawn shop to reclaim his
52BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
stereo.18 When Isto is released, he finds his films does not merely serve as a decorative
most prized possession, an American mus- backdrop for the action, but has a direct
cle car, vandalised under a bridge next to an effect on the characters’ behaviour. I am not
infinite field of snow. Isto decides to steal arguing that this attention to the northern
a new vehicle for himself, but immediately cityscape and its severe effect on the char-
gets stuck in a pile of snow. Howling in anger acters’ actions is somehow specific to multi-
like a wild beast, he takes his rage out on the protagonist film, because there are single-,
SUV, cursing and hitting the vehicle with his paired-protagonist and ensemble films that
foot. The snow in both cases acts not only as present similar concerns. Nevertheless, it is
a metaphor of the characters’ entrapment, important to note that by connecting stran-
but as an actual physical barrier that blocks gers via accidental encounters, arguably it
their already limited freedom. is only the multi-protagonist form that can
In the used car dealership where Isto rise above an individual, couple or a spe-
steals the car, Teuvo, a poor vacuum cleaner cific group such as a family, proposing that
salesman, has to give up the car he lives in the effects of the cold and dark environ-
to pay his debts. When the car salesman ment extend beyond the particular Finno-
(Samuli Edelmann) pressures him about Ugric characters. The way the landscape is
when he will pay back his loans, Teuvo nerv- depicted in Frozen Land and Autumn Ball
ously says: ‘When the snow melts’. While and the fact that a number of key scenes
there is not any argumentative logic to his take place at night could be recognised
claim, it does follow an inherent emotional as expressions of kaamos – an anguish
logic for anyone living in either Finland or caused by long dark winters. It is a state of
Estonia, as it is a common hope that things mind that is similar to piblokto (or piblok-
will get better after the long dark winter. toq), also known as Arctic hysteria, which
Another significant scene in Frozen Land is caused by a lack of sun and great spatial
that takes place outdoors is Antti spread- isolation (both Finland and Estonia are
ing his late wife’s ashes in a harbour area among the least tensely populated coun-
covered with nothing but snow as far as the tries in Europe). The mental conditions are
eye can see. Antti later takes Tuomas, a man generally described, similarly to the film’s
he holds responsible for the death of his character-actions, as consisting of bursts
wife, to the same place to kill him, although of extreme excitement, followed by severe
Tuomas had already been punished for the melancholy and mournfulness. In this light,
accident and has come to apologise. Indi- alcoholism, among other social vices that
cating a significant connection between critics have repeatedly noted in both films,
the frozen landscape and the characters’ is less the cause of the characters’ chaotic
actions, the intertitle that marks the culmi- behaviour, than a sign of a failed attempt to
nation of the film is named ‘Snowpile’ and solve a deeper problem originating from the
highlights the upcoming snowballing effect, nearly inhabitable landscape. This appears
whereby all the different character-actions to be supported by the ease with which a
are going to pile on top of one another. number of the characters in both films con-
These examples should suffice to sider suicide as a solution to their problems
propose that the northern setting of these (both countries have higher than average
suicide rates compared to other European
18 The use of an element to connect the different lead countries). The hostile northern land leads
characters is a highly common feature in multi-
protagonist film. Similar to Frozen Land, a bill connects the characters to seek solutions to their
the different characters in L’argent and Twenty Bucks, emotional problems in desperate searches
while a rifle connects the global characters in Babel,
which is itself a reference to Winchester ’73 (Anthony for love, and in alcohol and drugs. The futil-
Mann, USA, 1950). This device is also not uncommon ity of attempting to cure a condition which
in films that have a more arthouse inclination, as
Autumn Ball makes similar use of the Pessoa’s quote, originates from geography is something that
and the donkey in Au hasard Balthazar (Robert Bresson, also appears to be evident to the characters
France/Sweden, 1966) connects its different
characters. leading them to destruction and (self-)harm.
53BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
CONCLUSION appear distant and exotic. However, more
The extensive academic discussion on than simply an exciting feature of the films,
multi-protagonist/network narrative film regionality can be seen as directly affecting
has identified several features that are con- the characters in these films. On the one
sistent to the form – interest in the social hand, the cold, dark and isolated landscape
aspect of life, a strong focus on contempo- is shown as wearing the characters down
rary urban environment, and the depiction – a condition known as kaamos in these
of accidental connections between (and countries. The secluded dark landscape
their effect on) the characters. In this article also acts as an ideal metaphor for the char-
I have shown how these characteristics are acters’ introverted Finno-Ugric emotional
represented in films from small nations – in state, a stereotype that both films support.
this case, Finland and Estonia as exempli- On another level, the great barriers of snow
fied by Frozen Land and Autumn Ball. These not only act as a metaphor for entrapment,
films also depict the everyday lives of sev- but are shown to literally debilitate peo-
eral interlinked characters, emphasise the ple or thwart their plans of escape. At the
importance of the cityscape in the lives of same time, the constant darkness makes
these characters, and connect their char- the characters extremely nervous or hys-
acters contingently, i.e. via random encoun- terically euphoric. On yet another level, the
ters. As in many other multi-protagonist films resort to hyperbole and show that the
films, the latter is accomplished through a secluded urban environments of Helsinki or
traffic accident among other things. In addi- Tallinn act as places where theft, assaults
tion to exploring the broader multi-protag- and even murder can take place in broad
onist aspects, these films also make use of daylight. While these cinematic depictions
some of the film form’s lesser tropes – such do not necessarily reflect the everyday
as an element that travels from one charac- reality of these countries, the fictional
ter to the next, the form’s tendency for self- Finno-Ugric characters of Frozen Land and
reflexivity and its open interest in chaos Autumn Ball nonetheless provide a sym-
theory, where a minor act is understood to bolic representation of a certain emotional
have a larger unforeseen impact. tone of the life in these countries. While the
At the same time, I argue that the global reception shows that foreigners see
interest in the northern cityscape setting as depressed characters and an excessively
expressed in Frozen Land and Autumn Ball bleak environment in the films, the two are
is more regionally specific than is generally much more inherently connected than cur-
the case. Although most multi-protagonist rently recognised. For the local audience
films explore their cityscape setting with this connection is often as logical as the
great care, and Los Angeles and New York, feeling that things just have to get better
the most popular locations, are easily rec- when the snow finally melts.
ognisable in the films, they also somewhat
downplay their geographical specificity in ACKNOWLEDGMENT
order to make generalisations that can be I would like to thank the two anonymous
applied more broadly than to just the spe- reviewers of the article for their useful
cific city and thereby appeal to the widest comments.
possible audience.19 Instead, the North and
East European examples discussed here
make full use of their settings, which for for-
eigners, as a survey of the criticism shows,
19 As a typical example of the filmmakers’ intent, Rodrigo
Prieto, the cinematographer of 21 Grams, explains:
‘We didn’t want this to be “Memphis, Tennessee” where
the story is happening, but any place in America – or in
the world, even’ (Prieto n.d.).
54BALTIC SCREEN MEDIA REVIEW 2017 / VOLUME 5 / ARTICLE
REFERENCES Eesti filmi arengusuunad 2012–2020. http://filmi.ee/
Ali, Lorraine 2015. ‘Q&A: Alejandro G. Iñárritu on wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/EF_arengu-
Directing His Own Career’. – Los Angeles Times, suunad_2012-2020.pdf (21 August 2017).
3 February. http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/ Foster, Tyler 2010. ‘Frozen Land aka Paha maa’. – DVD
movies/moviesnow/la-et-mn-alejandro-gonzalez- Talk, 4 August. http://www.dvdtalk.com/reviews/43627/
inarritu-retrospective-20150203-story.html (14 August frozen-land/ (14 August 2017).
2017). Fundin, Johan 2006. ‘Frozen Land’. – 10K Bullets,
Anonymous 2009. ‘SIFF 09: Review of Beautiful 27 November. http://10kbullets.com/reviews/frozen-
Estonian Drama Sügisball’. – Quiet Earth, 23 June. land/ (14 August 2017).
http://www.quietearth.us/articles/2009/06/22/ Gronvall, Andrea n.d. ‘Frozen Land’. – Chicago Reader.
SIFF-09-Review-of-beautiful-Estonian-drama-Sgisball http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/frozen-land/
(14 August 2017). Film?oid=1049916 (15 August 2017).
Aronson, Linda n.d. ‘The Six Sorts of Parallel Narrative’. Hjort, Mette 2005. Small Nation, Global Cinema:
– Linda Aronson. http://www.lindaaronson.com/ The New Danish Cinema. Minneapolis, London:
six-types-of-parallel-narrative.html (14 August 2017). University of Minnesota Press.
Azcona, Maria del Mar 2005. ‘Making Sense of a IMF 2017a. Report for Selected Countries and Subjects.
Multi-Protagonist Film: Audience Response Research http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/
and Robert Altman’s Short Cuts (1993)’. – Miscelánea: weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=77&pr.y=7&sy=2017&ey=
A Journal of English and American Studies 32, 11–22. 2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=1
Azcona, Maria del Mar 2008. ‘Love Is a Many-Person’d 72&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&
Thing: Multi-Protagonist Tales of Contemporary Desire’. grp=0&a= (21 August 2017).
– Bells: Barcelona English Language and Literature IMF 2017b. Report for Selected Countries and Subjects.
Studies 17, 1–13. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/01/
Azcona, Maria del Mar 2010. The Multi-Protagonist weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=87&pr.y=9&sy=2016&ey=
Film. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 2022&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=9
Beal, Wesley 2009. ‘Theorising Connectivity: The Form 39&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&
and Ideology of the Network Narrative’. – Jonathan grp=0&a= (21 August 2017).
Glynne, Fiona Hackney, Viv Minton (eds.), Networks of Kinder, Marsha 2002. ‘Hot Spots, Avatars, and Narrative
Design: Proceedings of the 2008 Annual International Fields Forever: Buñuel’s Legacy for New Digital Media
Conference of the Design History Society (UK). Boca and Interactive Database Narrative’. – Film Quarterly
Raton: Universal-Publishers, 405–409. 55, 4, 2–15.
Berg, Charles Ramirez 2006. ‘A Taxonomy of Alternative Lanthier, Joseph Jon 2009. ‘Sügisball’. – Slant, 1 June.
Plots in Recent Films: Classifying the “Tarantino Effect”’. http://www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/sugisball
– Film Criticism 31, 2, 5–61. (15 August 2017).
Bordwell, David 2006. The Way Hollywood Tells It: Lübecker, Nikolaj 2015. The Feel-Bad Film. Edinburgh:
Story and Style in Modern Movies. Berkley, Los Angeles, Edinburgh University Press.
London: University of California Press. Manovich, Lev 1999. ‘Database as a Symbolic Form’. –
Bordwell, David 2008. Poetics of Cinema. New York, Millennium Film Journal 34, Fall. http://www.mfj-online.
London: Routledge. org/journalPages/MFJ34/Manovich_Database_Frame-
Bordwell, David; Staiger, Janet; Thompson, Kristin Set.html (15 August 2017).
2005. The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style Maude, George 2010. Aspects of the Governing of the
and Mode of Production to 1960. New York, London: Finns. New York: Peter Lang.
Routledge. Megahey, Noel 2007. ‘Frozen Land’. – The Digital Fix,
Branigan, Edward 2002. ‘Nearly True: Forking Paths, 10 May. http://film.thedigitalfix.com/content/id/64821/
Forking Interpretations. A Response to David Bordwell’s frozen-land.html (15 August 2017).
“Film Futures”’. – SubStance 97, 105–114. Melzer, André; Hasse, Sebastian; Jeskulke, Oliver;
Buckland, Warren 2009. ‘Introduction: Puzzle Plots’. – Schön, Inga; Herczeg, Michael 2004. ‘The Interactive
Warren Buckland (ed.), Puzzle Films: Complex and Multi-Protagonist Film: A Hypermovie on DVD’. –
Storytelling in Contemporary Cinema. New Jersey: International Conference on Entertainment Computing,
Wiley-Blackwell, 1–12. 193–203.
Cameron, Allan 2006. ‘Contingency, Order, and the Murray, Angus Wolfe 2006. ‘Frozen Land’. – Eye for
Modular Narrative: 21 Grams and Irreversible’. – Film, 12 October. http://www.eyeforfilm.co.uk/review/
The Velvet Light Trap 58, Fall, 65–78. frozen-land-film-review-by-angus-wolfe-murray
Carmago, Sandy 2002. ‘“Mind the Gap”: The Multi- (15 August 2017).
Protagonist Film Genre, Soap’. – M/C Journal 5, 5. Näripea, Eva; Mazierska, Ewa 2016. ‘Transcending
http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0210/Carmago.php “Cold Intimacies” in Veiko Õunpuu’s Works’. –
(14 August 2017). Baltic Screen Media Review 4, 61–87.
Ciafone, Amanda 2014. ‘The Magical Neoliberalism of Paloheimo, Martti; Rouhunkoski, Mauri; Rutanen, Mirja
Network Films’. – International Journal of Communica- 1974. Avameelselt abielust. Trans. Heino Mikk. Tallinn:
tion 8, 2680–2704. Valgus.
Dawson, Tom 2006. ‘Frozen Land (Paha maa) Parshall, Peter F. 2012. Altman and After: Multiple
(2006)’. – BBC, 5 October. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ Narratives in Film. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press.
films/2006/10/10/frozen_land_2006_review.shtml Pessoa, Fernando 1998. The Tobacco Shop. Trans.
(14 August 2017). Richard Zenith. New York: Grove Atlantic.
Deleyto, Celestino 2012. ‘Film Genres at the Cross- http://www.ronnowpoetry.com/contents/pessoa/
roads: What Genres and Films Do to Each Other’. – TobaccoShop.html (15 August 2017).
Barry Keith Grant (ed.), Film Genre Reader IV. Austin: Prieto, Rodrigo n.d. ‘Production Notes’. – 21 Grams.
University of Texas Press, 218–236. http://www.21-grams.com/content/prodnotesData.php
Deleyto, Celestino 2016. From Tinseltown to (15 August 2017).
Bordertown: Los Angeles on Film. Detroit: Wayne State Quart, Alissa 2005. ‘Networked’. – Film Comment 41, 4,
University Press. 48–51.
Doane, Mary Ann 2002. The Emergence of Cinematic Rich, Nathaniel 2009. ‘Robert Altman’s Short Cuts:
Time: Modernity, Contingency, the Archive. Cambridge, Stop Comparing It to Nashville’. – Slate, 27 January.
MA; London: Harvard University Press. http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/dvdextras/2009/01/
robert_altmans_short_cuts.html (15 August 2017).
55You can also read
