LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS INFRASTRUCTURE AND PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF LNG IN THE BALTIC STATES AND FINLAND
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LATVIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS
AND TECHNICAL SCIENCES
2021, N 2
DOI: 10.2478/lpts-2021-0011
LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS INFRASTRUCTURE AND
PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF LNG IN THE BALTIC
STATES AND FINLAND
J. Savickis1, L. Zemite2, L. Jansons2, N. Zeltins2, I. Bode2,
A. Ansone2, A. Selickis2, A. Broks2, A. Koposovs2
ITERA Latvija
1
50 Skanstes Str., Riga, LV-1013, LATVIA
2
Riga Technical University,
Faculty of Electrical and Environmental Engineering,
Institute of Power Engineering
12-1 Azenes Str., Riga, LV-1048, LATVIA
*e-mail: laila.zemite@rtu.lv
In the early 2010s, only 23 countries had access to the liquefied natural gas (hereinafter –
LNG). Import terminals, despite attractive short-term economics, took long time to build, and
rigid supply contracts made truly global use of LNG rather complicated. Concerns about geo-
political risks also stunted demand growth from existing supply sources, even when new LNG
export routes and sources became available.
Current natural gas market is very different, both in terms of market participants and accessi-
bility and diversity of services. In 2019, the number of LNG importing countries reached 43. Ris-
ing competition among suppliers and increasing liquidity of markets themselves created favour-
able conditions to diversify contract duration, size, and flexibility. In addition, development of
floating storage and regasification unit (hereinafter – FSRU) technology provided LNG suppliers
with a quick response option to sudden demand fluctuations in regional and local natural gas
markets [1].
Moreover, LNG is one of the major options not only for bringing the natural gas to regions
where its pipeline supply infrastructure is historically absent, limited or underdeveloped, but also
for diversification of the natural gas supply routes and sources in regions with sufficient state of
pipeline delivery possibilities. And it concerns smaller natural gas markets, like the Baltic States
and Finland as well. Accordingly, prospects for use of LNG there in both mid and long-term
perspective must be carefully evaluated, especially in regards to emerging bunkering business
in the Baltic Sea aquatory and energy transition in Finland, replacing coal base-load generation
with other, more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternatives.
Keywords: Bunkering, Finland, LNG, LNG infrastructure, natural gas, the Baltic States.
45
1. INTRODUCTION
LNG is the natural gas that has been four – in the third countries (Turkey and
cooled to a liquid state, at about -260° the Russian Federation). Twenty-three are
Fahrenheit, for shipment, distribution and land-based LNG import terminals, five –
storage. The volume of the natural gas in FSRUs, and one, located in Malta, is an
liquid state is about 600 times less than its import facility comprised of a floating stor-
volume in the gaseous state [2], [3]. Thus, age unit and onshore regasification facility.
process of liquefaction makes possible to Six terminals – South Hook, Dragon, Isle of
transport the natural gas to significant dis- Grain in the UK, Gate in the Netherlands,
tances – different continents and parts of Rovigo in Italy and Dunkerque in France –
the globe, or simply places, which pipeline have been granted exemptions from the EU
infrastructure does not reach. Markets that rules on regulated third party access [6].
are too far away from producing regions to Europe’s increasing prominence in the
be connected directly to them via pipeline global LNG market continued throughout
infrastructure have access to the natural gas 2018, 2019 and 2020. In 2018, its 15 LNG
exclusively because of LNG. importing countries collectively held a
For large-volume transportation, LNG 15.6 % share of the total global LNG import
is loaded onto double-hulled carrier ships, market, demonstrating a 6.4 % rise in com-
which are used for both safety and insulat- parison with results of 2017.
ing purposes. Once the carrier arrives at the In 2019, the European LNG import-
receiving port, LNG is off-loaded into stor- ers increased their global market share to
age tanks or regasified for injection into a 24.2 %, and the volume of LNG imported
pipeline distribution network [4]. LNG can by 75.6 %. As a whole, the total amount of
also be shipped in smaller quantities, usually LNG imported by the EU Member States
over shorter distances and used as a bunker- was more than 108 billion cubic meters
ing fuel. There is also a growing segment (hereinafter – BCM). In comparison with
of very small-scale LNG shipments, which 2018, the rise was rather significant – by
are usually performed by using the same 48BCM. The biggest LNG importers in the
containers as used on trucks in international EU were: Spain with 22.4, France with 22.1,
trade, specially outfitted with cryogenic the UK with 18, Italy with 13.5, the Neth-
tanks [5]. Other small-scale LNG activities erlands and Belgium with 8.6 – 8.8 BCM.
include peak demand response liquefaction As a result of increasing import volumes
and storage facilities, which can hold the and decreasing average annual prices, the
natural gas compactly for periods of high monetary value of the EU LNG imports in
demand. In some regions, particularly, in 2019 reached 16.2 billion euros (hereinafter
the US and Canada, LNG is also brought by – EUR), slightly up from EUR 15.4 billion
truck to and from these facilities. in 2018 [6]. Qatar was the largest exporter
In 2020, there were 29 large-scale LNG of LNG to Europe, followed by the Russian
import terminals in operation in Europe. Federation and the US.
Twenty-one of them are located in the cur- Between 2017 and 2023, the global
rent Member States of the European Union liquefied natural gas trade is expected to
(hereinafter – EU) – and therefore subject grow by more than 100 BCM, from 391 to
to the EU regulation, three – in the UK and 505 BCM, and large share of this growth
46
is expected to be contributed by the US by almost 20 % [7], because blend of the
natural gas exporters. Moreover, shrinking natural gas and renewables gases (hereinaf-
percentage of the natural gas use in the EU ter – RG) is widely recognised as valid tran-
Member States has not been an obstacle for sitional fuel in a way to decarbonization of
the International Energy Agency to esti- the EU’s power generation and transporta-
mate that LNG imports to Europe in 2040, tion sectors over the next three decades [8].
if compared to 2016 levels, should increase
Fig. 1. The EU LNG import (by Member State, in BCM).
Source: EC calculations based on tanker movements reported by Thomson Reuters.
The major pathway to decarboniza- (hereinafter – RES), the natural gas can
tion of the EU’s energy and transport – the bridge a gap by providing a reliable, non-
European Green Deal – provides a frame- intermittent source of energy. Therefore,
work for the EU’s energy transition with the LNG serves to diversify sources and routes
aim of achieving net-zero greenhouse gas of the natural gas import to Europe.
(hereinafter – GHG) emissions by 2050 [9], While pipeline natural gas deliveries
[10]. The natural gas, including regasified from Russia and Algeria, amongst others,
LNG, is being regarded as suitable fuel for will continue to supply a large proportion of
the energy transition – in light of its lower the natural gas for the EU, with phasing out
carbon intensity compared to heavier fossil of coal and lignite-fired power generation
fuels. The natural gas might prove not to be and the continued decline of the domestic
carbon neutral enough in a long term, but it natural gas production, a growing share of
is surely clean enough to play an important LNG in the European primary energy mix is
role in the European energy supply mix in highly likely [6], especially, in such sectors
the short and mid-term perspective. As for as maritime and heavy-duty road transport,
Europe’s transition from fossil fuels such and power generation.
as coal and oil to renewable energy sources
47
Table 1. The Natural Gas Consumption in the Baltic States and Finland (TWh (BCM), 2017–2019)
TWh (BCM)
2017 2018 2019
Estonia 5.2 (0.53) 5.2 (0.53) 4.8 (0.49)
Latvia 13.1 (1.34) 15.1 (1.55) 14.3 (1.46)
Lithuania 24.2 (2.48) 22.3 (2.28) 23.6 (2.42)
Finland 17. 6 (1.8) 21.5 (2.2) 19.5 (2)
Total 60.1 (6.15) 64.1 (6.56) 62.2 (6.37)
Despite the fact that overall natural
gas consumption in the Baltic and Finland
is decreasing or standing still at best [11],
the demand for the Baltic small-scale LNG
market is projected to reach 1.908 million
tonnes of LNG per annum (between 1.38 and
1.41 BCM of the natural gas per annum) by
2030, actuating at an estimated compound
annual growth rate of 14.01 % from 2020
to 2030. Some estimates show that increas-
ing investment in LNG infrastructure and
strong support from the local governments
for adoption of LNG as a marine and road
transport fuel are expected to give a signifi-
cant push to an actual market growth in the
Baltics in the nearest future [12].
As for infrastructure, the expected
investment growth includes, but is not
limited to, building of new LNG import
terminals, bunkering points, truck fuelling
stations, and, possibly, small-scale autono- Fig. 2. LNG terminals in the Baltic States and
mous natural gas supply networks. Cur- Finland.
rently, the Baltic States and Finland have
three operational LNG terminals, only one Klaipėda LNG terminal currently serves
of which – Klaipėda LNG in Lithuania – is as a hub for LNG import in the north-east-
connected to the natural gas transport net- ern Baltics; however, with recent develop-
work. The second terminal of this kind – ments in Estonia and possible LNG projects
Hamina LNG in the South-eastern part of in Latvia, at least partial relocation of LNG
Finland – is expected to be in full commer- import traffic might take place by or shortly
cial operation in 2021. after 2030 [12].
48
2. LNG INFRASTRUCTURE AND DELIVERIES TO THE BALTIC STATES
2.1. Lithuania
As it has been mentioned before, the out at Klaipėda LNG terminal reached 200.
only Baltic State currently possessing LNG Since 2014, more than 80 TWh (terawatt-
terminal is Lithuania. The geographically hours (hereinafter – TWh); 8.19 BCM) of
closest large-scale LNG terminal outside the natural gas has been regasified and sup-
the Baltic States is Świnoujście LNG in plied to the Lithuania national natural gas
Poland, but currently it cannot be part of the grid from the terminal. Last year alone,
Baltic regional natural gas market because 20 TWh (2.05 BCM) of natural gas was
it is not yet connected to the Baltic–Finnish regasified there, and, as a result, approxi-
natural gas network. mately 70 % of the year’s natural gas deliv-
Klaipėda LNG started its operation on ery in Lithuania was carried out through
3 December 2014, and therefore Lithuania Klaipėda LNG terminal.
became the fifth country in the world to use The year 2020 was particularly favour-
FSRU technology for LNG imports. The able for the American LNG imports to
central element of the Klaipėda LNG ter- Europe, including the Baltics. Between
minal – FSRU “Independence”, the LNG 2016 and October 2020, 10 cargoes from
carrier built by “Hyundai Heavy Indus- the US were delivered to Lithuania, total-
tries”, was leased from “Höegh LNG” for ling 9.37 TWh (0.96 BCM) of LNG. Last
ten years with a possibility of buyout. It year, LNG cargos from the US made up
has a maximum import capacity of almost 37 % of total LNG import of Klaipėda LNG
4 billion cubic metres (hereinafter – m3) terminal. About 49 % of LNG was imported
of the natural gas per annum (2.2 million from Norway, but the rest – by small quanti-
tonnes of LNG), while it has four storage ties only – from other sources.
tanks with total capacity of 170.000 m3. The However, in comparison, the US LNG
Lithuanian Parliament voted to operate its deliveries to Lithuania between 2016 and
LNG import facility at least until 2044 and 2020 corresponded to 0.5 % of all its LNG
advised JSC Klaipedos Nafta to negotiate a export operations [7].
purchase of the LNG regasification vessel As for 2021, more than 14 TWh
in the late 2024 [13]. (1.43 BCM) of regasification capacity has
By the end of 2020, the total amount of already been ordered at Klaipėda LNG ter-
loading and re-loading operations carried minal.
2.2. Latvia
Currently, Latvia lacks any elements to information of the Freeport of Riga, LNG
of the LNG import infrastructure, although terminal with an area of 34 hectares was
several propositions to build a terminal in planned to be built on the island of Kun-
different locations were presented over the dzinsala – the largest island in the Daugava
course of the last decade. The first propo- River in Riga, which is mainly used as
sition is related to Kundzinsala Southern a maritime trade related industrial area.
Project, or more commonly known as Kun- Instead of planning connection to the natu-
dzinsala LNG terminal project. According ral gas transmission network, developers of
49
Kundzinsala LNG terminal made a decision any other LNG import terminal proposal of
in favour of connection to the natural gas comparable capacity. A fact that LNG cold
distribution grid. The geographical location storage facility, which usually takes up to
of the terminal was a reason why its con- 70–80 % of LNG import terminal building
nection to the natural gas transmission net- expenses, is not needed was presented as
work was not regarded as economically and its obvious strong point. Instead, the devel-
technically feasible. Project team requested opers made an assumption that Incukalns
and received technical regulations from UGS will serve as a permanent storage
the Latvian natural gas distribution system for all delivered natural gas resources, and
operator to make a connection to the natu- direct high-pressure pipeline connection
ral gas distribution system in Riga. In order between the storage and the LNG terminal
to make a connection, the LNG terminal will be built. Therefore, unparalleled flex-
operator was obligated to build the follow- ibility would be provided to all the proj-
ing elements of infrastructure and technical ect, as LNG can be acquired extensively
equipment: supply pipeline from the termi- in favourable market conditions on a spot
nal to the distribution system, a gas connec- market basis, and stored in the UGS for
tion point and a metering station with a gas winter consumption, while the terminal can
chromatograph [14]. reduce operation in high price periods.
The expected business areas of the ter- Despite the fact, that preliminary
minal were outlined as follows: bunker- costs of the project are not yet known, the
ing, trade of LNG, including deliveries to developers announced, that total estimated
road transport filling stations and alterna- investments would be at least 3 times less
tive distribution networks, and injection of than for any other LNG terminal type of
regasified natural gas into the Latvian natu- comparable capacity with LNG cold stor-
ral gas distribution network. age option [16].
So far there are no indications that It is estimated that, being in full opera-
would signal a possible beginning of con- tion, the regasification capacity of Skulte
struction of the LNG terminal complex in LNG terminal would reach 3 million tons
Kundzinsala in foreseeable future. As an of LNG per annum, and it would be able to
alternative, a proposal to construct LNG receive LNG carriers of significantly vari-
terminal in Skulte, the Northwestern part of ous sizes: between 40.000 and 170.000 m3,
Riga Gulf, emerged. Skulte project was pre- and unload them in the period of time from
sented as a floating regasification unit with- 3 to 6 days.
out LNG storage tanks, but with a direct The project is reapplying for the EU
pipeline connection to the Incukalns under- Projects of Common Interest (hereinafter –
ground gas storage (hereinafter – Incukalns PCI) status under the 5th round of the
UGS) facility. Unfortunately, this type of PCI projects to be decided by the Euro-
LNG terminal is not designed to supply pean Commission by the end of 2021 and,
unregasified LNG, which could be trans- according to several sources, this may
ported further by trucks, for example, to liq- require repurposing of the project to handle
uefied or compressed – liquefied natural gas not only traditional LNG, but also biometh-
(hereinafter – L-CNG) filling stations [15]. ane and hydrogen as well [17]. The envi-
The Skulte project developers state that ronmental impact of the project is ongoing
the project has unique geographic, eco- since December 2018 [16].
nomic and technological advantages over
50Fig. 3. Proposed location of Skulte LNG terminal with possible pipeline connection
routes between it and Incukalns UGS.
Source: skultelng.lv.
Significantly enough, that in 2017, as a the BEMIP region. In this plan, the follow-
part of the Baltic Energy Market Intercon- ing LNG terminal projects are said to be
nection Plan (hereinafter – BEMIP), the implemented in the Eastern Baltics: con-
regional natural gas transmission system struction of the Paldiski and Tallinn LNG
operators jointly completed the develop- terminals in Estonia, and acquisition of
ment of the third Gas Regional Investment Klaipėda LNG terminal [18], [19]. At the
Plan (hereinafter – GRIP), providing uni- same time, GRIP includes none of potential
fied information on the planned projects in LNG import terminal projects from Latvia.
2.3. Estonia
Estonia, like Latvia, does not have its would be designed as truck loading, secu-
own LNG import facility, but Port of Tal- rity of supply and bunkering terminal at
linn authority is considering the possibility Muuga harbour with an initial LNG storage
of building the LNG receiving terminal at a capacity of 4000 m³, truck loading rack and
location in either Muuga Harbour or Pald- up to 0.5 BCM per annum connection to the
iski South Harbour [18]. The purpose of natural gas grid through a connection point
the LNG terminal would be to receive LNG located about 1 km from the terminal. The
from carrier ships, store it in storage tanks, terminal would be connected to an existing
vaporise, and then deliver the natural gas to berth.
a high-pressure distribution pipeline or to There is also a possibility to expand the
the local major natural gas consumers. terminal into an on-land break bulk facility
Tallinn LNG terminal in particular that can service any ship on the market by
51constructing up to four vertical LNG storage tion up to 4 BCM per annum through con-
tanks with a storage capacity from 50 000 to nection into the high-pressure grid located
250 000 m3, connecting to a second berth about 13 km from the terminal [20].
and expanding the natural gas grid connec-
2.4. Bunkering Activities
According to consulting company On 14 January 2021, the fourth load of
“DNV GL”, there were 177 LNG-powered approximately 3000 m3 of LNG arrived at
vessels in operation worldwide in 2020. By the “Klaipėdos Nafta” reloading station, but
2027, another 208 vessels using this type the previous three loads were delivered in
of fuel are expected to be built. The high- June, August and November 2020, respec-
est concentration of such ships is currently tively [23]. Since April 2020, the reloading
recorded in the North and Baltic Seas. Thus, station is almost exclusively used for opera-
bunkering is a fast growing and attractive tions of the Polish energy company PGNiG.
business opportunity, which is also wel- In total, since beginning of its bunkering
comed by the Baltic ports, and particularly operations, more than 4000 tons or 250 tank
Port of Klaipėda. The port conducted its trucks of LNG were loaded in Klaipėda.
first LNG bunkering operation on 8 March Bunkering activities are also carried out
2020, with supply of LNG to a cement car- in other Baltic countries. For instance, the
rier from the Malkos Bay Terminal [21]. In Estonian natural gas company “Eesti Gaas”
addition, on 7 January 2019, the world’s – one of the major LNG suppliers and the
largest LNG transportation and bunker- biggest truck-to-ship bunkering service
ing vessel “Kairos” was launched. Its main providers in the Northern Europe – in one
activity in the port of Klaipėda is moving month period delivers around 1300 tons of
LNG from the terminal to the LNG reload- LNG and conducts an average of 65 truck-
ing station situated next to the gates of the to-ship bunkering operations [24].
port [22].
3. LNG INFRASTRUCTURE IN FINLAND
The construction of Finland’s first LNG arrived there in July 2016. The Ministry of
import terminal, located in the city of Pori, Economic Affairs and Employment of Fin-
was completed in 2016. Currently, it is in land provided EUR 23 million funding for
full operation. In addition, the Manga LNG the terminal project. The EC approved the
import terminal in the city of Tornio was funding under the EU state aid rules in Sep-
inaugurated in June 2019. There is also the tember 2015 [25].
LNG import terminal under construction The terminal consists of an LNG tank
in Hamina, which is expected to be ready (height 35 m, outer diameter 42 m), load-
for commercial operation in the first half of ing docks, process units – compressor and
2021 [25]. vaporizers –, flare torch (height less than
Construction of the Pori LNG termi- 50 m), three loading docks for road tankers,
nal, amounting to EUR 81 million, began transformer building, and heat production
in August 2014, and was completed in unit. The terminal has LNG storage capac-
September 2016, but the first load of LNG ity of approximately 30.000 m³. The LNG
52deliveries to industrial customers are made and LNG to local industries, mines, and
through the local natural gas distribution other consumers in the region. LNG from
network, by sea in bunkering vessel or by the terminal will also be supplied to the
trucks. Ship-to-ship bunkering operations LNG storage facility at the SSAB Raahe
are available at Pori LNG terminal. There is steel mill [28], [29]. From the second half
also a 12 km long natural gas pipeline that of 2020, Gasum begun delivery of LNG to
connects the terminal to the local Industrial Eastman Chemical Company in Oulu, as
Park. Construction of the pipeline, which well. The LNG deliveries are carried out by
passes through roads, railways and the sea- tanker trucks, and the company’s switch to
bed, began in early August 2015. A 3.2 km usage of LNG is part of the regional com-
section of the pipeline was laid under the mitment to environmental sustainability
sea, and trenching and pipe-laying works [30].
presented multiple challenges due to com- Finland’s third LNG terminal – Hamina
plicating environmental conditions [26]. LNG – is currently under construction at
Tornio Manga LNG terminal at Röyttä the Hamina Harbour, Kotka. Unlike Pori
port, Tornio, is the second LNG import and Tornio terminals, it will be connected to
facility built in Finland. It is a result of the natural gas transmission system of Fin-
cooperation of several large-scale indus- land and to the local natural gas distribution
trial and energy companies, such as Outo- networks. Therefore, Hamina LNG will
kumpu, Ruukki Metals, EPV Energy and provide the Baltic–Finnish natural gas mar-
Gasum. The companies agreed on the LNG ket with a new natural gas physical delivery
import project to deliver the natural gas to point. It is estimated that the terminal will
industrial consumers, energy producers and be in commercial operation by mid-2021.
shipping businesses in the North of Finland, The storage capacity of the Hamina
where pipeline naturas gas is not available. LNG terminal will initially be 30.000 m3,
At the period of construction, it was the with a possibility of upgrade by additional
largest such facility in the Nordic region 20.000 m3. Its entry capacity into the trans-
with a logistics chain developed around the mission system as well as into the local dis-
terminal to create a diversified fuel market tribution system will be 0.5 million m3 per
benefiting both northern Finland and Swe- day [25]. It is estimated that approximately
den [27]. 20 ships per year will deliver LNG to Ham-
With construction cost of about EUR ina, with a single ship carrying from 5.000
100 million, the terminal has complete to 25.000 m3 of LNG.
unloading, storage, pipeline distribution, The Ministry of Economic Affairs and
regasification, truck loading, and ship bun- Employment of Finland provided EUR 27.7
kering facilities. The terminal supplies nat- million co-funding for the construction of
ural gas to Outokumpu’s Tornio steel mill Hamina LNG terminal [31].
4. PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF LNG IN THE EASTERN BALTICS
For the Baltic States and Finland alike, utilisation of LNG infrastructure for trans-
prospects for the use of LNG can be linked portation of liquefied biomethane (herein-
to the following activities: usage of LNG after – LBG) and, possibly, other RG, and
as maritime and road transport fuel, future usage of LNG in energy generation (as an
53alternative to fossil fuels with more signifi- tanks, mobile containers, bunker vessels
cant GHG emission intensity). and barges.
Directive 2014/94/ EU of the European Though in the aquatory of the North Sea
Parliament and of the Council of 22 Octo- LNG import terminals are widely spread,
ber 2014 on the deployment of alternative the Baltic ports are still struggling to catch
fuels infrastructure (hereinafter – Directive up. The LNG terminal development seems
2014/94/EU) defines a common framework favourable for the Eastern Baltics – the Bal-
of measures for the deployment of alterna- tic States and Finland, as they will provide
tive fuels infrastructure in the EU in order decreasing energy dependency by increas-
to minimise dependence on oil and to miti- ing gas supply diversification. Moreover,
gate the environmental impact of transport. LNG terminals provide regional shipping
It sets out minimum requirements for the with an alternative type of low-emission
building-up of alternative fuels infrastruc- marine fuel and, in general, with increas-
ture, including LNG stations with non-dis- ingly diverse natural gas supply routes and
criminatory access for LNG fuelled vessels sources. Among others, Directive 2014/94/
and road vehicles. According to the Direc- EU obligates the EU Member States to
tive, a core network of refuelling points for make available bunkering infrastructure for
LNG at maritime and inland ports should LNG in their territory and allows for their
be available at least by the end of 2025 and funding through the Connecting Europe
2030, respectively. Refuelling points for Facility instruments [32].
LNG include, inter alia, LNG terminals,
Table 2. Types of Alternative Fuels and their Use
Air Rail
Fuel Type Passenger cars Heavy-duty vehicles trans- trans- Shipping
port port
Less Less More Less Less More
Distance Short Long
than than than than than than Inland
(km) route route
150 300 300 150 300 300
Natural LNG X X X X X X X X X X
gas CNG X X X X X
Bio- LBM X X X X X X X X X X
methane bioCNG X X X X X
Electricity X X X X X
Hydrogen X X X X X X X
In comparison with traditional fossil future, LNG infrastructure can be utilised
fuels such as heavy fuel oil, the use of LNG for import and distribution of LBG, which
releases less CO2, no sulphur oxide (here- is a completely renewable energy source
inafter – SOx), particulate matter and nitro- that reduces CO2 emissions by as much as
gen oxide, and helps improve air quality. In 85 % compared to traditional fuels.
4.1. LNG in Maritime and Road Transport
The EU has strived for an active role in Maritime Organization (hereinafter – IMO)
tackling maritime emissions, both at home agreed to reduce GHG emissions from ship-
and globally. In 2018, the International ping by at least 50 % in 2050. The EU and
54its Member States play an instrumental role two major factors: firstly, the location of
in brokering and securing the deal for the potential clients and, secondly, the suitable
sector, which currently represents 2–3% areas for building a terminal. LNG is con-
of global CO2 emissions. Discussions are sidered an alternative fuel mainly for ships
already ongoing at the IMO to translate this operating in liner service. Hence, LNG ter-
deal into concrete measures [33]. minals for bunkering purposes should be
In Europe, the choice of location for constructed in locations where there are the
the LNG bunkering terminals depends on most density of liner services.
Fig. 4. CO2 emissions for different types of fuel in shipping.
However, at the same time, choice must of fuels used in trucks or passenger cars
be guided by a coastal environmental situa- must not exceed 0.001 %.
tion, too, as maritime transport has a direct The 2012 Sulphur Directive, which was
impact on air quality in many European sea- revised in 2016 [34], reduced SOx emis-
side cities. Exhaust gases from ships are a sions by setting maximum sulfur content
significant source of air pollution, including levels for marine fuels and incorporated
SOx emissions, which are extremely harm- new standards set by IMO into the EU leg-
ful to the human respiratory system. Ships islation both inside and outside protected
traditionally use fuel oils for propulsion, areas. In 2016, the IMO maintained 2020
which can have a sulfur content of up to as entry-into-force date of the global 0.5 %
3.50 %. For comparison, the sulfur content SOx cap [33].
Fig. 5. IMO Sulphur Limits (2000–2025, in %).
55However, in some very fragile ecosys- tory in this decade. It is estimated that till
tems such as the Baltic Sea and the North 2040, LNG will play an important role in
Sea – designated as “Sulphur Oxides Emis- diversification of the maritime fuel portfo-
sions Control Areas” (hereinafter – SECA) – lio in all regions of the EU. However, to
the maximum SOx content has been reduced achieve such a diversification in the East-
to 0.10 % already in 2015. Such stricter SOx ern Baltics, more active actions should be
limits have more than halved SOx concen- taken by the state, local authorities, and
trations around SECAs, bringing health businesses.
benefits to people in coastal regions and Current energy consumption in the EU
ports, while the overall economic impacts transport sector depends on oil fuels by
on the sector remained minimal [35], [36]. 94 %. This dependency, among other prob-
A study on the human health impacts of lems, results in high levels of GHG emis-
SOx emissions from shipping, submitted sions, which, consequently, triggers the nec-
to IMO’s Marine Environment Protection essary to increase the use of less polluting
Committee in 2016 by Finland, estimated and more cost-effective alternative sources
that by not reducing the SOx limit for ships as natural gas. For instance, in compari-
from 2020, the related air pollution would son with diesel heavy-duty vehicles, LNG
contribute to more than 570.000 additional fuelled heavy-duty vehicles reduce GHG
premature deaths worldwide in next five emissions up to 20 % per kilometre. They
years [37]. also eliminate 100 % of SOx and particulate
The Baltic Sea as one of the Europe’s matter emissions, and help reach significant
SECA areas also has good prospects to noise level reduction in densely populated
LNG use as a viable alternative maritime areas [38].
fuel. Moreover, the Baltic maritime trade Despite an increase in registrations in
and passenger ferry routes are quite com- recent years, alternatively powered pas-
pact, so different types of ships can be used senger cars in the EU make up only about
with rather small fuel capacities, as refuel- 4 % of the total car fleet [39], [40]. In addi-
ing can be done both en route to next des- tion, the European consumption of natural
tination and in port of departure or arrival. gas in the transport sector is also quite low,
Along with electric or hydrogen-powered amounting to less than 1 % of its total natu-
ships, LNG ferries and transport vessels ral gas demand and to a bit more than 2 %
would contribute significantly to reduction of all vehicles on the road today [41], [39],
of GHG emissions in the Baltic Sea aqua- [42].
Table 3. Road Vehicles by Fuel Types in the EU* (2018; %)
Hybrid CNG,
Type of Vehicle Gasoline Diesel Electric** Other
Electric LNG, LPG
Passenger cars 54 41.9 0.7 0.2 2.8 0.3
Light commercial vehicles 7.1 91.2 0 0.3 1.3 0.1
Medium and heavy-duty
1 98.3 0 0 0.4 0.2
commercial vehicles
Buses 0.8 95.4 0.3 0.3 2.7 0.4
*- including the United Kingdom
* - battery electric + plug-in hybrid
Source: ACEA Report Vehicles in use, Europe 2019
56At the same time, natural gas and other of natural gas. The type of CNG and LNG
gases, both in the compressed and liqui- combined station is very advantageous in
fied states, are considered one of the most case if there is no natural gas grid access
important elements of the European road nearby [44].
transport decarbonisation path. By law,
L-CNG filling stations are advanta-
they are regarded as part of “alternative
geous for several reasons, as they:
fuel” scope. According to Article 2 (1) of
• allow expanding the network of alterna-
Directive 2014/94/EU, “alternative fuels”
tive fuel filling stations throughout the
are sources of fuel or energy, which at least
Baltic region and Finland;
partially replace fossil fuel oil sources in
• allow setting up natural gas based mul-
vehicle power supply and which have the
tifuel type filling stations in places,
potential to contribute to decarbonisation
where pipeline natural gas is not avail-
of transport and the environmental perfor-
able, or construction of corresponding
mance of the transport sector. It defines,
infrastructure is not financially feasible;
inter alia, the following alternative fuels:
• expand potential availability of RG,
electricity, hydrogen, liquid biofuels (bio-
firstly and foremostly, LBM [44].
diesel, bioethanol and hydrogenated veg-
etable oil), biomethane, compressed natural As for the beginning of 2021, there were
gas (hereinafter – CNG) and LNG. It should four public CNG filling stations, one closed
also be pointed out that CNG and LNG can filling station and three natural gas filling
originate from various sources – both con- points available in Latvia. A study by the
ventional natural gas and biogas – upgraded Ministry of Transport on the Development
till the biomethane level. From the chemical of Alternative Fuels concludes that the nat-
standpoint, natural gas and biomethane are ural gas, including CNG and LNG, will be
practically identical. a transition fuel in a way to transport sector
In the Baltic States and Finland, the per- decarbonisation. Thus, in next fifteen years,
centage of alternatively fuelled road vehi- according to the most ambitious scenario of
cles remain rather low, with the natural gas- the gas filling station expansion along the
powered road vehicle fleet in Latvia being Latvian natural gas distribution network,
equal to about a few hundred. Currently 172 CNG (69 of them along Core TEN-T
there are only two LNG filling stations in network roads in 9 municipalities) and 6
the Baltic States, both located in Estonia, LNG stations could be installed [45]. It is
and 9 filling stations located in Finland. It is highly likely that at least some of these sta-
important to mention that most of these fill- tions would be suitable to serve CNG and
ing stations can serve both CNG and LNG LNG simultaneously.
fuelled vehicles. L-CNG filling stations According to the most optimistic esti-
allow filling CNG for light and LNG for mates of the alternative fuel development
heavy-duty vehicles. Such filling stations in Latvia as a whole, by 2050 CNG and
have lower capital and operating costs than LNG will account for more than any other
separate LNG and CNG filling stations of transport fuel in fleet, including diesel and
similar capacity [43]. LNG is used as a raw gasoline, but for fulfilment of such a high
material in L-CNG filling stations, and it is ambition much stronger and politically
stored at a very low temperature: about -163 coordinated support of RE industry, firstly
°C, at a pressure of 1 bar. 1 litre of LNG at and foremostly domestic biomethane pro-
a pressure of 1 bar contains about 600 litres duction and use, is necessary [46].
574.2. LBM and LNG in Energy Generation
The statistics show that the dynamics infrastructure with no further technologi-
of the biomethane production with its sub- cal adaptations or additional costs. For this
sequent conversion into LBM has demon- reason, the support of LNG infrastructure
strated a significant upward pattern between is fundamental to ensure the deployment of
2018 and 2020. In this period, a number of LBM in the coming years. Today, the EU
biomethane plants in the EU have increased has 53 ports where LNG bunkering is avail-
by 51 %, from 483 in 2018 to 729 in 2020. able and over 330 LNG filling stations, and
There are currently eighteen countries pro- the number of filling stations is meant to
ducing biomethane in Europe, with Ger- increase sixfold, reaching 2000 by 2030.
many having the highest share of biometh- The use of the current LNG infrastruc-
ane production plants (232), followed by ture will also boost cross-border trade of
France (131) and the UK (80) [47]. LBM in Europe [48].
In the Baltic States, upgrading of the In addition to its conventional role in
biogas to biomethane level with subsequent the natural gas market, LNG may also be an
injection into the natural gas transportation energy source for power generation. Power
or distribution grids is not developed yet. generation from LNG is partially used to
However, at least Latvia with 59 existing maintain the regasification at the LNG
biogas plants and 17 of them being located receiving terminals, as these processes are
10 or less km away from the natural gas dis- rather energy demanding. The basic ther-
tribution grids could benefit both from bio- modynamic processes used in power gener-
methane production and local sales (where ation from LNG are: the direct expansion of
CNG filling stations and/or small-scale bio- the regasified and pressurized natural gas,
methane liquifying facilities are installed the Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle with
onsite) and injection of the biomethane into use of an auxiliary fluid which expands and
the natural gas networks [40]. propels the turbine. For the pressures up
Moreover, in this decade the EU pro- to 3 Megapascals, the suitable option for
duction of LBM is set to increase by factor power generation is simple Rankine cycle
of ten. The EU LNG heavy-duty transport is and Brayton cycle, for higher pressures –
expected to reach 280.000 units in the same the direct expansion of regasified LNG or
period. Using a 40 % LBM mix with LNG other complex processes based on modified
will help reduce the CO2 emissions from Rankine or Brayton cycles should be con-
those trucks by 55 %. In the shipping sector, sidered [49].
50 % of large container vessel orders today In the Baltic region, use of LNG in
are LNG fuelled or ready for conversion to power generation is a viable energy transi-
LNG. 20 % of LBM mix in maritime trans- tion option, which might prove itself suitable
port would reduce CO2 emissions by up to while supporting Finland’s gradual elimina-
34 %. tion of coal, lignite and, possibly, peat in its
But, as it was stated before, a tandem power generation sector. If CO2 intensity
of the natural gas and biomethane could be of the natural gas and coal (hard coal), lig-
named as one of the most promising mid- nite and peat is compared, it is obvious that
term transport decarbonisation solutions in natural gas contributes to almost 50 % CO2
the Baltic States and Finland as well. LBM emission cut. Namely, CO2 intensity of hard
can be transported using the existing LNG coal is about 0.34 kg of CO2 per kilowatt-
58hours (hereinafter – kWh), the intensity of CO2/kWh, but the intensity of natural gas –
lignite and peat: 0.36–0.41 and 0.38 kg of 0.20 kg of CO2 /kWh of energy generated.
Fig. 6. Electricity production in Finland (2020, by source in %).
Source: energia.fi.
LNG is suitable for large- and small- in future comes from natural gas – includ-
scale power generation: both in cogenera- ing LNG-based generation, it will mean that
tion and condensation cycles. For example, an increase in “the natural gas electricity”
from 66TWh of electricity produced in Fin- will be able to reach 1.9 TWh, with asso-
land last year, coal contributed to 4.4 %, ciated CO2 emission dropping by almost a
peat – to 3.3 %, but natural gas – to 5.8 %. If half.
at least a half of energy generated from coal
5. CONCLUSION
The Baltic States and Finland currently The situation, however, is about to
have three operational LNG terminals, and change at least from the formal standpoint,
one more terminal is about to come online as Hamina LNG terminal will soon become
later this year. Two out of three terminals the second LNG terminal in the Eastern
are located in the Northern part of Finland Baltics to possess an ability to participate
and lack connection to the Finnish national in the natural gas market in a capacity of a
natural gas grids and, therefore, common brand-new natural gas supply route.
Baltic–Finnish natural gas market. It makes Currently the Baltic–Finnish natural
Klaipėda LNG terminal the only facility in gas market shows signs of relative stabil-
the region, which has such a connection, ity, and the gradual switch from the pipeline
and can play its role in the market. natural gas to LNG might be expected in
59the mid-time perspective. The role of LNG aquatory. More terminals and more suppli-
is expected to grow both in maritime and ers will mean a more dense market and bet-
road transport of the Eastern Baltics, and its ter offers, both in ship-to-ship and track-to-
power generation sector – especially, with ship bunkering segments.
Finland’s transition from usage of coal in In the road transport, wider cover-
electricity and heat generation to another, age of L-CNG fuelling stations will bring
more environmentally friendly sources. extra profit to fuel retailers, and ensure an
The deadline for coal generation phase-out ever-expanding network of alternative fuel
is May 2029; however, Finnish energy pro- access points across the Baltic States and
ducers can voluntarily make a transition by Finland. It would help cover the areas of
2025 [50]. four countries, where natural gas grids are
It will open door for another generation not available, but CNG and LNG vehicles
technologies and fuel sources, such as LNG need to be fuelled anyway. But in regions,
and eventually – LNG and LBM mix, to step where biomethane production will develop,
in. As LNG–LBM mix can be used both in bioCNG and small-scale LBM fuelling sta-
transport and power generation, it is one tions and facilities can emerge as part of an
of the most promising options for energy alternative gas infrastructure for road trans-
transition in the Eastern Baltics at a large port fuelling.
scale – it will not be limited only to certain The development of LNG import ter-
areas, where natural gas pipelines are avail- minals of any kinds is the hardest thing to
able, and will bring benefits of gas technol- predict in the Eastern Baltics. Despite the
ogy usage to industrial regions with large fact that several projects in Latvia and Esto-
energy consumption and urge to develop nia are at different stages of planning, soon
local energy logistic chains [25]. LNG will completion of at least one of them is rather
soon become indispensable in the growing questionable, and subject to further clarifi-
bunkering business niche of the Baltic Sea cation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research has been supported by the Latvian Gas Infrastructure Development”
National Research Programme, project (LAGAS) (No. VPP-EM-INFRA-2018/1-
“Trends, Challenges and Solutions of 0003).
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