Mood Changes Associated with lyengar Yoga Practices: A Pilot Study
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 35
Mood Changes Associated with lyengar Yoga
Practices: A Pilot Study
David Shapiro, Ph.D., and Karen Cline, B.A.
Abstract Introduction
The main objectives of this study were 1) to examine It is almost universal for people to take part in indi-
changes in self-reported moods and emotional states vidual and organized activities for purposes of exercise,
from before to after lyengar Yoga classes and how they physical conditioning, recreation, social contact, remedi-
are affected by the practice of different types of Yoga ation of physical and mental problems, or general self
poses and (2) to determine whether observed changes in improvement and health. The World Health Organization
mood depend on one's personality traits. The partici- estimates that 65-80% of the world's population rely on
pants were 11 healthy Yoga students in a nine-session traditional or alternative forms of health care. A recent
Yoga course in which three different types of Yoga poses survey reported on their increased use for back pain and
were compared: back bends, forward bends, and stand- musculo-skeletal problems, headache, insomnia, stress/
ing poses. Each 90-minute class focused on one of the anxiety, cardiovascular problems, and other ailments.'
three types of poses with three repetitions of each type of Yoga, Tai Chi, and Pilates have become increasingly
class. Self-ratings of 15 moods dealing with positive, popular activities in the United States in recent years
negative, and energy-related emotional states were with estimates of 10 to 15 million people participating in
obtained before and after each class. Personality traits Yoga classes (see Time Magazine cover story, April 23,
of depression, anxiety, and hostility were assessed at an 2001). In a recent informal survey of students enrolling
initial orientation. Independently of the specific pose, in lyengar Yoga classes, the most common health prob-
positive moods increased, negative moods decreased, lems reported were lower back pain, allergies, neck,
and energy-related moods increased from before to after shoulder, knee, and ankle/foot problems, depression,
classes with most changes lasting for two hours. Specific headache, and anxiety (personal communication, lyen-
poses resulted in differences in how moods were affected, gar Yoga National Association of the United States).
with back bends associated with greater increases in As emotional disorders are major health problems,
positive moods. Some mood changes were dependent on and as Yoga is relatively inexpensive and readily avail-
one's characteristic personality traits. The positive mood able, evidence about emotional processes in Yoga merits
effects of back bends were greater for participants who further attention. Yoga practices have features consid-
were relatively hostile or depressed. The specific and ered by sport psychologists to be associated with stress
nonspecific effects of different bodily postures and move- reduction. Although Yoga is generally not aerobic, it is
ments on psychological processes in Yoga and other typically noncompetitive, predictable, and rhythmical.^
forms of physical activity deserve further study. As there are links between physical movements and pos-
Yoga practices should be investigated for their potential tures on the one hand and emotional states and traits on
clinical application in mood disorders and depression. the other, we hypothesized that specific Yoga practices36 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
may have consequences for emo- lyengar classes are structured and well-being. Psychological and physi-
tional states.^ In this exploratory involve sequences of poses and ological benefits of participating in
study, the main objectives were to actions designed to facilitate learn- programs involving physical activity
examine mood changes associated ing how to master the poses as well and exercise training are well docu-
with participation in Yoga classes as overcome strains that may be mented." To control for nonspecific
and to determine whether certain brought about by the process. factors, the effects of back bends
Yoga practices differed from one Instructions given by teachers are were compared with the effects of
another in their effects on mood. detailed and continuous during two other typical Yoga practices
classes with a focus on awareness of (forward bends and standing poses).
Although Yoga is gen- the activity of muscles and joints and In this way, we could determine
their coordination in conjunction whether the expected changes in
erally not aerobic^ it is
with appropriate breathing pattems. moods would be more pronounced
typically noncompeti- Yoga involves maintaining postures in or specific to the practice of back
tive^ predictable^ and for minutes at a time. Over time the bends. Examples of each pose type
rhythmical. training appears to result in in- are as follows: back bends—camel,
creased muscle strength and flexibil- upward bow, upward dog; forward
Yoga instruction is usually ity and a greater awareness of one's bends—downward dog, head on
organized around the teaching and movements and posture. knees, intense west stretch; standing
principles of a particular tradition or The best studies of mood poses—extended triangle, extended
master teacher (guru). The present changes associated with Yoga were angle, warrior I.
study derives from the teaching and done by Berger and Owen. In a form The study utilized a within-sub-
writings of B. K. S. lyengar." The of Yoga that has a strong exercise ject experimental design. By com-
lyengar organization is international dimension (Hatha-Yoga) involving paring the effects of the different
and claims that about 30% of all stretching, balancing, and breathing class types within the same subjects,
Yoga participants follow that tradi- routines, after classes subjects we could determine whether changes
tion. The classes typically involve reported being less anxious, tense, in self-reported moods from before
the practice of floor, sitting, and angry, fatigued, and confused.^ In a to after a session would vary as a
standing poses, inversions (head- second study,' Yoga and swimming function of the specific focus on a
stand, shoulder stand), breathing showed comparable effects on given Yoga practice. It was hypothe-
exercises (prandydma), and medita- moods, and the authors concluded sized that back-bend classes would
tion. Stretches, twists, and exten- that aerobic exercise may not be nec- be associated with greater increases
sions or expansions of parts of the essary for mood alteration or stress in positive moods and greater
body are common features. The reduction. No pubhshed data are decreases in negative moods from
practice of meditation is considered available on changes in mood as before to after class as compared
appropriate mainly for advanced related to the practice of specific with forward bends or standing
lyengar Yoga students and practi- poses or on whether mood changes poses. A second aim was to test the
tioners. A unique feature of lyengar associated with Yoga differ as a hypothesis that mood changes asso-
Yoga is the highly developed use of function of personality traits. ciated with the different Yoga prac-
props (mats, blocks, blankets, straps, The main objective of the pres- tices would be related to personality
ropes, chairs, benches) as aids in ent study was to test the hypothesis traits. For this purpose, individual
doing the poses, a method that derived from lyengar Yoga teaching differences in anxiety, depression,
allows gradual achievement of the and theory that the practice of back and hostihty were examined. These
desired practice and that is consistent bends results in increases in positive traits are related to emotional behav-
with the principle of successive emotional states (feeling happy or ior and experience and may predict
approximation in the psychology of elated) and decreases in negative how a person's mood changes with
learning. emotional states (feeling sad or the practice of the different poses.
Typically, lyengar teachers take depressed).'' In designing the study, No specific predictions were made
intensive three-year educational we had to consider that mere partici- about the direction of the associa-
and training programs for certifica- pation in any type of self-help pro- tions. A third aim was to examine the
tion by the organization and attend gram may affect moods and lead to a changes in mood occurring inde-
workshops for continuing education. sense of personal achievement and pendently of the specific Yoga prac-INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14(2004) 37
tice engaged in. Based on prior programs. In an initial orientation attend the nine Yoga classes free of
research, we expected increases in session, the procedures were charge. The nine classes contained
positive moods and decreases in explained, and subjects filled out the the same kinds of practices of a typical
negative moods. We also determined introductory Iyengar Yoga course,
whether these changes were related It was hypothesized organized in different sequences.
to the personality traits. that back-bend classes Participants were asked to make
would be associated every effort to attend every session;
Methods attendance rate for all classes and
with greater increases participants combined was 89% (11
The participants were 8 women in positive moods and missed classes out of 99). All partici-
and 3 men, 23 to 59 years old, greater decreases in pants completed the course.
recruited mainly from beginning negative moods. Nine Yoga classes were held on
Yoga classes. Years of education weekdays, during early evening
ranged from 12 to 20. They reported personality questionnaires, which hours, two evenings a week, each
being in good health and free of took 30 minutes. Mood scales (see class about 90 minutes in duration,
problems that would limit participa- below) took one minute for each set as part of a regular introductory
tion, and they stated that they regu- of ratings. All together, little time Yoga course. Each class focused on
larly exercised from 0 to 14 hours a (less than an hour in total) was one of the three types of poses:
week (median = 4). Six participants required of the participants. In standing poses, forward bends or
had taken part in other health-related exchange, participants were able to back bends. These were rotated in
Table 1 Table 2
Mood Ratings Pre- and Post-Yoga Classes Changes inI Mood Ratings (Post-Pre) in
Different Yoga Practices
Mood Pre Post Post 1 Post 2 pb3 8 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
FIRST SERIES SECOND SERIES
MENSTRUAL MENSTRUAL
REGULAR VARIATION REGULAR VARIATION
Standing Poses Standing Poses
Tadasana Tadasana
Trikonasana Parsh vakonasana Vrikshasana
Vtrabhadrisana II Trikonisana
Parshvakonasana Tadasana
Vfrasana Parshvakonasana
Sarvangasana in chair Setubandha Tadasana
Utkatasana Tidasana
Forward Bends
Baddhakonasana
Adhomukha-shvanasana
Urdhva-prasarita-padasana Supta-baddhakonasana
Trikonasana
Classic Sarvangasana Setubandha
Parshvottinasana
Prasarita-padottanasana Forward Bends
Vtrasana Baddhakonasana
Triang-muksikapada- Upavishtakonasana
pascimotttinasana
Dandasana
Pascimotttanasana
Janu-shirshasana
Upavishta twist
Pascimotttanasana
Supta-baddhakonasana
Supta-padangusthasana Against wall to side
Back Bends Bharadvijisana on bolster
Adhomukha-shvanasana Bharadvajasana on
chair to side
Trikonasana
Bharadvajasana on chair
Vtrabhadrisana I
with bolster
Urdhva-mukha-shvanisana—
Shavasana with feet on chair
hands on chair seat
Ushtrisana Back Bends
Urdhva-dhanurasana— Back bend over a chair Rope I (10 times twice)
blocks okay Rope II
Adhomukha-svanasana Rope III
Chair bharadvajasana to side
Urdhva-mukha-shvanasana—
Chair pasasana hands on chair seat
Sarvangasana on chair Setubandha Dvi-pada-vipartta-dandasana
on chair
- half blanket on upper back
- roll catching shoulder blades
- half roll at lumbar moving down
Urdhva-dhanurasana
Adhomukha-shvanasana
Sarvangasana on chairINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14(2004) 39
sequence three times. The classes
were taught by two experienced
Iyengar Yoga teachers who alter-
THIRD SERIES nated from class to class. Each class
was preplanned, and the particular
sequence of postures of each class
MENSTRUAL type varied from session to session.
REGULAR VARIATION
Other poses not falling into a given
pose type (e.g., shoulder stand,
Standing Poses
corpse pose) were included in all
Ardhacandrasana Trikonisana
classes, but the main focus of a
Adhomukha-shvanasana
given class was one of the three
Trikonasana
pose types. The teachers focused
Parshvottinasana on the poses and did not discuss
Parivritta-pidottinisana potential emotional or other psycho-
Classic Sarvingisana Setubandha logical changes associated with
the practices. See the sidebar for a
Forward Bends
list of the sequence of poses used in
Adhomukha-shvanasana
each class.
Uttanasana
Adhomukha-shvanisana
At the beginning (PRE) and end
(POST) of each class, subjects rated
Jinu-shfrshisana—working
their moods using 5-point numerical
jinu-sh?rshisana—supported
scales (none to very much). They
Pascimotttinisana—supported
also were given two additional rating
Pavana-muktasana
sheets and asked to rate the same
Vipartta-karant-mudri Supta-baddhakonisana moods one hour (POSTl) and two
Shavisana— hours (P0ST2) after class and to
bolster under the knees
return these two sets of ratings at the
Back Bends next class. Mood terms were se-
Adhomukha-shvanisana lected to tap positive and negative
Adhomukha-vrikshisana Adhomuka-shvanisana emotional states plus energy level
Adhomukha-shvanisana (moods shown in Table 1). In previ-
Adhomukha-vrikshisana
ous research, these three dimensions
of mood were found to be independ-
Rope I (10 times)
ent of one another as determined by
Urdhva-dhanuirsana— Back bend over a chair
hands turned out on roll a principal components analysis.'"
Ordhva-dhanurisana— Back bend over a chair The following personality tests
bands on blocks were administered at the itiitial ori-
Ordhva-dhanurisana— Back bend over a chair entation. The Cook-Medley Hostility
hands on floor Scale (HOS) is a measure of indirect
Adhomukha-shvanisana hostility, a cynical and mistrust-
Pasasana at wall ing attitude toward others." The
Bharadvijisana at wall Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory
Setubandha (ANX) measures the general dispo-
Adhomukha-svastikisana sition to experience anxiety fre-
quently.'^ The Center for Epidetni-
ological Studies of Depression Scale
(DEP) measures a disposition to
experience depressed affect." This
scale is designed for use in the
general population.40 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
The main data consisted of pendent factors, a significant 2-way ences between PRE and POST as a
mood ratings obtained before and interaction means that the change in function of pose style were shown
after classes, with repeated measures mood from pre- to post-class varied for confident (p = .05) and happy (p
over the nine sessions. As initial as a function of both pose style and = .09). The increase from PRE to
analyses of the data indicated that personality trait. Again, correlations POST in the mood confident was
pre-post class mood differences did were used to show the nature of the greater for forward bends and back
not change significantly over the interaction. Given the exploratory bends than for standing poses. These
three repetitions within each pose nature of the study and the relatively differences were unrelated to PRE
type, mood ratings were averaged small sample, all effects with p val- values, which did not differ between
over the three repetitions. The data ues less than .10 are discussed. poses for any of the moods. Inspec-
were analyzed with repeated meas- tion of the pattern of differences
ures analysis of variance (SYSTAT Results between poses in Table 2 indicates
that in four out of the five positive
The moods related to Independently of pose type, did moods, the increase from PRE to
moods change over the course of the POST was greatest for back bends,
energy level tended to four ratings, averaging over ses- and in the case of confident back
increase from before to sions? The means are shown in Table bends vied for first place with for-
after classes. 1. The pattern of change was consis- ward bends. The likelihood that four
tent with the hypothesis, an increase of five positive moods would show
9, General Linear Models). WiUcs' in positive moods and a decrease in the largest increase from PRE to
Lambda was used to test effects with negative moods from PRE to POST POST for back bends is p = .02
more than two repeated measures. that generally continued for the fol- (binomial test). Thus, the data in
Initial analysis focused on the lowing two hours (POSTl, P0ST2) Table 2 suggest a relatively consis-
changes in mood ratings over the with a tendency to revert to PRE val- tent tendency for back bends to
four repeated rating occasions (PRE, ues over time. The moods related to enhance positive moods, as hypothe-
POST, POSTl, P0ST2) independent energy level tended to increase from sized. However, no support was
of pose style. Subsequent analyses before to after classes. Changes over obtained for the hypothesized
focused on the change in mood rat- the four ratings were significant for 9 greater reduction in negative moods
ings from PRE to POST, first inde- out of the 15 moods at p < .05 with for back bends.
pendently of pose type and then decreases in anxious, frustrated, As individuals may vary from
comparing the three pose types. The stressed, fatigued, and tired, and one another in their usage of particu-
latter analyses were then repeated increases in content, happy, opti- lar mood terms within each of the
adding in each personality measure mistic, and relaxed. Three other three mood dimensions, change
as an independent factor. In the case moods (depressed, irritated, and pes- scores were computed for all moods
of a significant interaction between simistic) had p values less than .10. averaged together within each di-
mood change and personality test Table 1 also gives the findings for mension (negative, positive, energy)
score, independent of the specific PRE/POST differences, significant and the PRE/POST differences
pose, Pearson r correlations were at p < .05 for all moods except sad, between average mood change
used to show the nature of the inter- consistent with the pattern of an scores for each of the three dimen-
action. These correlations are based increase in positive and a decrease in sions compared by t-test. The
on the difference for a given mood negative moods and an increase in increase in average positive mood
(POST minus PRE) vs. scores on the energy level. Subsequent analyses from PRE to POST was significantly
given personality scale, ordered focused on the differences between greater for back bends than for
from low to high. Thus, a positive PRE and POST. standing poses (p < .05) or for for-
correlation means that the higher the Were the three dsana styles ward bends (p < .04). No other com-
personality test score the greater the associated with different patterns of parison was significant.
increase in the particular mood from mood change from PRE to POST? In Independently of pose type,
PRE to POST and a negative correla- this analysis, the difference between were the changes in moods from
tion means the opposite. For the the PRE and POST ratings for each PRE to POST related to personality
analyses involving both pose style mood was averaged separately for traits? HOS effects were not signifi-
and personality test scores as inde- each class type (see Table 2). Differ- cant. DEP was related to changes inINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 41
frustrated (p = .08) and irritated (p = tended to report being more confi- ancy between the findings for posi-
.08). The more depressed the subject dent and less fatigued. For ANX, tive vs. negative moods may seem
the greater the decrease in these mood effects related to dsana style counterintuitive, positive and nega-
moods from PRE to POST. The cor- were not significant. tive emotional states are not polar
relations were -.55 and -.56. ANX opposites but rather are independent
of one another.'" Results of the latter
Discussion
The more hostile the study would also suggest that by
subject the more confi- This study tested the hypothesis enhancing positive emotions the
that practicing Yoga back bends consequences of negative emotions
dent the subject felt results in increases in positive moods may be counteracted. Thus, we spec-
after doing back bends. and decreases in negative moods. ulate that the practice of back bends
Compared to two control poses, for- may have the potential of helping an
was related to changes in frustrated ward bends and standing poses, sub- individual cope with depressed
(p = .03), irritated (p = .07), and pes- jects reported a greater increase in affect. This possibility should be
simistic (p = .07). The higher the the five positive moods averaged explored in further research and in
anxiety scale score the greater the together as compared to the changes clinical populations.
decrease in these moods with corre- for either other pose. In the case of In this regard, evidence has been
lations of-.65, -.57, and -.56, respectively. single moods, the effect was clearest published on the potential benefits of
Comparing the three dsana for confident and happy. The effects Yoga for depression in studies utiliz-
styles, were the changes in mood for negative moods and for self- ing random assignment to Yoga and
from PRE to POST related to per- reports of energy level did not show control conditions. Sudarshan Kriya
sonality traits? HOS was associated any real advantage for any one of the Yoga (SKY) was compared with
with ratings of confident with greater three pose types. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and
increases for back bends than for for- The apparent benefits of back drug treatment (imipramine) in
ward bends or standing poses (p = bends were further supported when patients with melancholia. The rate
.05). The respective correlations we considered the role of personality of remission for Yoga was 67%,
were .53, .35, and .07. The more hos- characteristics, particularly hostilitycomparable to imipramine (73%)
tile the subject the greater the and depression. The more hostile the and less than ECT (93%).'" In a com-
increase in this positive mood after subject the more confident the sub- parison of full and partial SKY Yoga,
back bends. HOS was also related to ject felt after doing back bends, com- both were found to decrease anxiety
ratings of irritated with a greater pared to the other poses. Similarly, and depression scale scores in
decrease in standing poses than in subjects who scored higher on the patients with major depressive disorder.''
forward bends and no effect for back depression scale were more likely to Another study compared a Yoga
bends (p = .08). The respective cor- report feeling more confident and method of relaxation typically done
relations were -.64, -.30, and .02. less fatigued after doing back bends at the end of a class (shavdsana/corpse.
Standing poses reduced the feeUng than after the other poses. Although pose) with a control condition in
of irritation in the more hostile sub- the personality effects were not women students with severe depres-
jects. DEP was related to ratings of strong, the direction of effects sug- sion. "S/iava^ana was found to be an
confident with a greater increase in gests the potential benefit of Yoga in effective technique for alleviating
back bends than forward bends and improving mood in those individuals depression. We should note that the
little change in standing poses (p = who are relatively hostile or depressed. present study involved healthy sub-
.10). The respective correlations The failure to find support for jects. Whether the findings generaUze
were .39, .18, and .08. DEP was also the effects on negative moods spe- to persons who are clinically depressed
related to ratings of fatigued with the cific to back bends suggests that the or anxious remains to be determined.
greatest decrease after back bends unique benefits of back bends are Moreover, although study of the effects
than after forward bends and little mainly to enhance positive rather of Yoga on mood changes over the
change in standing poses (p = .08). than diminish negative emotions. If course of the nine classes was not an
The respective correlations were an effect on negative moods unique aim of this study, an analysis of the
-.52, -.32, and .00. Thus, after doing to back bends is to be found it may levels of mood as reported at the
back bends, subjects who scored take a longer period of Yoga prac- beginning of each class showed no
higher on the depression scale tice. Although the apparent discrep- significant trends over time.42 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
The positive effects of practicing provide the basis for how we inter- in the present study is uncertain. The
back bends came about even though pret the reactions and motives of oth- only negative mood showing an
in these beginning classes such ers. Whether and how any one part apparent benefit unique to back
effects were not discussed. Conceiv- of an emotional complex by itself, bends was the mood sad, but the
ably, such effects may be accounted such as body movement and posi- effect was not significant.
for by prior expectations of partici- tion, can elicit the totality of emo- One of the other dsana styles
tion, including inner feelings and showed an effect on moods for sub-
Standing poses may be cognitions, remains a topic of con- jects who scored higher on hostility.
tinuing discussion and debate in psy- After doing standing poses these
more somatically acti- chology. A bodily position that is subjects reported being more confi-
vating than the other typically associated with a given dent and less irritated. How these
poses^ which may af- emotional complex may serve as a effects depend on the specific bodily
fect emotional states. cue and elicit the other responses positions or other aspects of standing
associated with the complex. poses requires further study. Stand-
pants in Yoga, an issue that needs The back-bend pose is a posture ing poses may be more somatically
further exploration. However, such in which the chest is open and activating than the other poses,
demand characteristics of Yoga expanded, which is a social expres- which may affect emotional states.
would likely apply to all pose types. sion in our culture often associated Although we have emphasized
The difficulty and effort involved in with confidence and positive asser- mood differences related to specific
the different types of poses is also a tion. Furthermore, the open position poses, it is clear that subjects felt
factor needing further attention. of the chest is opposite to the tumed- good after taking a Yoga class what-
Back bends are considered a diffi- in and downward bodily position ever the pose may have been that
cult pose for beginning students, so and attitude usually associated with day. Positive moods increased, nega-
it is not likely that pose diffi- sadness and depression. We may tive moods decreased, and subjects
culty accounted for the positive mood speculate further that expansion of felt less fatigued and tired immedi-
effects of back bends. We were con- the chest in back bends may facili- ately after class and in most cases for
cerned that three sessions might be tate deeper breathing and possibly the two succeeding hours. How these
insufficient and that it would take associated changes in autonomic general effects of Yoga may depend
more training and experience to get nervous system activity such as on the general physical activities of
effects. In fact, the mood effects increased vagal tone and slower Yoga cannot be determined from
were more or less immediate in all heart rate, which may enhance posi- these data, as no comparison group
the classes, regardless of the pose. tive emotion. Whether change in was studied to evaluate the overall
Presumably larger and more consis- muscular tension in the chest is a effects. Although lyengar Yoga teach-
tent effects may occur with contin- factor remains to be determined. In ers do not consider Yoga as an
ued practice. The immediacy of the following up the present findings, exercise per se, it does involve
effects observed in this study is con- physiological changes in the differ- coordinated movements, stretching,
sistent with the observations of ent postures should be recorded. muscular exertion, and sustained
Berger and Owen." The effects of back-bend prac- effort. It would take a group
The processes whereby posture, tice on emotional states may be involved in some other form of phys-
physical activity, and other expres- compared to those reported for re- ical activity to determine what over-
sions involved in back bends may laxation, biofeedback training, and all benefits may be unique to Yoga
translate into positive emotional other methods focused directly on and the source of the benefits. The
changes need further investigation. muscular quieting and decreases in observed changes in mood may
Emotion involves a complex of sub- physiological arousal in various bod- accompany other activities in which
jective feelings and cognitions, eye ily systems." However, these meth- one is doing something that is pre-
movements, facial expressions, vo- ods are thought to reduce stress and sumably beneficial for one's health
calizations, muscular tension or negative emotional states and allevi- and well-being. As Berger and
relaxation, overt behaviors, and ate conditions such as anxiety and Owen^" have shown, other kinds of
physiological changes.'* Emotions pain. Why associated reductions in physical activity result in mood
are communicated to others by overt negative emotions were generally changes comparable to those associ-
as well as subtler expressions that not observed specific to back bends ated with Yoga practice.INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004) 43
In Iyengar Yoga, an attentional orating effect on mental and physical The Yoga classes and the study were
focus and emphasis is on increasing energy as well as elevating mood. conducted at and under the auspices
awareness through movements and Finally, the small sample size of Yoga Garden Studios in Santa
the activities of muscles and joints and relatively short period of Yoga Monica, California, headed by Ida
and their coordination. The classes training limited the power of this Unger, whom we thank for her sup-
usually involve intense and highly study to reveal strong effects within port, assistance, and cooperation.
focused concentration, which has classes or over the nine classes. Firm Special thanks to Sherry Gould and
been described as a form of medita- conclusions about the nature of the Moma Watson who taught the Yoga
tion and that may facilitate emo- effects cannot be drawn from this classes, Beth Stemlieb who helped
tional and energy changes. A study pilot study. The intent of the study sequence the poses, and Dmitry
by Harte and Eifert^' provides sup- was to probe more systematically Davydov for his comments. We are
portive evidence. They compared the into the processes involved in Yoga very grateful to Manouso Manos,
effects of running in advanced run- in general and specifically to Senior Advanced Iyengar Yoga
ners with the effects of meditation develop methods of comparing dif- Teacher, for his wise counsel on the
(chanting, breathing exercises, and ferent kinds of Yoga poses. The Yoga aspects of the study and to B.
concentration) in highly experienced methods and prehminary findings K. S. Iyengar without whose teach-
practitioners and found that both are worthy of further investigation. ings and writings this study would
running and meditation led to not have been possible.
increased levels of corticotropin-
Conclusion
releasing hormone (CRH) associated Endnotes
with positive mood changes. They The practice of Yoga appears to
concluded that physical exercise is result in increases in positive moods, 1. Long, L., A, Huntley, and E. Ernst.
not an essential requirement for decreases in negative moods, and Which complementary and alternative
CRH release. therapies benefit which conditions? A sur-
increases in energy level regardless vey of the opinions of 223 professional
Personality traits also seem rele- of the dsana practiced. Despite the organizations. Complementary Therapies
vant to the extent one experiences effort and sustained physical exer- in Medicine, 2000, 9:178-185.
mood changes after any Yoga class. tion in Yoga, psychological well- 2. Berger, B. G., and D. R. Owen. Stress
In the present study, the overall being is enhanced after a Yoga class, reduction and mood enhancement in four
reductions in negative mood, in par- which no doubt reinforces further exercise modes: Swimming, body condi-
tioning, hatha yoga, and fencing.
ticular the moods frustrated, irri- participation. These effects tend to
Research Quarterly for Exercise and
tated, and pessimistic, were cor- last at least for a few hours after a Sport, 1988,59:148-159.
related with the traits of depression class. The specific poses also appear 3. Ekman, P., and R. J. Davidson, eds. The
and anxiety. In this regard, the more to result in differences in how moods Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Ques-
depressed and the more anxious sub- are affected, although these results tions. New York: Guilford Press, 1994.
jects in this sample showed a greater need to be replicated in a larger sam- 4. Iyengar, B. K. S. Light on Yoga. New
benefit than those who scored lower ple. The topic of social, psychologi- York: Schocken Books, 1996.
on these traits. Such individuals may cal, and physiological mechanisms 5. Berger, B. G., and D. R. Owen. Mood
find that Yoga practice has important of movements is worthy of further alteration with yoga and swimming: Aero-
psychological benefits. attention. Moreover, the fact that bic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 1992,75: 1331-1343.
Aside from the enhancement of mood changes may be in part
positive mood and decreases in neg- dependent on one's characteristic 6. Arent, S. M., D. M. Landers, and J. L.
Etnier. The effects of exercise in older
ative mood, we observed increases coping styles deserves further inves- adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal
in energy level for all three poses. tigation. Back bends appear to be of Aging and Physical Activity, 2000,
This finding is consistent with the effective in increasing positive 6:407-430.
results of a study by Wood^^ who moods in general and in individu- 7. Blumenthal, J. A., C. F. Emery, D. J.
compared mood changes and per- als who are relatively hostile or Madden, L. K. George, R. E. Coleman, M.
ceptions of vitality in Yoga, relax- depressed. Yoga should be investi- W. Riddle, D. C. McKee, J. Reasoner, and
R. S. Williams. Cardiovascular and be-
ation, and visualization. Wood gated for its potential clinical apph- havioral effects of aerobic exercise train-
concluded that a 30-minute program cation in mood disorders and ing in healthy older men and women.
of yogic stretching and breathing depression and in the management Journal of Gerontology, 1989, 44:147-157.
exercises can have a markedly invig- of hostiUty. 8. Harte, J. L., and G. H. Eifert. The44 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF YOGA THERAPY — No. 14 (2004)
8. Harte, J. L., and G. H. Eifert. The maiah, B. N. Gangadhar, and A.
effects of running and meditation on beta- Vedamurthachar. A comparative study of
endorphin, corticotropin-releasing hor- full and partial Sudarshan Kriya Yoga
mone and cortisol in plasma, and on (SKY) in major depressive disorder.
mood. Biological Psychology, 1995, NIMHANS Journal, 2000, 18: 53-57.
40:251-265.
16. Khumar, S. S., P. Kaur, and S. Kaur.
9. Rehor, P. R., T. Dunnagan, S. Craig, Effectiveness of Shavasana on depression
and D. Coolley. Alteration of mood states among university students. Indian Journal
after a single bout of noncompetitive and of Clinical Psychology, 1993, 20:82-87.
competitive exercise programs. Percep-
17. Berger and Owen, 1988, op. cit.
tual and Motor Skills, 2001, 93:249-256.
18. Ekman and Davidson, op. cit.
10. Shapiro, D., L. D. Jamner, I. B. Gold-
stein, and R. J. Delfino. Striking a chord: 19. Lehrer, P. M., and R. L. Woolfolk.
Moods, blood pressure, and heart rate in Principles and Practice of Stress Man-
everyday life. Psychophysiology, 2001, agement. New York: Guilford, 1993.
38:197-204. 20. Berger and Owen, 1992, op.cit.
11. Cook, W. W., and D. M. Medley. Pro- 21. Harte and Eifert, op. cit.
posed hostility and pharisaic-virtue scales 22. Wood, C. Mood change and percep-
for the MMPI. Journal of Applied Psy- tions of vitality: A comparison of the
chology, 1954, 38:414-418. effects of relaxation, visualization and
12. Spielberger, C. D., R. L. Gorsuch, and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of
R. E. Lushene. STAI Manual. Palo Alto, Medicine, 1993, 5:254-258.
Calif.: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1970.
13. Radloff, L. S. The CES-D Scale: A © David Shapiro and Karen Cline 2(X)4
self-report depression scale for research
in the general population. Applied Psy- David Shapiro
chological Measurement, 1977, 1:
Tel.: 310-825-0252
385-401.
Email: dshapiro@ucla.edu
14. Janakiramaiah, N., B. N. Gangadhar,
P. J. Murthy, M. G. Harish, D. K. Sub-
bakrishna, and A. Vedamurthachar. Anti- Karen Cline
depressant efficacy of Sudarshan Kriya Tel: 310-839-9080
Yoga (SKY) in melancholia: A random- Email: alexcline@worldnet.att.net
ized comparison with electroconvulsive
therapy (ECT) and imipramine. Journal
of Affective Disorders, 2000, 57:255-259.
15. Rohini, V., R. S. Pandey, N. Janakira-You can also read
