Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Medici
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
McNair Scholars Journal Volume 7 | Issue 1 Article 7 1-1-2003 Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Medici Denice Durkee Grand Valley State University Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair Recommended Citation Durkee, Denice (2003) "Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Medici," McNair Scholars Journal: Vol. 7: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mcnair/vol7/iss1/7 Copyright ©2003 by the authors. McNair Scholars Journal is reproduced electronically by ScholarWorks@GVSU. http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/ mcnair?utm_source=scholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fmcnair%2Fvol7%2Fiss1%2F7&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages
Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and
Catherine de Medici
ABSTRACT The sixteenth century witnessed vast
The religious upheaval of the sixteenth changes in religion, transforming the
century resulted in widespread civil war religious and political landscape of
and conflict throughout Western Europe. Europe as the Protestant Reformation
Although England escaped much of the swept across the continent. Queen
turmoil, France was plagued by the French Elizabeth I of England (Elizabeth Tudor)
Wars of Religion. Queen Regent Catherine faced a religiously divided nation, as did
de Medici struggled to maintain political Catherine de Medici, Queen Regent of
and religious control in France while France. Yet while France descended into
Elizabeth I, Queen of England, successfully decades of civil war, England remained
ruled a religiously diverse nation. The largely at peace. Queen Elizabeth was
respective constitutional strength of their more successful at governing a
political situations combined with their religiously divided nation than
religious policy decisions played a powerful Catherine de Medici for a variety of
role in the fates of the nations they ruled. reasons. The domestic religious situation
each faced and the policy decisions
made during their reigns played a large
role in influencing the religious situation
in both nations. The fundamental power
Denice Durkee base each possessed also formed an
McNair Scholar essential aspect of the ability to dictate
the national religious situation. Elizabeth
Tudor successfully prevented England
from falling into civil war while
Catherine de Medici was incapable of
preventing the outbreak of several
religious wars over a period of more
than thirteen years, culminating in the
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in
August 1572. Yet, given the conditions
experienced and the extent of her
personal power, there was little
Catherine would have been able to do to
produce a domestic situation similar to
that in England. The royal power
enjoyed, or lack thereof, was vitally
important in shaping the course of
events in both nations over a period of
more than thirty years.
As Queen of England, Elizabeth
benefited from the expanded royal
prerogative over religion established by
her predecessors. Royal control over
religion in England changed
dramatically under King Henry VIII. In
James Smither, Ph.D. 1533, desperate for a divorce from his
Faculty Mentor Spanish wife Catherine of Aragon,
Henry led England into a seemingly
irrevocable break with the Catholic
Church. Royal control over religion was
GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 7, 2003 61tentatively pioneered with this move, Under Edward and the Council of wholeheartedly loyal to the papacy,
and royal control was further cemented Sixteen, the Protestant Reformation could not avoid using the machinery of
in 1534 with the passage of the reached new heights. In 1549, the royal supremacy in order to undo it.”5 In
Parliamentary Act of Supremacy, which Uniformity Bill was passed through her attempts to restore Catholicism,
gave the monarch absolute control over Parliament, mass was abolished, and the Mary was forced to use her father’s
religion within England and supported Book of Common Prayer was creation of royal prerogative to reunite
the break from Rome: introduced.3 The Reformation in England with the Roman Catholic
England took on a strongly Protestant Church. Her efforts were met with
Albeit the king’s Majesty is justly tone, further splitting England along partial success: Catholicism was formally
and rightfully is and oweth to be religious lines. Edward and his Council reestablished as the state religion, and
the supreme head of the Church of faced multiple rebellions against royal mass was conducted throughout the
England, and is so recognized by authority; discontent simmered among country.
the clergy of this realm…be it Catholics until Edward’s untimely death Upon her death in November 1558,
enacted, by the authority of this at the age of sixteen in 1553.4 Mary Tudor left behind a nation with an
present Parliament, that the Upon the death of Edward VI, the uncertain religious future. Although the
king…his heirs and crown passed to Mary Tudor, Catholic Catholic Church had been nominally
successors…shall be taken, daughter of King Henry VIII and restored, its future rested upon the need
accepted and reputed the only Catherine of Aragon. English Protestants for the English Crown to remain in
supreme head in earth of the now faced a Catholic crown, one eager Catholic hands. Childless, without a
Church of England1 to reunite England with the Roman Catholic heir, Mary’s dreams of fully
Catholic Church. Mary’s reign marked a restoring Catholicism died with her. The
With this Act, the monarch gained new phase of royal religious control in crown of England passed to Mary’s
ultimate control over the Church of England; she used the machinery of younger half-sister, Elizabeth Tudor,
England in whatever form they deemed royal control to undo its very foundation daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne
it should take. It required that the clergy and return England to the Catholic fold. Boleyn. When she became Queen of
also recognize the monarch’s supremacy, Following the defeat of the Protestant England in 1558, Elizabeth inherited a
giving a Protestant monarch a method of Queen Jane Grey in 1553, Mary faced troubled nation. As stated by historian
removing Catholic clergy from any little active resistance to her control. As Wallace MacCaffrey, “The religious
position of power. With the passage of monarch, she was accorded the powers problem Elizabeth faced at her
this act, royal control in England entered created by her father and used by her accession, like the rest of her untidy
a new phase, one marked by expanded brother. However, the one revolt she inheritance, was a product of her three
power over religion that would be used faced, Wyatt’s Rebellion, challenged both predecessors’ actions.”6 Elizabeth faced a
by King Henry’s successors. her marriage to Prince Philip of Spain divided nation, split into dissenting
Expanded royal control over religion and attempted to replace the Catholic religious factions, ranging from those
was solidified and used extensively by Mary with her Protestant half-sister. violently Catholic to the extreme
King Henry VIII’s son, King Edward VI, Mary used the royal prerogative Protestants who in 1553 had attempted
and the Council of Sixteen ruling in the established by her father and expanded to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne in
king’s minority. Edward took the throne by her half-brother to formally reconcile order to keep it in Protestant hands. At
at the age of nine upon the death of his England with the Roman Catholic her accession, Elizabeth recognized an
father in 1547, and effective control of Church and reestablish Catholicism as undeniable problem in need of royal
the government passed to the Council of the state religion. As stated by historian control.
Sixteen established in King Henry’s will.2 William Haugaard, “Mary,
1 A.G. Dickens and Dorothy Carr, ed., The Reformation in England to the Accession of Elizabeth I (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1968), 64.
2 Christopher Haigh, English Reformations: Religion, Politics, and Society under the Tudors (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 167.
3 Florence Higham, Catholic and Reformed: A Study of the Anglican Church, 1559-1662, (London: S.P.C.K., 1962), 3.
4 Haigh, 168.
5 William P. Haugaard, Elizabeth and the English Reformation: The Struggle for a Stable Settlement of Religion, (Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1968), 20.
6 Wallace MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I, (London: Edward Arnold, 1993), 298.
62 Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de MediciWhen she became queen, one of After much debate, a revised Act of As queen, she could choose her
Elizabeth’s first concerns was to address Supremacy was passed, granting appointments according to her needs
the issue of religion. Elizabeth faced the Elizabeth the same powers accorded her and create a government focused on her
decision to retain Catholicism or restore father: policies. Elizabeth, as monarch, required
Protestantism as the national religion. all bishops and officials to take an oath
Her personal convictions were For the repressing of the said affirming the queen as supreme
nominally Protestant, but Elizabeth usurped foreign power and governor and head of the church. All
viewed the religious question from a restoring of the rites, jurisdictions but one of the Marian bishops refused
political perspective, weighing the and preeminences attaining to the and resigned their offices, enabling
potential outcomes of her decision. imperial crown of this your realm, Elizabeth to replace them with bishops
Ultimately, the political and personal that it may be enacted by this of Anglican persuasion.13 Many other
reasons to return to Protestantism present Parliament…that for the government officials who had not lost
succeeded. In his book, The History of reviving of divers of the said good their position upon Mary’s death
the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess laws and statutes made in the time similarly refused to swear the oath,
Elizabeth Late Queen of England, of your said dear father.9 resigning their offices instead. Elizabeth
commissioned by King James I, faced a relatively easy path of
Elizabeth’s successor, seventeenth By this act, Elizabeth was granted the restructuring the government with
century historian William Camden title of Supreme Governor of the Church Protestant officials. Her choices
wrote, “In the first beginning of her of England.10 Through the authority of reinforced her religious policy; many
Reign she applied her first Care…to the Parliament, Elizabeth was able to repeal appointees were moderate Protestants
restoring of the Protestant Religion…by all statutes passed by her sister and experienced in government, having
her own Judgement she perswaded her restore the Anglican Protestantism either served in her father’s nominally
self to be most true…”7 As the head of created by her father in the 1534 Act of Protestant government or in her
state, Elizabeth reestablished the royal Supremacy. brother’s strongly Protestant
religious prerogative created by her As queen, Elizabeth was largely able administration.
father, expanded by her half-brother, to structure the government to her Elizabeth was able to fully dismantle
and simultaneously used and abolished needs and to conform to her religious the Catholic Church in England, ridding
by her sister. In 1559, Elizabeth faced policy. This aided greatly in the Church of relics and mass, and
her first Parliament to restore the 1534 consolidating royal control over the reinstating the 1549 Book of Common
Act of Supremacy passed by her father. religious situation. Upon Queen Mary’s Prayer with the 1559 Act of
As stated by MacCaffrey, death in November 1558, all Privy Uniformity.14 Elizabeth viewed her
councilors and many governmental actions as creating a model to be
The statutes of 1559 that provided officials lost their authority.11 As stated followed, instituting a permanent
the constitutional framework of by historian J.E. Neale, church to replace the Roman Catholic
Elizabeth’s new order were Church. She was not inclined to view
straightforwardly political in There was a momentary vacuum in religion and the church as a fluid,
character…an Act of Supremacy administration, and to fill this—to constantly changing entity. As stated by
which re-established the Henrician appoint Privy Councilors and to MacCaffrey, “Of one thing Elizabeth was
legislation of 1534-6 and reconstitute the administrative certain…the process of change must
repudiated Roman authority.8 machine—was one of the tasks end…she saw what was to be done as
confronting Elizabeth at her the final stage of a cycle of reform…”15
accession…12 The Anglican Church returned to the
7 Wallace MacCaffrey, ed., William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth Late Queen of England, (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1970), 11.
8 MacCaffrey, 299.
9 Gerald Bray, ed., Documents of the English Reformation, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994), 319.
10 Susan Doran, Elizabeth I and Religion, 1558-1603, (New York: Routledge, 1994), 14.
11 J.E. Neale, Elizabeth I and her Parliaments, 1559-1581, (New York: British Book Centre, Inc., 1953), 33.
12 Neale, 33.
13 Higham, 7.
14 MacCaffrey, 299.
15 MacCaffrey, 298.
GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 7, 2003 63status established under Edward VI, and maintain peace within her realm. She passed to his sickly fifteen-year-old son,
it was clear there would be little further assumed royal control over religion, but the new King Francis II.19 For the first
reform. As queen, Elizabeth was able to she did not openly pursue and persecute time in several generations, there was no
assume absolute control over religion Catholics throughout her realm as her absolute, adult monarch firmly in
and dictate the terms on which a sister Mary had persecuted Protestants. control of the government. The power of
national church would be established. In no other role than as the sole the crown now rested in the hands of
Queen Elizabeth’s ability to dismantle monarch would Elizabeth have been the Guise family, through their niece,
the Roman Catholic Church played an able to control the religious situation as Mary Queen of Scots, who was married
important role in establishing her she did. Much of her personal power to the young king.20 Control over the
control over religion. She was able to came from that accorded to the crown, impressionable young Francis, and the
undermine any control the Catholic granted only to the monarch. Elizabeth power of the crown with him, was now
Church had over the population by refused to marry and share that power, held by an ultra-Catholic noble family.
replacing it with a new institution. Many knowing that through marriage, her There was little Catherine, as Queen
Catholics throughout England either fled personal power and control would be Mother, could do to change the
to the continent to preserve their largely diminished.18 As Queen of situation; her power at this point rested
religion or converted to Anglicanism. England, she was protected by the solely on her ability to influence her
Elizabeth did not face any full, unassailable position of the Crown and son. She had no legal power to exercise
organized Catholic resistance to her supported by Parliament. Legal in her own right. Through the actions of
policies. Shortly into her reign, she precedent gave her the power to wield the Guise family, Catherine largely lost
publicly denounced any desire to pursue large control over religion. Without the control over her son, greatly diminishing
a course of persecution that had power of the crown to support her any political power she might have been
destroyed her sister’s reign, declaring position, Elizabeth would not have been able to exercise.
that she had no wish to “make for capable of instituting the reforms she The Conspiracy of Amboise, a
herself a window into men’s souls.”16 did or ushering in an era of religious Protestant attempt to take control of the
She required law-abiding behavior from peace. Although Elizabeth’s many government and King Francis II in
all her subjects, but she did not wish to political decisions and actions played a March 1560, provided a turning point
actively enforce loyalty to the Anglican large role in the success of her reign, her in governmental religious policy. The
Church. Elizabeth denounced any ultimate power rested on her status as government, made aware of the
persecution or harassment from her the anointed monarch of England. Protestant plans, removed to the heavily
subjects of either religious persuasion. The religious situation in sixteenth- fortified castle of Amboise, an easily
Three years after her coronation, in century France varied sharply from that defensible position. In March 1560,
response to reports indicating in England. Throughout the latter half of Protestant forces attempted to seize
harassment of Catholics, she announced: the century, France was torn apart by control of Amboise and the royal court.
repeated civil war and internal strife. However, their attempt failed miserably,
We know not, nor have any Catherine de Medici, widow of King resulting in the death of the leader and
meaning to allow, that any of our Henry II and Queen Regent during her the eventual execution of fifty-seven
subjects should be molested…in children’s minorities, proved incapable Huguenot leaders. Although the
any matter either of faith…or of of controlling or preventing the conspiracy actually failed to achieve its
ceremonies…as long as they shall in escalating violence, resulting in the goals of taking control of the king and
their outward conversion show outbreak of religious war and removing the Guise family from court,
themselves quiet and comfortable.17 culminating in the St. Bartholomew’s many changes did actually take place.
Day Massacre in 1572. Upon the Catherine, although favoring a policy of
Elizabeth pursued a course of unexpected death of King Henry II on moderation, followed through with the
moderation, deliberately attempting to July 10, 1559, the crown of France executions that were demanded. The
16 Higham, 5
17 Higham, 6
18 Alison Plowden, Marriage with My Kingdom: The Courtships of Elizabeth I, (New York: Stein and Day Publishers, Inc., 1977), 82.
19 Stuart Carroll, Noble Power during the French Wars of Religion: The Guise Affinity and the Catholic Cause in Normandy, (Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1998), 90.
20 Carroll, 90.
64 Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Mediciatmosphere at court began to shift, and However, the original intent of As Queen Regent, Catherine was able to
Catherine took advantage of this. As repressing all unrest through this edict exercise the power of the crown. She
stated by historian James Westfall failed. As stated by historian Barbara had the authority to negotiate with
Thompson, Diefendorf, ambassadors, appoint persons to office,
and kept the royal seal within her
These changes had the double Even the Edict of Romorantin, possession.25
effect, first, of persuading the queen intended as a repressive measure, Although regarded as the queen
to take the management of affairs had weakened the ability of regent and in joint control of the
upon herself and endeavor to Parlement to prosecute religious government, Catherine was not regarded
remove the Guise from court; deviance by separating the religious as the actual queen. She was not granted
second, in giving the aspects of heresy from the the unchallenged power of the crown; as
Huguenots…the opportunity of secular…23 stated by Thompson, “…the absolute
strengthening themselves.21 authority of the crown was still
Catherine’s first attempt at intervening in personal…”26 and granted only to the
Catherine, although previously either religious policy produced a situation far anointed monarch. Following the death
unwilling or unable to involve herself in the different than expected. Rather than of Henry II, that absolute authority was
management of the kingdom, began to take producing a firm governmental stance, greatly diminished. As stated by
an active role in shaping religious affairs. the attempt at some moderation created contemporary historian Jean du Tillet in
Immediately following the Conspiracy a situation far out of her control. one of his Five Tracts on the religious
of Amboise, Catherine and the Catherine’s official power as Queen situation in France, “Under Henry
government met at an emergency Regent was only established following II…there was division in the realm…but
council to prepare an official response. the death of her son King Francis II and little, if any religious sedition…this
In the Edict of Romorantin resulting the succession of her ten-year-old son erupted under Francis II and increased
from this conference, King Francis II Charles IX to the throne in December because of the kings’ youth.”27 Although
stated: 1560. Shortly after Charles’ accession to granted many of the day-to-day powers
the throne, Catherine was declared of the crown, Catherine was not able to
…We, with the advice of our most Queen Regent and granted much of the assume total control. Catherine’s
honoured mother…and men of our power of the crown during her son’s inability to exercise absolute authority,
Council have decided to restore minority. Through a negotiated as Elizabeth did, played a large role in
matters to their old form and state compromise with Antoine de Bourbon, undermining governmental authority in
in the hope that…as God in olden King of Navarre, Catherine assumed both the religious and political arenas in
times brought an end to sects and joint control of the government. As the sixteenth century. Elizabeth, as
diversity of opinion in His stated by historian James Westfall queen, was the sole monarch in charge;
Church…so will He do now…we Thompson, although she was forced to contend with
have prohibited and forbidden…all Parliament, she was able to make many
illicit assemblies and public armed She found means to have it final decisions. Catherine, although
gatherings, declaring those who arranged…that she and the king of granted the title of Queen Regent and
have held them or will attend Navarre…should rule jointly…this many of the duties attached with it, was
them…subject to the penalties for move gave Catherine exclusive not given the absolute power accorded
treason…22 guardianship of…Charles IX…and an adult monarch.
assured her at least an equal power Much of Catherine’s inability to
Through this edict, the king attempted in the regency.24 control the religious situation within
to cement a policy toward all seditious France stemmed from her lack of
Huguenots throughout the kingdom. absolute authority. Matters brought
21 James Westfall Thompson, The Wars of Religion in France, 1559-1576, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1909), 44.
22 David Potter, fed. and trans., The French Wars of Religion: Selected Documents, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 24-5.
23 Barbara Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 173.
24 Thompson, 72.
25 Thompson, 73.
26 Thompson, 73.
27 Elizabeth A.R. Brown, ed., Jean du Tillet and the French Wars of Religion: Five Tracts, 1562-1569, (Binghamton, NY: The Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 1994), 79.
GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 7, 2003 65before the Queen Regent were also put and family goals within the council begun, presenting the government with
before the Privy Council, a group of undermined any coherent policy the the dilemma at hand. As stated by
ruling nobles vying for control of the government attempted to make, and historian J.H.M. Salmon, “The failure of
government. Catherine was not able to Catherine proved unable to overcome the colloquy itself confronted the
determine many of the members of the these obstacles in her attempt to government with the choice of enforcing
Council as Elizabeth Tudor did, nor did negotiate a settlement between the the law against heresy or of legally
she have as much power over them as groups. tolerating the existence of dissent.”31
did Elizabeth. Catherine faced a group Catherine’s religious goals differed Catherine’s first attempt at constructing
of powerful, at times rebellious, group of from those of her late husband, King a compromise resulted in further
nobles—something that Elizabeth did Henry II. Instead of intensifying division along religious lines. Following
not experience. Historian N. M. religious persecution, as her husband the failure of the colloquy, the
Sutherland described the power struggle had intended and the Guise family had government issued the Edict of Saint-
within the Council, pursued, Catherine instead sought a Germain, also known as the Edict of
course of moderation.30 Catherine’s July, which largely restated the terms set
The rivalry between the nobles course of moderation manifested itself in forth in the Edict of Romorantin,
centered on the control of the a series of edicts and proclamations although it granted Huguenots limited
council through which the designed to alleviate social and religious toleration. This edict, as stated by
authority of the crown was tension; however, her actions had an historian Elizabeth A.R. Brown,
exercised when…the king was opposite effect. Although such a policy “horrified confirmed Catholics, and the
ineffective…After the establishment of toleration proved effective in Parlement of Paris did not register it
of the regency of Catherine de Elizabethan England, many devout until 6 March, after a prolonged struggle
Medici…all three interests, crown, French Catholics and Protestants were with…the queen mother.”32 Catherine
catholics and protestants, struggled unwilling to negotiate such a course of continued on a course disavowed by the
to dominate the council…the action. There was no support or even government and hated by the
crown above all to safeguard peace, acceptance of such a government policy, population, both Catholics and
law and order…and to impose and Catherine was unable to enforce a Protestants. Catherine was forced to
persecution or secure toleration plan hated by much of the population. resort to a tool such as the Colloquy in
respectively.28 Such a policy succeeded in England due an attempt to negotiate a compromise,
to the combined force of a monarchical something Elizabeth was never required
This struggle for power existed because decree and the population’s support for to do. The use of the Colloquy served to
of the lack of an absolute, adult such a position. demonstrate the lack of absolute
monarch firmly in control of the Catherine’s first steps toward a authority over the government exercised
government.29 Catherine was unable to moderate course of toleration began in by the queen regent. Little was resolved
fully assume absolute control of the 1561 with the Colloquy of Poissy. by this edict, and tensions escalated.
government because of the political Intended to resolve theological As queen regent, Catherine faced a
situation within the country and her differences between the Catholic Church divided council with disparate goals.
status as queen regent and not the ruling and Protestants, primarily Calvinists, the Nobles sought to use the council to
monarch. The Prince of Conde and the colloquy itself was a miserable failure. fulfill personal goals, further religious
Duke of Guise actively worked to Neither Calvinists nor Catholics were aims, or achieve better political
undermine Catherine’s authority and to willing to negotiate a peace, and the standing. This dividing influence played
usurp royal power. Factional differences colloquy ended as divided as it had a large role in forming the policies
28 N.M. Sutherland, The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the European Conflict 1559-1572, (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, Inc., 1973), 10.
29 Thompson, 19.
30 Carroll, 90.
31 J.H.M. Salmon, Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975), 141.
32 Brown, 16.
66 Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Mediciissued by the government before and war began as a result of a Huguenot In 1572, she successfully arranged the during the French Wars of Religion. As attack on the Duke of Guise in the town marriage of her daughter and sister of stated by historian N. M. Sutherland, of Vassy, in which more than thirty the king, Margaret of Valois, to with “This three-tiered struggle…may be Huguenots were massacred. Noble Henry of Navarre, Huguenot leader. The directly traced through the…contradictory families quickly took advantage of the wedding was intended to represent a terms and confusing outcome of lack of royal control, dividing into two truce between the two groups, and the…religious edicts issued between distinct groups headed by the Duke of thousands of Huguenots came to Paris January 1561 and January 1562.”33 Guise and the Prince of Conde, sparking to witness the spectacle. However, the Catherine was unable to fully control the an indecisive civil war that would last a truce was to be broken by the council or to dictate its policy decisions, year and produce little results, except to assassination attempt on the leading a dilemma Elizabeth rarely faced. While demonstrate the inability of the crown Huguenot Gaspar de Coligny on August Catherine was largely incapable of to retain authority and power, and cause 22, 1572.38 The government, believing controlling the council, Elizabeth was the death of the leading Catholic an attempt to seize the king was able to use it as a tool to construct her crusader, the Duke of Guise. Although underway, quickly ordered an increased policies. Catherine’s course of the crown futilely attempted to reassert guard and secluded itself. Catholics moderation failed to accomplish any of control, there was little that Catherine, seized Coligny in his home and its goals, instead escalating the friction in her role as Queen Regent, could do to murdered him, dragging his body between the groups and within the prevent the outbreak of war or halt it through the streets. The death of the government. Her efforts at moderation once it had begun. Huguenot leader at Catholic hands were not well received by Protestants or Following the end of the first civil war caused the beginning of the St. Catholics. James Westfall Thompson in March 1563, Catherine de Medici Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.39 The explains, “Every day Catherine’s once again attempted to regain control government was unable to prevent the determination to maintain an even over the tumultuous religious situation slaughter of thousands of Huguenots balance of the two religions was within France.36 She immediately set throughout the city on the night of producing greater tension and more about trying to reorder the kingdom, August 24, 1572.40 Catherine has long heat.”34 Catherine’s efforts at tempering a dealing with every form of decision been assumed to be the person volatile situation through governmental before her. In order to personally responsible for ordering the edicts and actions failed; neither side ascertain the condition of the kingdom, assassination attempt; however, modern was willing to discuss any potential Catherine organized a prolonged historians have recently reexamined that settlement, as evidenced by the failure of progress of the country that began in conclusion.41 The assassination attempt the Colloquy of Poissy in 1561. 1564. She intended that the presence of contradicted her efforts at negotiating Tensions between Catholics and the royal court in heretofore disobedient peace and undermined the progress Protestants erupted beyond Catherine’s provinces would reinstate royal control. made with the royal marriage. Shortly control in March 1562, resulting in the Her efforts proved partially successful, after St. Bartholomew’s Day, the fourth outbreak of the first civil war.35 It resulting in an uneasy peace that lasted civil war began. Catherine’s failure to demonstrated Catherine’s inability to nearly three years after the Progress prevent war was complete. For more prevent the escalation of tensions into began, only to be broken by the than twelve years, her efforts were full civil war even when exercising outbreak of hostilities in fall 1567.37 frustrated at every turn. control as queen regent. Powerful noble In an effort to reunite the two sides, Throughout their reigns, both families, divided along religious lines, Catherine attempted to negotiate a truce Elizabeth Tudor and Catherine de dominated the civil war as a whole. The between the two with a royal marriage. Medici confronted religious strife and 33 Sutherland, 10. 34 Thompson, 126. 35 Sutherland, 20. 36 Salmon, 338. 37 Salmon, 338. 38 Thompson, 39 Thompson, 40 Salmon, 338. 41 For example, see Hugh Ross Williamson, Catherine de’ Medici, (London: Michael Joseph Ltd, 1973), 176. Historians such as N.M. Sutherland in The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the European Conflict 1559-1572, (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, Inc., 1973), and Barbara Diefendorf in Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), have opposed the traditional view of Catherine as the principal agent behind the assassination attempt. GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 7, 2003 67
turmoil. However, a comparison of the religion under her father King Henry granted to the monarch. She retained fundamental differences between the VIII created a precedent that proved the religion established by her father two nations provides insight into the invaluable. Elizabeth, as monarch, was and solidified by her brother. However, circumstances each ruler faced. Both using a royal prerogative that had been without the basis of absolute power rulers faced divided nations split along established by her predecessors and granted to a monarch, she would not religious lines: Catholic and Protestant. validated by parliament. It had been have been able to accomplish these The causes for Elizabeth’s successes used to solidify the Protestant feats. Catherine, as queen regent, did when dealing with the religion question Reformation under her half-brother and not enjoy that absolute power. This lack provide similar causes for Catherine’s also used by her sister to reinstate manifested itself in a series of edicts, inability to control the religious Roman control. Her return to Anglican proclamations, and meetings designed to situation. Both rulers required a Protestantism was further solidified by negotiate a compromise. However, she fundamental power base from which to her ability to replace the Marian faced a divided council, a hostile people, exercise control over all matters religious Catholic bishops with those of the and two groups unwilling to discuss a within their realms. However, while Anglican persuasion. Only royal truce. Her success was dependent on the Elizabeth Tudor enjoyed the power authority could be used to demand an cooperation of both Huguenots and accorded the anointed English monarch, oath of allegiance from all clergy, one Catholics, something she was never Catherine de Medici was denied that that no Catholic official would be granted. Her crowning achievement, similar measure of power because of her willing to take. The rights enjoyed by negotiating a marriage between her status as queen regent rather than the Elizabeth were frequently denied to daughter and Henry of Navarre, was actual monarch. Catherine. Elizabeth was granted the blighted by the assassination of Gaspar Elizabeth Tudor gained control over absolute power of the anointed de Coligny and the St. Bartholomew’s the religious situation within England monarch. She was also able to peacefully Day Massacre. While Elizabeth for a variety of reasons, including her transition from Catholicism to successfully achieved a period of peace power base as monarch and her ability Protestantism due to the precedent and stability, one may also say that to undo the actions of her predecessors. established by her father. As queen, she Catherine exercised all of her power in The establishment of royal control over exercised rights Parliament already pursuit of the same goal. 68 Religion and Power: A Comparison of Queen Elizabeth I and Catherine de Medici
Bibliography
Gerald Bray, ed., Documents of the English Reformation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994.
Elizabeth A.R. Brown, ed., Jean du Tillet and the French Wars of Religion: Five Tracts, 1562-1569. Binghamton, NY: The Center for Medieval and Renaissance
Studies, 1994.
Stuart Carroll, Noble Power during the French Wars of Religion: The Guise Affinity and the Catholic Cause in Normandy. Cambridge: The Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
A.G. Dickens and Dorothy Carr, ed., The Reformation in England to the Accession of Elizabeth I. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1968.
Barbara Diefendorf, Beneath the Cross: Catholics and Huguenots in Sixteenth-Century Paris. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Susan Doran, Elizabeth I and Religion, 1558-1603. New York: Routledge, 1994.
Christopher Haigh, English Reformations: Religion, Politics, and Society under the Tudors. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993.
William P. Haugaard, Elizabeth and the English Reformation: The Struggle for a Stable Settlement of Religion. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1968.
Florence Higham, Catholic and Reformed: A Study of the Anglican Church, 1559-1662. London: S.P.C.K., 1962.
Wallace MacCaffrey, Elizabeth I. London: Edward Arnold, 1993.
Wallace MacCaffrey, ed., William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth Late Queen of England. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press, 1970.
J.E. Neale, Elizabeth I and her Parliaments, 1559-1581. New York: British Book Centre, Inc., 1953.
Alison Plowden, Marriage with My Kingdom: The Courtships of Elizabeth I. New York: Stein and Day Publishers, Inc., 1977.
David Potter, ed. and trans., The French Wars of Religion: Selected Documents. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.
J. H. M. Salmon, Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975.
N. M. Sutherland, The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the European Conflict 1559-1572. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, Inc., 1973.
James Westfall Thompson, The Wars of Religion in France, 1559-1576. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1909.
Hugh Ross Williamson, Catherine de’ Medici. London: Michael Joseph Ltd. 1973.
GVSU McNair Scholars Journal VOLUME 7, 2003 69You can also read
