Sport Participation as a Critical Context for Physical Activity Among Rural Adolescents
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Journal of Rural Community Psychology Volume E14 (2)
Sport Participation as a Critical Context for Physical
Activity Among Rural Adolescents
Kenli Urruty
Department of Psychology
Utah State University
ABSTRACT
The goal of the study was to assess physical activity among adolescents in a rural
community and analyze the extent to which organized sports and work/chores provide a
venue for physical activity participation in rural communities. A sample of first and
second year high school students (N = 162) from a rural, Western high school were recruited.
Participants completed an online survey regarding their physical activity participation
and associated factors. Over 80% of students participated in one organized sport, and over
50% participated in two sports, suggesting that sport participation is widely available and
is an important context for physical activity. The majority of activities were during the school
year. Over 2/3 of the activities had no cost associated, highlighting the importance of school
sponsored sports for student participation. Work/chores were highly relevant for a smaller
number of students, particularly those with labor intensive jobs. When national trends
are considered, it appears that these rural, Western adolescents engage in more physical
activity and have higher involvement in organized sports than their peers in other parts
of the country. Findings suggest that community support for organized sport participation,
as well as availability of low-cost or no-cost activities, impact the physical activity
levels of adolescents in rural, Western communities.
INTRODUCTION
The incidence of overweight and obesity in the United States has become a serious health
concern. Among children and adolescents, being overweight or obese has significant health and
psychosocial implications, such as increased likelihood of chronic health conditions and peer
victimization (Daniels, 2006; Storch, et al., 2007). Physical activity (PA) is a key factor in
controlling the incidence of overweight and obesity and is critical for weight loss and
maintenance. Due to the importance of PA in controlling overweight and obesity, understanding
variables associated with PA during the formative adolescent years is imperative.
A sector of the population where PA has unique implications is in rural areas. Rural areas of the
United States take up over 80% of the land and contain 20% of the population, which
corresponds to over 54 million people (Stamm, 2003). With so many people living in rural
communities, it is important to consider the unique health-related characteristics faced by those
living in rural areas, compared to those living in urban or metropolitan areas. Of most concern is
that the self-reported health status of those in rural areas was more likely to be fair or poor thanfor those living in urban areas, and the prevalence of physician-diagnosed chronic conditions was higher than for those living in urban areas (Stamm, 2003). The poorer self-reported health status of those living in rural communities may be due to a number of factors. In rural communities, income is lower, while poverty and unemployment are higher than in urban centers. Additionally, rural residents have lower levels of insurance coverage, a lower likelihood of receiving prescription drug coverage, and lesser benefits. Rural residents also face greater difficulty obtaining sufficient services. Rural areas have fewer and less well-trained health care providers (Stamm, 2003), and residents often face longer travel distances to obtain services. All of these factors combined may be part of the reason that persons in rural areas are more likely to report fair or poor health status. Not only do individuals in rural communities face challenges in obtaining health care services, they also face unique challenges in meeting recommended levels of physical activity. A review by Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, and Brown (2002) revealed that leisure time physical activity levels are significantly lower among adults living in rural areas than in urban settings. To date, the majority of research pertaining to barriers of physical activity in rural communities has been conducted on samples of Caucasian women. The studies that have assessed the factors unique to rural communities that may inhibit residents from participating in physical activity reveal numerous environmental barriers. All the women in a study by Eyler and Vest (2002) believed that they had fewer opportunities for exercise because they lived in a rural area. The main reason individuals living in rural communities have fewer opportunities to exercise is lack of access to recreational facilities, which seems to be a major factor influencing physical activity in rural communities (Eyler, 2003; Eyler & Vest, 2002; Plotnikoff, Maayhew, Birkett, Loucaides, & Fodor, 2004). Another factor influencing activity among rural residents is lack of sidewalks, which hinders walking as a form of activity. Other factors commonly reported as barriers to physical activity in rural communities are uneven pavement, gravel roads, and living on a rural highway with truck traffic. Many rural residents are also concerned with their safety while exercising, and report lack of lighting and fear of personal safety when walking or exercising alone as reasons for abstaining from physical activity (Eyler & Vest, 2002). Although the influences of rural residence on levels of physical activity have been documented for Caucasian women, little is known about the variables that influence the activity levels of men and adolescents in rural communities. Because adolescence is a time when many lasting health behaviors are formed, it is essential to better understand the factors that influence physical activity among adolescents, specifically adolescents in rural communities. By better understanding the factors that contribute to participation in physical activity, effective interventions can be created to promote and increase physical activity among rural youth. Factors related to the Social/Cultural Nature of Rural Communities Evidence regarding differences in PA levels for urban and rural youth has been mixed (Sandercock, Angus, & Barton, 2010; Springer, Hoelscher, & Kelder, 2006). However, little research has addressed the relationship between factors unique to rural communities (e.g.,
availability of school sports, participation in ranch work or chores) and PA. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that these activities provide important venues for PA among rural youth and are the
focus of this study.
Involvement in organized sports. Sport participation has been identified as an important venue
for PA (Duncan, Duncan, Strycker, & Chaumeton, 2002). Organized sport participation has been
associated with moderate and vigorous PA, whereas non-organized sport participation has been
associated with lower levels of PA. Additionally, organized sports are often characterized by
team activities of vigorous intensity (Santos, Gomes, & Mota, 2005). While little research has
examined the relationship between rural schools and community support for school sports, the
available data suggest that high school sports play a vital role in the culture of rural communities.
Existing data suggest that in rural towns, high school sports often serve as an important tie
between the school and community (Hale, 1999).
Cost of programs. Cost of programs is a factor that is likely to inhibit participation in PA;
however, little research has been conducted to directly assess the influence cost has on
participation in PA. Among rural adults, walking trail access increased walking in lower-income
groups (Brownson, et al., 2000), demonstrating the need for low-cost or free programs in rural
areas. Allison and colleagues (2005) found that adolescent males mentioned the cost related to
registering for sports, using facilities, and attending tournaments as reasons for not engaging in
PA.
Season / weather. Winter and bad weather have been associated with decreased PA among rural
residents. Osuji, Lovegreen, Elliott, and Brownson (2006) found that “bad weather” was the third
most frequently reported barrier to PA among women in the rural Midwest. In a review of 35
studies addressing seasonal changes in activity, Carson and Spence (2010) found that, generally,
as seasons become shorter and colder, adolescents become less physically active.
Work/Chores. A unique aspect of rural populations is the possibility that adolescents will live on
farms or ranches. Thus, work/chores may offer an opportunity for PA as a function of the rural
environment, as suggested by Lee and Macdonald (2009). While research hasn’t been conducted
in regards to the contribution of farm/ranch work to adolescent PA specifically, research has
shown that individuals in agricultural and blue-collar occupations garner a significant amount of
activity from work related tasks (Proper & Hildebrandt, 2006; Steele & Mummery, 2003). Thus,
farm or ranch work may significantly contribute to PA for some rural adolescents.
Objectives
The goal of the current study was to assess PA among adolescents in a rural community and
analyze the extent to which organized sports and work/chores unique to rural areas provided a
venue for PA participation. By gaining a better understanding of the factors associated with PA,
effective interventions may be created to promote and increase PA among rural youth. Specific
research questions are as follows:
1. What are the PA levels reported by adolescents in a rural community?
2. To what extent do organized sports and work/chores provide a venue for PA for rural
adolescents?3. To what extent do season/weather and cost serve as barriers to PA for rural
adolescents?
METHODS
Sample
A sample of 162 (86 males, 75 females, 1 not reported) 9th and 10th grade students from a rural
high school in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States were recruited for this study. The
population of the town the sample was drawn from was 3,900. According to the 2000 U.S.
Census, the median age was 43 years; however, 23.1% of the population was under the age of
18. The median income for a family in the town was $40,683 ( US Census Bureau, n.d.).
At the school where data were collected, the 9th and 10th grade students are required to take a
physical education (PE) class. Each student enrolled in PE was invited to participate in the study.
In the 9th and 10th grade PE classes combined, there were 181 students, resulting in a 90%
participation rate. The school from which the sample was drawn is the only high school in the
town, which has an enrollment of approximately 350 students in grades 9 through 12.
Participants were, on average, 15.4 years of age. The majority of participants (85.8%) were non-
Hispanic White, 5.6% were Hispanic/Latino, 3.1% were Native American, 2.5% were African
American, 2.5% were Biracial/Multiracial, and 0.6% were Asian American.
Procedure
Data were collected using the secure online survey system, Psychdata. Students were taken to
the computer lab during the regularly scheduled PE period, and were given the login information
necessary to access the survey. Informed consent was obtained through letters sent home with all
the students that described the study and noted the date and time of survey administration.
Parents were given contact information for the school so that they could call and ask that their
children not participate if they did not wish for them to do so. Also, students were able to refuse
participation. No identifying information was collected from the students participating in the
study.
Measures
Physical activity. Items to assess PA were adapted from the 2005 Behavioral Risk Factor
Surveillance Survey (BRFSS) ("Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States," 2005). Minutes
per week of moderate and vigorous activity were calculated by giving the students a brief
description of moderate vs. vigorous activity. Students were asked to report how many days in a
usual week they participated in moderate and vigorous activities, respectively, and how many
minutes at a time they participated in each type of activity. Total minutes of moderate and
vigorous activity per week were calculated by multiplying the number of times per week by the
number of minutes per time. Test-retest reliability for moderate activity on the BRFSS ranged
from κ = 0.35-0.53 and test-retest reliability for vigorous activity ranged from κ = 0.67-0.86.
BRFSS developers reported that correlations between the minutes per week spent in moderateand vigorous activities indicated on the BRFSS survey and other PA assessments was higher for
vigorous activity (r = 0.60-0.68) than for moderate activity (r = 0.05-0.21).
Involvement in organized sports/Season/Cost of programs. Logic items were designed for the
current study to address organized sport participation and at the same time collect information
regarding season and cost of programs. The first item asked students if they participated in
organized sports during the past year. If students responded “Yes,” they were directed to an item
which asked them to list the name of the sport or activity. Students were then asked to select
whether the sport was school sponsored or community sponsored. To address the impact of
season, students were asked to select the season(s) in which the sport took place. To assess cost,
students were asked to answer “yes” or “no” to whether there was a fee or charge to participate
in the sport/activity. Students were allowed to list up to three organized sports.
Season. To address the impact of season/weather, two items were developed for the current
study. The first item, mentioned above, asked students what seasons the activities they
participate in take place. The second item asked students to what extent severe weather keeps
them from engaging in PA. Responses were on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from 1 (doesn’t
keep me from activity) to 5 (always keeps me from activity).
Cost of programs. Three items were developed for the current survey to assess the impact of cost
on participation in PA. The first item, mentioned above, asked students if there was a fee or
charge for participating in any of the activities in which they took part. The second item was on a
five point Likert scale ranging from never to always and asked students if they had ever been
unable to participate in an activity due to the cost. The third item asked students to what extent
the cost of programs kept them from engaging in PA and was on a five point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (doesn’t keep me from activity) to 5 (always keeps me from activity).
Work/Chores. The items used to assess PA during work activities were adapted from the BRFSS
survey. Seven items were included in the measure. The items were changed from wording used
to discuss a full-time job to wording discussing part-time jobs, after school jobs, or work done
around the home, which could include work done as a result of living on a farm or ranch. In
addition, items were added to assess how long students participated in work that required
walking or heavy labor. The original measure from the BRFSS has been shown to have test-
retest reliabilities ranging from .40 to .45 (Yore, et al., 2005).
RESULTS
Activity Levels
The range of minutes per week of moderate activity was 0 to 4,200 minutes and the range for
vigorous activity was 0 to 2,800 minutes. Males reported an average of 410.76 minutes of
vigorous activity each week, while females reported an average of 318.59 minutes of vigorous
activity each week. Of males, 57.3% met the recommendations (150 minutes per week) (Healthy
People 2010) of moderate activity and 50% of females met recommendations for moderate
activity. In regards to vigorous activity, 81.7% of males met the recommendations (60 minutes
per week) (Healthy People 2010), and 78.4% of females met the recommendations for vigorous
activity. Chi square analyses indicated that there were no significant gender differences for eithermoderate or vigorous activity, χ2 (1, N = 156) = 0.83, p= .36, φ = .07 and χ2 (1, N = 156) = 0.27,
p= .60, φ = .04, respectively.
The proportion of students who met PA recommendations in the current sample was compared to
the proportion of students in grades 9 through 12 nationwide who met the recommendation of 60
minutes of vigorous activity each week (Healthy people 2010) and results are displayed in Table
1. In the current sample, both males and females participated in more PA than students
nationwide, with females demonstrating the largest difference in activity participation relative to
the national sample. It is important to note that the discrepancy between the PA of students in the
national sample (grades 9 – 12) and those in the current sample (grades 9 and 10) may be slightly
inflated due to data suggesting that PA decreases as age and grade in school increases (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention).
Table 1
Comparison of the proportion of adolescents who met PA recommendations:
the current sample and nationwide.
Percentage who met
Type of activity recommendations
Self-report vigorous - current sample
Male 81.7
Female 78.4
Vigorous - 2007 national norms, grades 9-12
Male 73
Female 55
When students were asked how much physical education class time they spent participating in
activities that caused their breathing and heart rate to go up, 73.2% of males and 85.4% of
females reported that they spent less than one hour participating in those activities. The school
where data were collected follows a block schedule, and students attend physical education two
to three days per week. Thus, it was determined that participation in the physical education class
did not substantially contribute to the high PA of the sample.
Involvement in organized sports. Table 2 displays the percentage of students who indicated
participating in vigorous, moderate, or no sport for their first, second, and third sports. Almost
80% of males and over 85% of females reported involvement in at least one organized sport, and
over one quarter of the sample reported participating in three organized sports over the past year.
Further, for both males and females, the majority of reported sports were classified as vigorous.
Table 2 also displays the percentage of students who reported participating in school sponsored
sports for their first, second, and third sports.
Cost of programs. Cost of programs was assessed by asking students to indicate which activities
they are involved in have a fee or charge for participation. Table 2 displays the student responses
for fees associated with activities. Students were also asked to report whether they had been
unable to participate in an activity due to the cost, and to what extent cost of programs keeps
them from being physically active. Overall, 75% of students did not perceive cost to be a barrier
to activity participation.Table 2
Participation by Sport Type and Cost Associated with Activities
Percentage
First sport Second sport Third sport
Vigorous
Male 60.47 46.51 20.93
Female 44.59 56.76 28.38
Moderate
Male 18.60 6.98 4.65
Female 40.54 8.11 4.05
None
Male 20.93 46.51 74.42
Female 14.86 35.14 67.57
No cost
Male 70.15 80.85 81.81
Female 67.19 63.27 71.43
Total 68.70 71.88 76.00
School sponsored
Male 71.20 85.10 85.7
Female 70.30 67.30 85.7
The Seven-day PA Recall (PAR) (Sallis, et al., 1985) was also used to
classify sports as vigorous or moderate.
Season/weather. Table 3 describes the sample's activity participation by season. Males engaged
in organized sport activities during fall more than any other season, and females engaged in
sports during fall and spring more than during winter or summer. Most students reported
participating in activities that did not have an associated cost, which suggested that they
participated in organized sports through the school. Due to their school sport participation, there
was less sport participation during the summer months when the school does not provide
organized sports.
Table 3
Activity Participation by Season.
Fall Winter Spring Summer
First Activity Male (N=68) 55 25 25 22
Female (N=64) 51 20 27 14
Second Activity Male (N=46) 16 23 20 13
Female (N=49) 12 30 22 2
Third Activity Male (N=22) 4 6 5 2
Female (N=25) 2 6 19 1
Season Total Male 75 54 50 37
Female 65 56 68 17
Note: students were able to select more than one season for each activity.Work/Chores. When students were asked whether they were currently employed, 43 males
(50.0%) and 27 females (36.0%) endorsed employment. When asked whether they had chores or
other work, such as ranch work, that they do at home, 59 males (68.6%) and 59 females (78.7%)
endorsed chores or other work at home. Of the students who endorsed employment, 18 males
and 4 females indicated that they do heavy labor or physically demanding work in their job. The
types of activities students indicated doing in their jobs and in their chores are displayed in Table
4. Finally, Table 5 displays the descriptive statistics for the hours per week students spend
walking, doing heavy labor, or physically demanding work at their jobs or in their chores. The
tables indicate that males are more likely than females to have work or chores that involve labor
or physically demanding work.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Employment and Chores at Home.
Employment Chores
Type of Activity N Percent N Percent
Mostly Sitting
Male 5 5.8 5 5.8
Female 10 13.3 10 13.3
Mostly Walking
Male 15 17.4 18 20.9
Female 10 13.3 30 40.0
Mostly Heavy Labor/Physically Demanding Work
Male 18 20.9 26 30.2
Female 4 5.3 10 13.3
Don't Know
Male 5 5.8 10 11.6
Female 3 4.0 9 12.0
Did not report job/chores
Male 43 50.0 27 31.4
Female 48 64.0 16 21.3
Total
Male 86 100.00 86 100.00
Female 75 100.00 75 100.00
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics for Students who Engage in Labor/Physically Demanding Work in
Hours Per Week.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard
Deviation
Employment
Male 83 0.00 50.00 7.70 13.03
Female 73 0.00 60.00 2.60 7.72
Chores
Male 81 0.00 48.00 4.51 7.86
Female 71 0.00 36.00 4.58 7.01DISCUSSION The current study identified organized sport participation as a vital mechanism for adolescent PA in the community from which the sample was drawn. Thus, it is not surprising that males and females engaged in more PA during the school year than during the summer. Inclement weather and cost did not affect PA for the majority of the sample, which is likely related to the availability of school sponsored sports. Work/chores were found to significantly impact PA for a small number of participants. Activity Levels On average, students in the current sample reported higher PA than the national average. Based on the 2007 national averages for students in grades 9 through 12, 73% of males and 55% of females met the recommendation of 60 minutes of vigorous activity each week (Healthy People 2010). In the current sample, 81.7% of males and 78.4% of females met recommendations for vigorous activity. Thus, while more males from the current sample were physically active than were males from the national sample, the discrepancy was particularly salient for females. These findings should be considered in the context of community and geographic location. Perhaps adolescents in the rural West are more likely to be physically active than urban adolescents in other geographic regions. This finding is supported by Springer, Hoelscher, and Kelder (Springer, et al., 2006), who used data from the CDC’s 2003 Youth Risk Factor Behavior Survey (YRBS) to calculate both PA and sedentary behavior across metropolitan status (urban, suburban, rural) and geographic region (Northwest, Midwest, South, West). They found that students living in urban areas reported the lowest PA, while suburban and rural adolescents reported similar levels of PA. They also found that urban males and females reported significantly less sports team participation compared to rural males and females, with the discrepancy being most striking for females. When Springer, Hoelscher, and Kelder (2006) looked across geographic region, they found that students in the West reported the highest prevalence of PA among males and females, with 73.1% of males and 63.1% of females meeting recommendations for vigorous activity. The difference was particularly noteworthy when comparing students from the West and the South, with students living in the South reporting substantially lower PA (68.4% of males, 49.3% of females) than students in the West. Although the PA of both males and females in the current study is higher than the PA reported by Springer, Hoelscher, and Kelder (2006), the trend across metropolitan status and geographic region is important to consider. Springer and colleagues found the highest prevalence of vigorous activity participation and sport participation among adolescents living in both rural and Western communities. It is likely that the high level of PA in the current study is not unique only to the current sample, but can be generalized to adolescents in other communities in the rural West. It is unlikely that students living in every rural, Western community participate in PA as frequently as those in the current sample, but it is likely that many communities similar to the community in the current study do exist. Thus, it will be important to better understand the factors that contribute to the active lifestyle in rural, Western communities.
Factors Unique to Rural Communities Sport participation. The most salient factor related to PA among the current sample was the high prevalence of sport participation for both males and females. Over 80% of students in the current sample reported participation in at least one sport. As previously mentioned, Springer, Hoelscher, and Kelder (2006) found that sport participation rates for rural females were significantly higher than for urban females. Similarly, sport participation for rural males was higher than for urban males, although the difference was not as striking. It is likely that social and cultural constructs relevant to rural communities, such as school size, influenced the high sport participation in this sample. The effects of school size on extracurricular activity participation have been well documented. Multiple studies have demonstrated that adolescents who attend small schools are more involved in extracurricular activities than adolescents who attend large schools (Schoggen & Schoggen, 1988; Springer, et al., 2006). Feldman and Matjasko (2007) found that adolescents who attended small schools (1-400 students) were more likely to participate in multiple extracurricular activities, such as organized sports, than those who attended large schools (1001-4000 students). This is because positions on organized sports teams are not usually competitive in small, rural communities, which allows students to utilize athletics as a source of PA. Not only do small, rural schools provide an avenue to sports participation through their size, but sports participation in small schools is often encouraged for both genders. McNeal (1999) emphasized the importance of school climate on sports participation. He found that school size and school climate where athletic participation is encouraged explained 66% of the between-school variance in athletic participation. Thus, involvement in athletics was more likely in small schools that encouraged it. Additionally, in rural communities, extracurricular activities, and athletics in particular, play a central role in the lives of adolescents and adults alike. Athletic events are often viewed as important social activities, where an entire community may attend a school’s football or basketball game. Success of school sports teams is seen as a source of community pride, with young athletes contributing importantly to community cohesion. The importance of athletic participation in small, rural communities may contribute to the emphasis on participation for both males and females (Hale, 1999). Thus, the importance of athletic participation as a cultural construct is important to consider. Work/Chores. Descriptive statistics indicated that more males than females endorsed current employment and more males engaged in heavy labor or physically demanding work. While heavy labor or ranch work does not broadly impact PA among the adolescents in the current sample, it significantly impacts PA for some. This finding is consistent with a study conducted by Lee and Macdonald (2009), in which work/chores contributed to PA in a sample of rural, Australian adolescents. In Lee and Macdonald’s sample, males were more likely to endorse work/chores as a source of PA than females. They also endorsed more engagement in physically demanding work/chores than did females, which is consistent with the results of the current study. The results of this study, combined with Lee and Macdonald’s research, suggest that societal norms and gender role expectations influence the perception of work/chores as activities that are more appropriate for males than for females.
Policy Implications
The results of the current study have important implications for education policy. In an era of
budget cuts and reduced spending, school districts are frequently doing away with school
sponsored athletic programs and charging fees for participation. However, implementing fees for
athletic participation will limit students who have access to sports to those students from the
most affluent families. Thus, many adolescents will miss out on valuable opportunities to engage
in PA, and will also be deprived of the opportunity to participate in activities that have value
within their communities. Given the importance of school sponsored sports, we argue that
minimizing athletic fees is important not only for encouraging PA among rural youth, but also
for preserving athletics as an important and vital community social activity.
Summary, Limitations and Future Directions
When conceptualizing PA participation among rural adolescents, it is important to consider the
importance of organized sports. School sponsored, low or no cost sports may be essential to PA
among rural adolescents and encourage equal participation across genders. Work/chores
significantly impacted PA participation for a minority of the sample, yet warrant consideration as
an important venue for PA in rural areas.
The largest limitation in the current study was potential participant error in retrospectively
reporting PA participation. The use of self-reported PA is not ideal, yet has been used
extensively in previous studies (Barr-Anderson, et al., 2007; Butcher, Sallis, Mayer, &
Woodruff, 2008; Gordon-Larsen, Nelson, & Popkin, 2004; Kahn, et al., 2008). In future research
it will be important to use measures of PA that are less prone to errors in recall. The best
potential option is the use of accelerometers, which have been shown to produce valid measures
of PA in adolescent females (Treuth, et al., 2004). Another limitation is the primarily White
sample recruited from one community in the rural West, which reduces the generalizability of
the results to minority groups and the broader rural population. However, despite these
limitations, these results provide a foundation for future research focusing on avenues to make
low-cost or no-cost activities available to all youth who wish to participate.
REFERENCES
Allison, K. R., Dwyer, J. J. M., Goldenberg, E., Fein, A., Yoshida, K. K., & Boutilier, M. (2005). Male
adolescents' reasons for participating in physical activity, barriers to participation, and suggestions for
increasing participation. Adolescence, 40(157), 155-170.
Barr-Anderson, D. J., Young, D. R., Sallis, J. F., Neumark-Sztainer, D. R., Gittelsohn, J., Webber, L., et
al. (2007). Structured physical activity and psychosocial correlates in middle-school girls. Preventive
Medicine, 44(5), 404-409.
Brownson, R. C., Housemann, R. A., Brown, D. R., Jackson-Thompson, J., King, A. C., Malone,
B. R., et al. (2000). Promoting physical activity in rural communities: Walking trail access, use, and
effects. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18(3), 235-241.
Buffalo, Wyoming Fact Sheet. Retrieved May 12, 2008, from
http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=&geo_id=16000US5610685&_geoContext=01000US|04000US56|16000US5610685&_street=&_county=Buffalo%2C+WY&_cityTown=Buffalo%2C+W Y&_state=&_zip=&_lang=en&_sse=on&ActiveGeoDiv=&_useEV=&pctxt=fph&pgsl=160&_submenuI d=factsheet_1&ds_name=null&_ci_nbr=null&qr_name=null®=null%3Anull&_keyword=&_industry =&show_2003_tab=&redirect=Y Butcher, K., Sallis, J. F., Mayer, J. A., & Woodruff, S. (2008). Correlates of physical activity guideline compliance for adolescents in 100 U.S. cities. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(4), 360-368. Carson, V., & Spence, J. C. (2010). Seasonal variation in physical activity among children and adolescents: a review. Pediatric Exercise Science, 22, 81-92.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved August 3, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/adoles.htm Daniels, S. R. (2006). The consequences of childhood overweight and obesity. Future of Children, 16(1), 47-67. Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., Strycker, L. A., & Chaumeton, N. R. (2002). Relations between youth antisocial and prosocial activities. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25(5), 425-438. Eyler, A.A. (2003). Personal, social, and environmental correlates of physical activity in rural midwestern white women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 86-92. Eyler, A.A., & Vest, J.R. (2002). Environmental and policy factors related to physical activity in rural white women. Women & Health, 36, 111-121. Feldman, A. F., & Matjasko, J. L. (2007). Profiles and portfolios of adolescent school-based extracurricular activity participation. Journal of Adolescence, 30(2), 313-332. Gordon-Larsen, P., Nelson, M. C., & Popkin, B. M. (2004). Longitudinal physical activity and sedentary behavior trends: Adolescence to adulthood. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(4), 277-283. Hale, J. (1999). Significance of a high school althetic program to school culture, community development, and school-community connections in rural settings. Vanderbilt University. Kahn, J. A., Huang, B., Gillman, M. W., Field, A. E., Austin, S. B., Colditz, G. A., et al. (2008). Patterns and determinants of physical activity in U.S. adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(4), 369-377. Lee, J., & Macdonald, D. (2009). Rural young people and physical activity: understanding participation through social theory. Sociology of Health & Illness, 31(3), 360-374. McNeal, R. B., Jr. (1999). Participation in high school extracurricular activities: Investigating school effects. Social Science Quarterly, 80(2), 291-309. Osuji, T., Lovegreen, S., Elliott, M., & Brownson, R. C. (2006). Barriers to physical activity among women in the rural midwest. Women & Health, 44(1), 41-55. Plotnikoff, R.C., Mayhew, A., Birkett, N., Loucaides, C.A., & Fodor, G. (2004). Age, gender, and urban- rural differences in the correlates of physical activity. Preventive Medicine, 39, 1115-1125. Progress review: Healthy people 2010. Retrieved March 16, 2009, from http://www.healthypeople.gov/Data/2010prog/focus22/
Proper, K. I., & Hildebrandt, V. H. (2006). Physical activity among Dutch workers: Differences between occupations. Preventive Medicine, 43(1), 42-45. Sallis, J. F., Haskell, W. L., Wood, P. E., Fortmann, S. P., Rogers, T., Blair, S. N., et al. (1985). Physical activity assessment methodology in the five-city project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 121(91- 106). Sandercock, G., Angus, C., & Barton, J. (2010). Physical activity levels of children living in different built environments. Preventive Medicine, 50, 193-198. Santos, M. P., Gomes, H., & Mota, J. (2005). Physical activity and sedentary behaviors in adolescents. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 30, 21-24. Schoggen, P., & Schoggen, M. (1988). Student voluntary participation and high school size. Journal of Educational Research, 81(5), 288-293. Springer, A. E., Hoelscher, D. M., & Kelder, S. H. (2006). Prevalence of physical ativity and sedentary behaviors in US high school students by metropolitan status and geographic region. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 3(4), 365-380. Stamm, B. H. (2003). Rural behavioral health care: An interdisciplinary guide. Washington, DC US: American Psychological Association. Steele, R., & Mummery, K. (2003). Occupational physical activity across occupational categories. Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, 6(4), 398-407. Storch, E. A., Milsom, V. A., DeBraganza, N., Lewin, A. B., Geffken, G. R., & Silverstein, J. H. (2007). Peer victimization, psychosocial adjustment, and physical activity in overweight and at-risk-for- overweight youth. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32(1), 80-89. Treuth, M. S., Schmitz, K., Catellier, D. J., McMurray, R. G., Murray, D. M., Almeida, M. J., et al. (2004). Defining accelerometer thresholds for activity intensities in adolescent girls. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(7), 1259-1266. Trost, S.G., Owen, N., Bauman, A.E., Sallis, J.F., & Brown, W. (2002). Correlates of adults’ participation in physical activity: Review and update. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1996-2001. Yore, M. M., Ham, S. A., Ainsworth, B. E., Macera, C. A., Jones, D. A., & Kohl, H. W., III (2005). Occupational physical activity: Reliability and comparison of activity levels. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 2(3), 358-365. Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States (2005). from U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington DC
You can also read
