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Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation POLICY BRIEF
About BudgIT Founded in 2011, BudgIT is a civic organization that applies technology to intersect citizen engagement with institutional improvement, to facilitate societal change. A pioneer in the field of social advocacy melded with technology, BudgIT uses an array of tech tools to simplify the budget and matters of public spending for citizens, with the primary aim of raising standard of transparency and accountability in government. Principal Lead: Gabriel Okeowo Research: Abel Akeni, Adejoke Nafisat Akinbode Document Design & Infographics: Oladipo O. Eniola, Abel Akeni Editor: Shakir Akorede Contact: info@yourbudgit.com, +234 803 727 6668, +234 908 333 1633 Address: 1st Floor, No. 55 Moleye Street, Alagomeji, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. © 2019 Disclaimer: This document has been produced by BudgIT to provide information on public data issues. BudgIT hereby certifies that all the views expressed in this document accurately reflect our analytical views that we believe are reliable and factbased. Whilst reasonable care has been taken in preparing this document, no responsibility or liability is accepted for errors or views expressed herein by BudgIT for actions taken as a result of information provided in this report.
Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
COUNTRY PROFILE
Nigeria has a it has the
9th
population of
196m
people
largest gas
reserves3
There are at least
87m
Nigerians living in extreme
poverty1 - many of whom
and also the
10th
largest crude 2
at least
N10tn
has been spent on petrol
reserves in import subsidy between
believe subsidized fuel is
the world 2006 and November 20184
the only benefit they get
from the government
Premium Motor Spirit, PMS, popularly called What is the opportunity cost of subsidy?
petrol in this resource-rich country is one
product whose price is regulated by the N10trillion can:
Nigerian government as its political class
fears that increases in the price of petrol and BUILD & EQUIP
by extension increase in the cost of living,
occasioned by a deregulated price regime, 2,400
units of 1,000-bed
could become a flashpoint for mass hospitals across 774 LGAs
uprisings and political instability.
or
500,000
BudgIT lends its voice to the argument that
continuation of petrol price regulation
creates safety nests for intractable forms of NEW HOUSES
for families through mortgage
corruption within the country's subsidy at N20m per house
regime implied by price regulation, which
deprives the nation of more funds needed or
for socio-economic development and also ADDITIONAL
27,000mw
discourages investors, who generally prefer
a deregulated industry, from investing in the
downstream sector especially in the area of of solar powered electricity
to the national grid
refinery construction and operation.
or
According to Petroleum Products Pricing
EDUCATE & SKILL UP
and Regulatory Agency, PPPRA, and
Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation,
NNPC, between 2006 when the Petroleum
2,000,000
Nigerians with global standard
Support Fund, PSF, was set up and 2018, at quality tertiary education and
sought-after skills
least N10 trillion has been spent on petrol
import subsidy.
1. https://www.channelstv.com/2018/06/25/nigeria-overtakes-india-in-worlds-extreme-poverty-ranking/
2. https://www.indexmundi.com/energy/?product=oil&graph=reserves&display=rank
3. https://www.indexmundi.com/energy/?product=gas&graph=reserves&display=rank
4. BudgIT ResearchNigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
02
A burden on the future
With no strategic framework for the removal of
the country’s petrol subsidy program and a
population expected to balloon to 398 million5
people by 2050, Nigeria risks carrying the
398m
people
financial burden of a subsidy program that
could drown out development of its other 196m6
people 2050
sectors over the next 15 years.
2018
Nigeria's Subsidy Expenditure & Transfers
Nigeria spent at least
N10trillion* $10.85bn
was transferred from Nigeria's
on subsidy Foreign Excess Crude Account for
in the past 13 years subsidy payments between 2011
(2006 - 2018) and 2014
Source: PPPRA, NNPC Source: Federal Ministry of Finance, "Summary of the Analysis of
Foreign Excess Crude Account from 2011 to 20th May, 2015"
13-year breakdown of Nigeria's expenditure on petrol import subsidy7
N2.11tn
N1.36tn
N1.32tn
N1.22tn N1.19tn
N667bn
N631bn N654bn
N469bn
N272bn
N257bn
N145bn
N24bn
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017* 2018*
Source: Daily Trust, NNPC Monthly Report
*From NNPC's Monthly Report only
5. https://www.populationpyramid.net/nigeria/2050/
6. https://www.populationpyramid.net/nigeria/2018/
7. https://www.dailytrust.com.ng/nigeria-spent-n9tr-on-fuel-subsidy-in-10-years-pppra.html03 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
Petrol Price in Nigeria:
What are the key cost drivers?
The price per barrel of crude oil plays a N305 to $1 in 201810. Within the same
critical role in the surge in petrol prices being period, the price of petrol surged by 34,424%
a major factor of production. Crude oil prices from N0.42 per litre in 1977 to a regulated
shot up by 713.4% from $12.54 per barrel8 price of N145 per litre in 2018.
in January 1977 to a peak of $102 per
barrel in September 2013 and then dropped Our analysis shows a pearson's correlation
to $61.3 per barrel in 2018. In the last 41 coefficient11 of 0.92 between Petrol Price and
years, the exchange rate of the Nigerian Naira-USD Exchange Rate over a period of
naira fell by 48,313% (that is, the amount of 16 selected years from 1977, indicating a
Naira needed to purchase a single dollar very strong relationship between both
increased) from9 N0.63 to $1 in 1977 to variables.
Crude oil price shocks affect local petrol prices
CRUDE OIL PRICES
SHOT UP BY
713.4%
between 1977 to 2013
creating an upward surge in
the total cost of production
for refined petrol
Each time Nigeria's Naira is devalued, imports become more
expensive. Nigeria's continous dependence on petrol importation
means that local petrol prices will continue to suffer from exposure
to exchange rate volatility. As a result, subsidy bill required to keep
petrol price at current regulated levels can be expected to balloon
irrespective of the government or political party in power when
next Nigeria's Naira undergoes another devaluation.
8. US Imports of Crude Oil https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/petr.pdf
9. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GOVPUB-T63_100-45728fcb131fefb32e2376c70c60690a/pdf/GOVPUB-T63_100-45728fcb131fefb32e2376c70c60690a.pdf
10. https://www.cbn.gov.ng/rates/exrate.asp?year=2018&month=11
11. BudgIT ResearchNigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
04
Petrol Price per liter12 (1977 - 2016)
The price of petrol increased by more than 34,000% from N0.42/liter in 1975 to N145/liter in 2018
N/Liter
N145/liter
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
N0.42/liter
1977 1978 1986 1988 1989 1991 1993 1994 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2007 2012 2016
Source: Fuel Subsidy Corruption and the Illusions of Economic Reconstruction in Nigeria
Crude oil price per barrel13 (1977 - 2016)
% Change in Petrol Price % Change in Crude oil price
$/barrel
140
120
$109.45/barrel
100
80
60
40
20
1977 1978 1986 1988 1989 1991 1993 1994 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2007 2012 2016
Source: US Imports of Crude Oil
12. http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/ajis/article/viewFile/5993/5764
13. US Imports of Crude Oil https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/petr.pdf05 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
% Change in Petrol Price vs % Change in Naira-USD Exchange Rate14
% Change in Petrol Price % Change in NGN-USD Exchange Rate
700%
600%
500%
400%
300%
200%
100%
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
-100%
Source: BudgIT Research
How exposed is Nigeria's petrol price to exchange rate volatility?
Nigeria currently imports Poor refinery capacity
91%
utilization as low as
of its daily petrol needs leaving
9.88%
is the primary reason
local prices exposed to shocks Nigeria continues to
from exchange rate fluctuations import petrol
13-Month trend in Nigeria's Petrol Supply15
'millions Imported Petrol Locally Refined Petrol
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Nov-17 Dec-17 Jan-18 Feb-18 Mar-18 Apr-18 May-18 Jun-18 Jul-18 Aug-18 Sep-18 Oct-18 Nov-18
Source: NNPC Monthly Operational & Performance Report
14. BudgIT Research
15. NNPC Monthly Operational & Performance Report, November 2018Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
06
Legal and political dilemma of
subsidy removal
Petrol is one of the products listed in the neighbouring countries - which is big
Price Control Act 1977. The Act provides enough to incentivise smuggling of
strict penalties for anyone who sells above subsidized products to neighbouring border
the regulated price. However, no marketer towns. According to NNPC, there are 2,201
will import a product to run at a loss due to petrol stations in Nigeria’s porous border
price regulations that do not take into towns and coastal frontiers16, with a
considerations the realities of market forces. combined fuel tank capacity of 144.9 million
Withdrawal of marketers from petrol litres. However, the population in this area
importation often means petrol scarcity and does not warant the presecence of such
posibble civil and political unrest. To avoid tank capacity. Like Nigeria, Venezuela,
political catastrophe, successive (which has the lowest petrol price in the
governments have had to sustain subsidy to world of N3.65/liter as a result of subsidy)
ensure marketers find petrol importation also faced similar problems with smuggling,
and distribution somewhat profitable. There with official government figures estimating
are two types of subsidy the government that the country loses at least $18bn
provides: annually17 to smugglers who sell
Venezuela's cheap petrol in Colombia and
1. Petrol Import Subsidy: other neigbhouring countries.
In this program, the government pays petrol Past governments have tried to end the
marketers for the difference between the country’s petrol import subsidy program,
regulated price of imported petrol and the however, their moves have been fiercely
Expected Open Market Price, EOMP, resisted by citizens who benefit from low
estimated by the Petroleum Products prices. In the case of Bamidele Aturu versus
Pricing and Regulatory Agency, PPPRA, as Attorney-General of the Federation18 the
an import subsidy. This program is handled Federal High Court declared illegal and
through the Petroleum Subsidy Fund, PSF. unconstitutional the policy decision of the
federal government to deregulate the
Import subsidy creates petrol price arbitrage downstream sector which would have led to
- the differential between the regulated the removal of petrol subsidy.
price in Nigeria and the high petrol prices in
Subsidy incentivizes smugglers Citizens & NGOs resist subsidy removal
Nigeria loses significant amount of its
subsidized fuel to smugglers who sell it at
market prices in neighbouring countries Civil society often
Venezeula loses RESISTS Say No to
SUBSIDY
$18bn
Subsidy Removal!
REMOVAL
TO SMUGGLERS their argument is for the
annually who sell that government to fight
country's subsidized corrpution in the program
petrol in Colombia and instead of ending subsidy
neigbhouring countries
16. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/298049-regulate-petrol-supply-to-border-communities-ppmc-tells-marketers.html
17. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45179671
18. https://www.thecable.ng/buhari-decieved-nigerians-says-falana07 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
2. Petrol Price Equalization subsidy:
Petrol sold in states near coastal regions
Despite equalization (specifically Lagos ports) like Ogun, Ondo
subsidy, there is uneven (etc) are typically cheaper than those sold in
petrol price distribution states that are inland (e.g. Kano, Borno etc)
along inland regions due to the additional cost of transportation
to inland states when petroleum products
pipeline infrastructure leading to these
State Average petrol price states are compromised or experience
failure. The Nigerian government tries to
solve this problem by covering the extra cost
of transportation to oil marketers with an
equalization subsidy, so that citizens in all
parts of the country can buy petrol at the
regulated price.
Unfortunately, this form of subsidy has
failed to stabilize prices of petrol across
inland states like Borno, Taraba etc.
According to the PMS Price Watch
published by the country’s National Bureau
for Statistics, NBS, for July 2018, nearly all
inland regions purchased petrol above the
Fixed Price of N145 per liter despite
allocation for PMS equalization subsidy -
with Borno, Taraba and Bayelsa recording
the highest petrol prices at N155.00 per
Source: NBS PMS Price Watch, July 2018
liter, N151.82 per liter and N151.67 per liter
respectively19.
#AskQuestions
Are citizens the ultimate beneficiaries Why do citizens still buy petrol above
of the country's equalization subsidy 1 regulated prices despite huge
program or vested interests? equalization subsidy expenditure?
Which government has the political
2 will to scrap or reform the
equalization subsidy program?
19. https://www.proshareng.com/admin/upload/reports/11509-PMSREPORTJuly2018-proshare.pdfNigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
08
Nigeria's N382bn Subsidy Scandal:
Will justice ever be served?
In 2006, Nigeria had only six (6) fuel government and some of those implicated in
importers, yet by 2011, this number had the probe 7 years ago, as many of them are
skyrocketed to 140. As at 31st December yet to receive any real punishment. Indeed,
2011, it was established that the total news reports abound that some of these oil
amount paid as subsidy in that year was companies are being rewarded with juicy
N2.587* trillion, amounting to more than contracts as the Nigerian National
900% increase over the appropriated sum Petroleum Corporation, NNPC, granted
of N245 billion for that year20. The outcry them rights to participate in the 2017/2018
that greeted this stunning observation led to crude oil trade where they are allowed to lift
a series of probes initiated by the country’s 32,000 barrels per day of crude oil21.
Federal Government. More than 20
companies were identified as being A total of N382** billion was lost to the
complicit after investigations were launched, subsidy scandal as probe committees set up
and several of them are still facing criminal discovered. This N382 billion lost could have
charges in Nigerian courts for receiving provided 15,280 small businesses with
hugely inflated subsidy claims. However, long-term, collateral-free, startup capital
insinuations are rife that there may be a loans of N25 million each; this could then be
collusion between the political elite in re-loaned to others upon repayment.
Over
N2.58tn
900%
increase
N245bn over the appropriated sum
of N245 billion for that
approporiated actual subsidy year triggered a probe.
subsidy payment payment for Justice is yet to be served
for 2011 2011 to many of those indicted.
N382bn can fund
N382bn 15,280
lost to subsidy scandal small businesses
as discovered by probe committees set with long-term, collateral-free startup
up. Some marketers never used their capital loans of N25million each; this
throughput agreement yet claimed could be reloaned to others upon
subsidy repayment
*This amount is more than the N2.11trillion reported as subsidy payment by PPPRA for that year (see page 2)
**Another presidential committee reviewed the amount lost to the scandal from the initial N422.54bn21 to N382bn
20. http://www.sahara-group.com/docs/hrr.pdf
21. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/docs_download/Technical%20committee%20report%20on%20subsidy%20-%20part%201.pdf09 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
NNPC’s new role as petrol importer:
Should Nigerians be worried?
While the petrol marketers have been 1. NNPC may be paying itself subsidy for
impugned for their role in the subsidy losses not incurred
scandal, they too face genuine problems of
their own with the Federal government In June 2017, the Landing cost of PMS was
especially with delayed payments of N124.83 per liter with an Expected Open
subsidy claims and difficulty in accessing Market Price, EOMP of N144.20 according
foreign exchange to import fuel. This led to the Petroleum Products Pricing
many marketers to abandon importation of Regulatory Agency, PPPRA23. This is lower
petrol leading to long queues at petrol filling than the government’s regulated price of
stations and political blowback for the N145 per liter by a margin of +N20.17 per
current administration. The administration liter. However, a review of NNPC’s monthly
has thus asked NNPC, the nation’s national Financial and Operations Report for June
oil company, to intervene and become the 2017 shows that it claimed to have made
importer of last resort to ensure that the losses of -N11bn on the sale of petrol and
queues disappear. As at December 2017, hence it deducted N11bn as subsidy/under
NNPC was responsible for nearly 78% of all recovery before paying the balance revenue
petrol imported in that year22. In 2018, this to the country’s FAAC account.
figure is closer to 100% of all petrol
imported. NNPC wasn’t set up for this 2. Discretionary deductions and
importation role and doesn’t have all the expenditure
infrastructure to handle importation of
nearly 51 million liters of petrol daily, it must NNPC appropriated $1.05bn of revenue
be noted. from dividend accruals from the Nigerian
Liquefied Natural Gas Limited (NLNG)
Furthermore, NNPC’s reputation in the Limited for handling fuel importation24; this
public eye is not necessarily top notch. A definitely includes deductions for under
small part of its reputational crisis is due to recovery/subsidy. However, Chapter V, Part
largely fictitious claims made by some 1 (E), Section 80(1 to 4) of the Constitution
segment of the media, but some part of this of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, says
crisis is of its own making as NNPC is often revenue from the federation must be paid
found to be economical with the truth. An into the Consolidated Revenue Fund, and
example is NNPC’s claim that petrol subsidy funds must be authorised by an
no longer exists in the country, whereas it Appropriation Act before being paid out.
makes provisions for ‘under-recovery’ - a While the intentions of NNPC may be very
necessary condition for subsidy to be paid. good, they are not enough to breach the
constitution. If all well intentioned revenue
Here are a few things Nigerians, civil society agencies are allowed to break the law, the
and the government need to pay attention result will be complete fiscal irresponsibility.
to as NNPC becomes the importer of last There is a reason these checks and balances
resort for petrol products: exist in the constitution.
22. PPPRA 2017 Annual Performance Report
23. PPPRA 2017 Annual Performance Report
24. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/290842-updated-nnpc-explains-subsidy-says-1-05bn-revolving-fund-with-cbn.htmlNigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
10
3. Subsidy over deductions 4. Risks from Infrastructure gaps
Due to little or no oversight over their If NNPC continues to be the sole importer of
activities and weak accountability petrol - a task it was not set up to perform -
framework, vested interests within NNPC it will have to depend on third parties for
may be taking advantage of the subsidy infrastructure needed to handle subsidized
program through over deductions as petrol now and in the near future. This
pointed out by the Office of the Accountant creates an additional layer of risk - especially
General of the Federation. Two significant the risk that subsidized petroleum products
cases where this overdeduction occurred could be stolen by its partners. Indeed, N11
are in 2011 and in 2015. In 2011 and 2015, billion25 worth of NNPC’s subsidized petrol
NNPC claimed to deduct N844.944 billion went missing from the storage facilities of
and N306.917 billion respectively. However, two NNPC partners - MRS and Capital Oil &
submissions from the Office of the Gas. NNPC reported that it successfully
Accountant-General of the Federation recovered 30 million liters expropriated by
report showed that NNPC actually deducted MRS but was not as successful with Capital
N981.734 billion and N316.720 billion; a Oil & Gas which was yet to return 82 million
cumulative difference of N146.593 billion. liters26 of the 100 million liters it took at the
time the incidence was reported.
NNPC made
N146.59bn N981.7bn
actual deductions
2011 initial claim N844.94bn
OVER DEDUCTIONS
according to a report by the actual N316.7bn
accountant general of the 2015
federation in 2011 and 2015
initial N306.9bn
30mLITERS
N11bn RECOVERED
from MRS successfully
WORTH OF PETROL
WENT MISSING
from the storage faciliteis of
two NNPC partners - MRS
82mLITERS
and Capital Oil UNRECOVERED
from Capital Oil & Gas
25. https://www.nnpcgroup.com/PublicRelations/NNPCinthenews/tabid/92/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/738/NNPC-Moves-to-Recover-N11bn-Missing-Petrol-from-Capital-Oil.aspx
26. https://www.nnpcgroup.com/PublicRelations/NNPCinthenews/tabid/92/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/738/NNPC-Moves-to-Recover-N11bn-Missing-Petrol-from-Capital-Oil.aspx11 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation Conclusion The question of continuation of the country's over $10.85bn from its Excess Crude savings petrol subsidy program needs to be Account to sustain subsidy. Of the $180bn addressed decisively. Venezuelan that has accrued to Excess Crude Account government and its citizens played the ostrich since 2004 (which is supposed to be a fiscal and ignored all the warning signs of buffer), less than $249m remains29 as at impending economic doom as its fiscals were 2018. beleaguered by huge subsidy bills while citizens enjoyed the lowest27 petrol price in We believe subsidy needs to be removed. the world of N3.65/liter. Today, Venezuela’s Palliative measures should be provided for economy is in turmoil. Nigeria with the 6th people that will be worse hit by the removal. lowest petrol price globally of N145/liter is Four sectors - Transportation, Power, Health headed in the same direction: struggling with and Education - should be prioritized for a recent 60% currency devaluation crisis in cushion the effects. We also believe that 2016 (from N197:$1 to N305:$1) which funding for cheaper mass transit and increased the country’s subsidy bill, dwindling subsidies to public institutions can be government revenue, weakening demand for targeted for these groups. The challenge is Nigerian crude, low budget credibility and that Nigeria lacks a comprehensive single approximately 69% of its annual revenue database structure to holistically define such a spent on debt servicing28; Nigeria has had to subset of the population. take the desperate measure of withdrawing 27. https://www.globalpetrolprices.com/gasoline_prices/ 28. https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2018/10/27/nigerias-terrifying-debt-to-revenue-ratio/ 29. https://www.businessamlive.com/election-spending-nigeria-govt-further-depletes-excess-crude-account-to-249m/
Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation
12
Recommendations
1. Boost local refining capacity to reduce as the petroleum equalization subsidy
the current 91% exposure to petrol exists, the country may continue to
importation experience sabotage of its product pipelines,
as some vested interests seem to be
International development partners (World benefiting from it without delivering value.
Bank, IFC, GIZ and DFID) need to work with
the government and civil society to design a Perhaps, it's time for Nigerians to realize
program to mobilize technical and financial petrol prices at the coastland will always be
support for refinery license holders to different from prices at the inlands.
ensure refineries under construction
become operational. 4. Adopt OpenData
Turn Around Maintenance (TAM) contracts NNPC and other agencies in the sector need
need to be fully investigated to determine if to be supported to adopt open data
the country is getting value for money while principles over the next 5 years. Proactive
the findings should be made public. All disclosures and transparency always help to
greenfield refinery projects for which avoid suspicion and build better trust
feasibility studies have been completed between citizens and stakeholders.
(Lagos, Kogi, Bayelsa) need to be revived,
especially the one for Kogi which is more 5. Courts need to interpret if NNPC has
inland. rights to make discretionary deductions
2. Special Petroleum fraud tribunal and Civil society organizations need to approach
capacity boosting for prosecutors the courts to determine which is superior
between the country’s constitution which
To deter fraud, justice must not only be mandates that all revenue due to the
done, but must be seen to have been done in country should be paid to the Consolidated
a timely manner. The current time frame for Revenue fund and the NNPC Act which
concluding corruption cases related to allows it to recoup its cost before paying the
subsidy and other activities in the petroleum balance to the federation account. This will
sector is too long. Perhaps, a special tribunal help introduce proper oversight to its
may be able to accelerate timeframes. functions and prevent arbitrary deductions.
3. Fix pipeline network to the inlands so we 6. Track outcomes from subsidy corruption
can scrap PEF and let market forces play cases
The more petroleum pipelines are Civil society needs to ensure that all cases,
sabotaged, the more money the government investigations and findings of subsidy fraud
will have to spend on paying for petroleum are properly followed up on a regular basis,
equalization subsidy for petrol sold across preferably monthly.
the country. It would also seem that as long13 Nigeria's Petrol Subsidy Regime: Dilemma of the world's most populous black nation 7. Foresighted Needs-Mapping 8. Mindset resetting The government, in collaboration with civil On a long-term basis, a campaign for society, needs to proactively map out perceptional change of all stakeholders most current consumption needs and projected especially the citizens has become consumption needs of the citizenry viz-a-viz imperative. Citizens need to understand the current and projected local refining capacity demerits of a petrol subsidy program and needed to meet those needs over the next the centrality of every citizens predicament 40 years. The civil society needs to engage whenever an economic crisis occurs. regularly or perhaps, quarterly with the government to track its actions to ensure the nation is on course to have adequate local refining capacity.
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