Guidelines for the Translation of Social Science Texts
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Guidelines for the Translation of Social Science Texts
This book has been published with the generous support of the Ford Foundation. Special thanks are due to Galina Rakhmanova. Copyright ©2006 by American Council of Learned Societies, New York. The ACLS grants use of this title free of charge for all non-profit, educational purposes. Proper citation is required; ACLS requests that citations include: “SSTP Guidelines is available in multiple languages at www.acls.org/sstp.htm.” For all other uses, contact permissions@acls.org. ISBN: 978-0-9788780-3-0 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Guidelines for the Translation
of Social Science Texts
P r i n c i p a l I n v e st i g a t o r s
Michael Henry Heim & Andrzej W. Tymowski
A merican Council of Learned SocietiesGuidelines for the Translation
of Social Science Texts
Goals The guidelines treat the translation of texts
The guidelines that follow have evolved out of the germane to the academic disciplines commonly
Social Science Translation Project, an initiative grouped together as social sciences (anthropology,
sponsored by the American Council of Learned communications, cultural studies, economics,
Societies with financial support from the Ford gender studies, geography, international rela-
Foundation. (For a list of participants in the Social tions, law, political science, psychology, public
Science Translation Project, see Appendix A.) health, sociology, and related fields) but are also
They are intended to promote communication in applicable to texts generated by governmental
the social sciences across language boundaries. and non-governmental agencies, and by the press
and other media. Much in the guidelines will
Translation is a complex and intellectually chal-
likewise apply to texts in the humanities (phil
lenging process, and all those who commission
osophy, history, art history, musicology, literary
and edit translations need to familiarize them-
criticism, etc.).
selves with it. While the catch-phrase “lost in
translation” highlights the pitfalls, difficulties, and The guidelines are addressed primarily to those
potential insufficiencies of the translation process, who commission and/or edit translations, whom
we wish to emphasize from the outset that success- we, for brevity’s sake, shall conflate and designate
ful communication through translation is possible. as commissioning editors or simply editors.
Moreover, translation is a creative force: it enriches The main goal of the guidelines is to clarify the
the target language* by introducing new words and translation process for them, to help them embark
the concepts and conventions that go with them. on the process with realistic expectations, choose
(Terms followed by an asterisk are defined in the the proper translator for the job at hand, com
Glossary, Appendix B.) municate effectively with translators throughout,
and evaluate the translations they receive; in
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts other words, the guidelines will help them to place in Moscow in July 2004, participants met
make informed decisions when contracting and with members of a team that produced a series of
vetting translations. approximately five hundred translations into
Russian of scholarly works in the humanities and
Though not meant as a translation manual, the
social sciences (see Appendix C); during the
guidelines will also be of interest to translators
second meeting, which took place in New York in
because they necessarily deal with the character
October of the same year, they sponsored a public
istics that distinguish the translation of social
forum for editors and publishers of social science
science texts from the translation of, say, literary
texts; during the third meeting, which took place
or natural science texts and the techniques best
in Monterey (California) in March 2005, they
suited to deal with those characteristics. They also
held a roundtable discussion with members of the
provide a standard for certain technical issues (such
Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation
as citation, transliteration, technical terminology,
at the Monterey Institute of International Studies.
and the like) that are likely to surface.
The text that emerged then went to a group of
Finally, the guidelines will serve the consumer outside readers in the field for comments. The ver-
of the end product. By making clear what goes sion of the guidelines you have before you is thus
into a translation and what the reader can expect the result of a long process. That process, however,
from it, they enable its audience to read with need not be considered complete. The participants
greater sensitivity and comprehension. welcome your comments and suggestions. Please
address them to the two principal investigators,
Michael Henry Heim (heim@humnet.ucla.edu)
How the Guidelines Came About
and Andrzej W. Tymowski (atymowski@acls.org).
Participants in the Project included translators
specializing in social science texts, university social
Why Guidelines Are Necessary
scientists representing a number of disciplines, and
a group of editors and journalists. The translators The need for better translations of social science
provided all Project participants with translations literature is palpable. A case in point is the American
of eight categories of texts in the four Project lan- translation of Simone de Beauvoir’s highly influ
guages: Chinese, English, French, and Russian. ential study Le Deuxième Sexe (The Second Sex),
The eight categories were meant to encompass the a basic feminist text. According to a recent critique,
range of genres and styles a social science trans the English translation seriously distorts the origi-
lator might encounter: scholarship (including nal (see Sarah Glazer, “Lost in Translation,” New
theoretical texts, technical texts, and highly jar- York Times Book Review, 22 August 2004, 13). The
gonized texts), serious journalism written for an translator, who was chosen more or less arbitrarily,
informed audience, governmental documents, made frequent elementary errors. In his rendering
non-governmental organization (NGO) docu- of the text, for example, women are stymied “in
ments, manifestos, editorials and letters to the spite of ” rather than “because of ” a lack of day-care
editor, polls, and surveys. While preparing the for children. More important, he lacked the most
translations, the translators took notes on the elementary familiarity with the existentialist
problems that arose and the strategies they devised philosophy that served as de Beauvoir’s point of
to handle them. The participants gathered three departure, translating pour-soi, “being-for-itself,” as
times in the course of the Project: the first time to woman’s “true nature” or “feminine essence” and
choose the texts to be translated; the second, to using the word “subjective” in the colloquial sense
discuss the translations; the third, to compose the of “personal” instead of the existentialist sense of
guidelines. During the first meeting, which took “exercising freedom of choice.” As a result,
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsg enerations of de Beauvoir’s English readers have Shi, the central figure of early Chinese
been predicating their views of her position on liberalism; of Lu Xun’s essays, which have
faulty evidence. The translation came out in 1953, been at least as influential as his fiction; or
and it is still the only one available in English. of Chen Yinke’s historical scholarship. . . .
While Chinese works of literature have
The need for more translations of social science
earned growing international recognition
literature is just as palpable. It is also timely. With
since the eighties as deserving translation
the monumental regime changes that took place at
into other languages in a timely and com
the end of the twentieth century, the former social-
prehensive fashion, this has yet to be
ist-bloc countries felt the need to translate Western
the case for contemporary intellectual
social science classics en masse. But societies in
debates, which as a rule remain accessible
other parts of the world have also been remiss. The
only through scanty and intermittent
introduction to a recent collection of articles on
coverage by news media. (Chaohua Wang,
developments in China makes a strong case for the
ed. One China, Many Paths. Verso:
need on the part of the West to learn more about
London/New York. 2003 9-10.)
Chinese society through the writings of Chinese
scholars. We cite the following substantial quota-
tion because the same point could apply, mutatis The Specificity of Social Science Texts
mutandis, to the global community as a whole.
Are social science texts sufficiently distinctive to
warrant an approach to translation distinct from
For more than a century, Chinese intel
that used for natural science texts (texts in chem
lectuals have been engaged in translating
istry, physics, mathematics, and the like) and
and introducing Western thought and
technical texts (instruction manuals and the like)
literature in China. Political developments,
on the one hand, and literary texts on the other?
including wars and civil wars and many
We believe they are.
other upheavals, have interrupted the long
flow of this work of learning, but never Texts in the natural sciences and technical texts
brought it to a halt. Today, Chinese readers resemble those in the social sciences in that they
have access in their native language require of the translator an intimate knowledge of
to large areas of Western literature the subject matter at hand. However, since the
and philosophy, political and economic natural sciences deal primarily with physical phe-
thought, to classical texts and contemporary nomena and their measurement, lexical choices
ideas of the world. But this process of tend to be cut and dried, ambiguities rare. Natural
cultural familiarization has been one- science texts would seem, then, possible candi-
sided. Neither the length and depth of dates for machine translation. Insofar as certain
traditional Chinese civilization, nor the sub-categories of social science texts approach the
importance of China in the modern technical nature of natural science texts—docu-
history of the world, are reflected in a ments issuing from governmental agencies, for
comparable range of Western translations example—they too may lend themselves to
of Chinese thought and culture. Classical machine translation. (See Appendix G.)
poetry and fiction have found skilled
Theories of natural science typically achieve a
and devoted translators, but history
high level of generality and at times approach
and philosophy have been much less
universality. While social science theories may
well served. . . . To take some of the most
aspire to generality, they are often stymied by
obvious examples, there are no English
particular political, social and cultural contexts.
translations of the principal works of Hu
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts A relationship prevalent in many settings will not ethnic or ideological characteristics. They may
hold in all; for example, the positive correlation also implicitly incorporate historical assumptions,
found in many countries between levels of that is, concepts a given society takes for granted.
private wealth and public health is not found Straightforward “dictionary translations” of such
in China in the 1950s and 1960s: public health words may thus fail to convey subtle differences in
in China was better than in other countries at its meaning and mislead the reader. Thus Rus kom-
income level. Less obviously and more important, promis can imply a negative connotation absent
a theory’s terminology may not effectively identify from Eng compromise, whereas Chi xuanchuan
a society’s empirical realities since fitting empir usually lacks the negative connotation of Eng
ical realities into a theoretical language requires propaganda, its conventional English translation.
interpretation. To use another Chinese example,
The resultant inter-referentiality demands that
the term typically translated as “customs” when
the translator be familiar not only with the subject
referring to local social practices does not lead
matter of the text but also with the broader field of
to the European idea of “customary law,” yet
meanings through which it moves. The scholarly
“customs” in China, that is, local norms and con-
context in which the text takes shape is an implicit
ventions, sometimes appear to have a status related
but crucial factor in the translation process. As a
to that of law. The act of applying social science
result, social science translators need to know the
terms developed in one context to another context
“language” of the discipline or organization they
may spawn misleading translations since their
are dealing with (its jargon, its givens, its histori-
conceptual reach may differ in different contexts.
cal background) as intimately as the natural lan-
Literary texts thrive on specificity of style and guages involved, both source and target languages.
manner of expression. Social science texts do not (See Appendix H, excerpts from Immanuel
as a rule depend for their meaning and impact Wallerstein’s clear and cogent essay, “Concepts in
on the manner of expression, though notable the Social Sciences: Problems of Translation.”)
exceptions do exist: some social scientists pride
themselves on their style; indeed, some social
Funding a Translation
science texts—historical narratives, for instance—
come close to literature. Generally speaking, The most common reason given for the paucity of
however, literature privileges nuance, social translations in general is the expense involved. In
science, clarity. In literature ideas and facts are the social sciences the cost factor is all the more
created by and in the text; in the social sciences glaring because many if not most of the texts in
they come from outside. Both are culture-specific, question are not written for remuneration: editors
though social science texts frequently more so than accustomed to receiving manuscripts gratis are
literary texts, many of them presupposing and/or loath to lay out even a small portion of their
depicting interactions among cultures. ever dwindling resources for translation, espe-
cially as social science texts rarely generate a
Social science discourse is also distinctive in
profit. One way out of the dilemma is to apply
that it communicates through concepts that are
for grants to subsidize the work. A number of
shared (or contested) within a specific community
governmental, cultural, and information agencies
of scholars or groups—such as governmental
underwrite translations from their national lan-
and non-governmental organizations—sharing
guages. The cultural attaché in the editor’s
common goals. Concepts tend to take the form of
country will be able to provide information about
technical terms, which in turn tend to be culture-
relevant programs. Editors may also want to
specific. Their specificity may be linked to the
approach research institutes specializing in the
period in which they originate as much as to
topic of the text under consideration.
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsWho Is a Translator? in university settings, social scientists who con-
template translating texts they find seminal to
It is a fundamental but often overlooked rule of
their interests should seek them out before under-
thumb that translators work into their native
taking a project.
language* or dominant language,* the language in
which they can express themselves most precisely Who, then, is a translator? A translator is one
and effectively. It goes without saying that they whose native or dominant language* is the target
must have mastered the language from which language,* who has attained a high degree of
they translate, but rare are the cases of translators mastery of the source language,* and who has
having mastered it to such an extent that they can undergone professional training in the techniques
translate in both directions. While bilinguals* of translation.
constitute a potential exception to this rule,
true bilinguals, speakers who have grown up edu-
Choosing a Translator
cated and acculturated equally in two languages,
are few and far between. Certain misconceptions that have commonly
plagued commissioning editors in search of a trans
In the end, knowing two languages, no matter
lator—that anyone with two languages is a
how intimately, does not automatically make one
potential translator, that a native speaker of the
a translator. Knowing two languages is, of course,
source language will understand the source
a prerequisite, but translation is a craft and, like
text better and therefore produce a better trans
any craft, it calls for training. The quality of the
lation—should by now have been put to rest. It is
end product varies in relationship to the training
unrealistic to expect that anyone professing a
the translator has received. True, talent and natu-
knowledge of two languages or translating into a
ral aptitudes play a role, but professional guidance
language that is not his or her own will be
is important, be it for the development of talent or
able to produce competent translations. The ideal
instruction in technical procedures.
translator, as we have seen, is one whose native or
Training has traditionally taken place at dominant language is the target language and who
ost-graduate institutions devoted exclusively
p has a professionally grounded knowledge of the
to translating and interpreting. Recently, however, source language, training in translation tech-
universities have begun offering courses and even niques, and—especially if the text is of a scholarly
degrees in the field. Lists encompassing both nature—expertise in the pertinent field. Finding
types of programs are available at atanet.org/ such a translator can be a daunting task.
certification/eligibility_approved.php and www.
In the case of scholarly works, the editor will
lexicool.com/courses.asp.
start by reviewing work of the author’s previous
A typical M.A. curriculum includes courses translators. Should no previous translations of
such as theories of translation, translation skills the author exist, the editor will review the work
and techniques, translation tools and technology, of translators who have worked with the same
translation as a profession, etc. language and the same or related fields. The editor
may also wish to ascertain whether the author
Since highly specialized scholarly texts are best
translated by scholars with a background in the
field (see “The Specificity of Social Science Texts”
In recognition of the fact that translators meeting all the
and “Recommendations” below), potential scholar-
requirements may not be readily available, scholars are
translators cannot be expected to complete a degree developing techniques to aid those called upon to translate
in translation. However, now that instruction in into a language other than their own. (See the Training
the practice of translation is increasingly available section in Appendix D, Bibliography.)
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts is familiar with pertinent scholars whose native Communication Between Editor
or dominant language is the desired target lan- and Translator
guage and who have done or might be interested
Given the potential of the social sciences to influ-
in doing translation.
ence public policy and therefore millions of lives,
In the case of less scholarly works (texts on social it is incumbent upon both translator and editor
science topics meant for the general public, texts to produce the most reliable translation possible.
generated by governmental and non-governmental Their fruitful collaboration is a crucial factor.
agencies, and the like), the editor can have recourse (For several brief case studies of editor-translator
to lists of accredited translators, often arranged in collaborations, see Appendix E.) Since editing
fields of specialization, available from the various practices—and the amount of resources devoted
national translators’ associations. For an up-to-date to the editing process—vary, we shall describe an
compilation of these associations, go to the Web site ideal scenario and modify it with suggestions for
of the Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs/ less than ideal conditions.
International Federation of Translators, at www.fit-
Before work on the translation begins, the com
ift.org/en/news-en.php, and click on Members.
missioning editor must, of course, secure the rights
If no viable candidate can be found by either for the text and draw up a contract with the trans-
method, the commissioning editor may consider lator. Contracts and the issues they address—rates
using two translators—a native or dominant of payment, modes of payment (the translator may
speaker of the source language together with receive a certain amount per thousand words of
a native or dominant speaker of the target translated text, which is the norm in the English-
language—as a team. The former would provide speaking world, or per page or per the number of
a rough translation, the latter, revise it into keystrokes, characters, etc.), copyright, secondary
an acceptable text, consulting with the former rights, deadlines, and the like—differ consider-
whenever ambiguities arise. Familiarity with the ably from country to country, publisher to pub-
field on the part of both members of the team lisher, and even project to project. In some
is all but a prerequisite for a viable outcome. countries negotiations are carried out by agents;
in others, the translator negotiates directly with
Once potential translators have been chosen,
the editor or publisher. Rates may be influenced
the editor should consider asking them to trans-
by the experience of the translator and the nature
late a sample passage. Even experienced transla-
of the source text (or, at times, of the source
tors and translators the editor has previously
language). We therefore refrain from giving
worked with successfully should be asked for a
recommendations for contracts and rates. Editors
sample: the translator must match the text at
who lack experience working with translations
hand. The sample—five to ten pages will suf-
would be advised to consult the sample contracts
fice—then needs to be evaluated, ideally by a
and rate scales available from their national trans-
native speaker of the source language with exper-
lators’ association. (See “Choosing a Translator”
tise in the subject matter at hand. The cost
below for the Web site that gives a list of such
involved in procuring samples and evaluations is
associations.) One issue that every contract must
a worthwhile investment, given the unhappy
address, however, is how the translator will be
possibility of paying for a complete translation
credited. Every translated text must identify the
that in the end proves wanting or even unusable.
translator by name, the logical place being
immediately after the name of the author, that is,
on the title page of a book or at the beginning of
an article.
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsTogether with a clean copy of the source between the two. As unwieldy as that process and
text the commissioning editor should provide an the entire translation enterprise may seem, the
in-house style sheet, which will relieve the copy- editor must keep in mind that once a text appears
editor from spending valuable time and energy in translation it acquires an authority of its own,
on technical details. If at all possible, editor and becoming an autonomous text and the potential
translator should meet during the pre-translation basis for the creation of ideas. It is for this reason
stage or, if a face-to-face meeting proves infeasible, that it behooves all involved to ensure that the
discuss important issues by correspondence. The translation reflect the original accurately.
editor should inform the translator of the context
in which the translation is to appear and the nature
Communication Between
of the target audience, because the function of the
Author and Translator
text will play a role in how the translator approaches
it. The translator, in turn, should alert the editor The extent to which a living author should be
to potential problems (wordiness, obscure jargon, consulted during the translation process depends
tortured syntax*) and propose strategies to deal on a number of factors, including the author’s per-
with them. For instance, the translator may posit a sonality, schedule, and linguistic sophistication
spectrum of two extremes, literal and free, to and/or competency. Since the translator acts as
the editor and ask where on the spectrum the the author’s representative, it is in the latter’s
editor wishes the translation to lie. (For examples interest to cooperate, and author involvement
of excessively literal and more acceptable trans can be helpful. It is not, however, without its
lations, see Appendix F.) The translator should problems. (For examples of positive and negative
warn the editor in advance that the translation experiences in this regard, see Appendix E.)
will not necessarily be the same length as the
original. A Russian translation, for instance, tends
Domestication* vs. Foreignization*
to be considerably longer than its English original;
an English translation from the German tends Editors and translators must agree on the basic
to be shorter. strategy for translating a given text. To what extent
does the translator need to “acculturate” the origi-
Since few editors will possess the linguistic
nal, that is, make its methodological approach,
and/or field-specific knowledge to digest the
intellectual categories, taxonomy, etc. readily acces-
source text, the editor commissioning the trans
sible to the target culture by adapting its conceptual
lation might consider hiring a freelance language
lexicon and structures? To what extent should the
editor who has a command of both languages and
translator maintain the conceptual lexicon and
a familiarity with the field to compare the text
structures of the source culture, sacrificing smooth
with the original. However, even editors lacking
diction in order to indicate to readers that they are,
access to the original are capable of spotting
in fact, reading a translation from another culture
problem passages (illogicalities, inconsistencies,
rather than an original document?
terminological difficulties, etc.) if they read the
text meticulously. They should therefore look over Another way of posing the question: To what
a chapter or two as the work progresses, especially extent should a social science translation strive to
if the selection process did not include a request for reproduce the distinctive rhetoric and style of the
a sample passage. source? Although there can be no absolute answer,
the question is central to our enterprise and raises a
The editor should show the translator all emen-
corollary one, namely: how much of the meaning
dations made during the editing and copyediting
of a social science text is conveyed by form? If
process, which is best treated as a give and take
the form is lost, is not something of the content
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts lost as well? Here much depends on the genre and Pitfalls of Social Science Translation
the author. Journalism and popularizations derive
Correcting the text. Although translators func-
much of their impact from their means of expres-
tion to a certain extent as editors—they clarify
sion. But then, in different ways, so do Heidegger
the text and make it acceptable to a new
and Lévi-Strauss. In general, however, the trans
audience—they must not attempt to correct what
lator will be seeking a middle ground between
they perceive to be errors in the text. If tempted
clarity and distinctiveness of form.
to do so, they would be advised to introduce
The manner in which ideas take shape and find any disagreements they may have with the origi-
verbal expression differs from culture to culture. nal in a footnote or a translator’s introduction,
Derrida has gone so far as to posit that only which should be as objective as possible and take
numbers can be translated without considering the form of explanations rather than argumen
the cultural and historical baggage involved. tative commentaries.
Translators must create the means to relay the
Translators may feel free to make tacit correc-
peculiarities of the source language and culture
tions of minor errors on the order of spelling
without alienating readers of the target language
mistakes in toponyms.
and culture; they must avoid the Scylla of slav-
ishly reproducing an argumentation process that Leveling stylistic peculiarities. The “spirit” or
may be incomprehensible to the intended reader “genius” of a language influences the ways its users
and the Charybdis of refashioning it into a pro- write. Common knowledge has it, for example,
cess with which the reader is familiar and com- that English syntax* favors shorter sentences than
fortable. There is no set answer to the question of do many languages. A translator working into
where they should position themselves between English may therefore be moved to turn a complex,
the two extremes: each text is sui generis. It is a highly polyvalent French text, for example, into a
question that bears discussion between translator text of short, pellucid sentences. But concision is
and editor. As a rule of thumb, however, the trans- not a value in itself, even in English. While manu-
lator should stretch the stylistic confines of the als of English-language style may prescribe opti-
target language as far as they will go to reflect the mum sentence lengths of ten words and proscribe
peculiarities of the source language,* and stop just sentences of more than twenty as “convoluted,”
before the result sounds outlandish in the target English can in fact accommodate much longer
language. In other words, the translation needs to sentences. Careful attention to syntax (and the
be comprehensible, but need not read as if it were concomitant precise use of punctuation) makes it
written by a social scientist in the target culture. possible to reproduce longer sentences without
The goal is to make the text as plausible as possi- violating the spirit of the English language.
ble in its own terms. Translators must keep in mind that syntax bears
a message. Its message may not be as direct as
When a national cuisine makes its entry into a
that of, say, terminology, but it does influence
new culture, it must retain its original flavor yet
the way we perceive and unpack an argument. It
be palatable to its new consumers. A pertinent
may therefore even be advisable to go farther and
corollary this metaphor suggests is that the more
allow a note of “foreignness” to enter the trans
sophisticated the receiving culture, the more open
lation, without, again, disrespecting the structure
it is to accepting the original cuisine in the most
of the target language. (See also “Domestication
authentic, piquant form possible.
vs. Foreignization,” above.)
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsAltering the method of argumentation. Just as of non-Western countries. What looks like “inter-
the spirit of a language influences the ways in national” terminology may therefore be deceptive
which its users write, so the intellectual tradition or, in extreme cases, an attempt to impose
of a culture influences the ways in which its users meanings from one culture on another. A word
think and formulate their arguments. While like “democracy,” which would seem to offer
translators must try to preserve the quality of the automatic equivalents, may turn out to require
source language’s concepts and argumentation an explanatory footnote or—if it affects the
when it differs considerably from those of the way the reader is to view a concept throughout a
target culture, they must also avoid going so far work or article—a translator’s introduction.
as to make the author sound foolish. Examples
Conceptual false friends may also develop
of such a difference on the ideological level (anal-
over time, because the semantic content might
ogous to the issue of complex sentences on the
change while the form—the word itself—remains
stylistic level) are 1) argumentation from the par-
the same. Such is currently the case in former
ticular to the general (the inductive method) vs.
(and not so former) Communist countries. Thus
arguments from general to the particular (the
the Chinese nongmin, commonly translated as
deductive method), and 2) the empirical approach
“peasant(s)” in Communist texts, may now be
(deriving knowledge primarily from sense-data
translated as “farmer(s)” to reflect the new eco-
or experience) vs. the speculative approach (deriv-
nomic situation. Sometimes the issue is more
ing knowledge primarily from contemplation and
complicated. What does the concept of Chinese
ratiocination rather than observation). (Again,
fengjian, commonly translated as “feudalism” in
see “Domestication vs. Foreignization.”)
Communist texts, mean in texts written today?
False friends. Translators need to be on the look- Does it retain its Marxist connotation? When
out for words that take the same form in two is a Russian social scientist using the word
languages but have different meanings in each: ob”ektivno— “objectively”—in the Marxian sense
Eng sympathetic vs. Fr sympathique (which means and when in the common-language sense? The
“likeable, nice”), Eng gift vs. Ger Gift (which danger here is that the translator may have a
means “poison”). They are often loanwords* bias and provide more of a commentary than
(also called calques), such as Rus killer (which a definition.
means “ hit man, hired assassin”), Fr pick-up
Changes in the semantic content of words also
(which means “record player”).
come about without cataclysmic changes in the
Conceptual false friends. A related but more world situation. An influential thinker may will
insidious danger is the conscious or unconscious them into existence. Hegel, for instance, imposed
tendentious translation of technical terms,* espe- a specific philosophical meaning on the word
cially when they are conceptual false friends.* Aufhebung, which comes from the verb aufheben
Globalization may be leading to an increasing meaning literally “to lift” and figuratively “to
consensus on the meaning of technical terms, cancel.” To convey the Hegelian meaning, some
but false conceptual cognates still exist. A literal translators have used the word “sublation,” others
translation of “the state,” for example, may give rise “supersession” or “overcoming”; yet others have
to misconceptions due to discrepancies between retained the German. In any case, such a word
Western-based concepts of the state, which refer calls for a translator’s footnote or—if a number
either implicitly or explicitly to Weber’s defi- of them are involved—a comprehensive intro
nition, and conceptualizations of the state by duction. Translators should pay special attention
authors engaged in a critical reading of Western to technical terms like Aufhebung because they
social science as applied to the social institutions may become key words in the discipline.
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts Wordiness. Social science texts in most languages become conceptual false friends,* that is, even in
tend to be wordy. One way to deal with the prob- one and the same tradition they may come to
lem in translations is to cut grammatical words: mean different things to different authors. Their
• in order to facilitate implementation > to facili labile quality presents a major challenge.
tate implementation Since the prevalence of technical terms is one
• the reforms which have been recently intro of the prime distinguishing features of social sci-
duced > the recently introduced reforms ence discourse, translators must take special care
not only in rendering them but also in making
If a text is particularly, say, repetitive or fuzzy,
their audience aware of them. Although no blanket
the translator may wish to point out the problem to
solution will cover all instances, the two time-
the editor before setting pen to paper and inquire
honored approaches to devising equivalents for
whether the editor prefers the translation to mirror
technical terms are 1) accepting the term as a loan-
its faults or minimize them. (See also “Commun
word,* that is, borrowing it outright (for example,
ication Between Translator and Editor,” above.)
using Russian words for such Soviet terminology
Inconsistent terminology. Generally speaking, a as Eng politburo (for Rus politbiuro < politicheskoe
key term that occurs more than once should be biuro ‘political bureau’) and Eng gulag (for Rus
translated by the same word each time, but the gulag < gosudarstvennoe upravlenie lagerei ‘state
translator must first determine whether the mean- camp administration’) and 2) providing the term
ing is in fact the same. If it is not, the translator with a loan translation* as in Eng political instructor
may choose another word, but the decision must for Rus politruk. Both approaches produce words
be a conscious one. To foster consistency, the editor or expressions that initially sound strange, the
can suggest that translators create a personal glos- former because they are in a foreign language, the
sary of key terms as they work through a text. latter because they force the target language into
the mold of the source language. But languages
Period-specific language. To guard against lin-
have accepted and naturalized borrowed words
guistic and cultural anachronism, translators
and loan translations from time immemorial.
must rely on their awareness of differences in
English was enhanced by untold borrowings from
thought and convention between the time the
the French after the Norman Conquest, and it has
original was conceived and the time the trans
continued to absorb foreign words to this day. As
lation is taking place. For example, they should
for loan translations, how many English speakers
refrain from imposing politically correct language
realize that the expression to kill time is a loan
retroactively.
translation from the French tuer le temps?
In either case, translators will want to use
Dealing with Technical Terms*
a footnote when they are introducing a term
Social scientists who introduce new concepts they have invented or when they wish to replace
usually express them in words or phrases devised an accepted term with one of their own. They
expressly for the purpose. (Bourdieu’s capital cul- do not need to footnote terms that appear in a
turel and Weber’s protestantische Ethik are typical medium-sized monolingual dictionary of the tar
examples.) If widely accepted, they become get language (say, The Concise Oxford Dictionary
technical terms. The concepts and the terms that or Webster’s College Dictionary). Thus, neither
convey them are often highly culture-specific. politburo nor gulag would require a footnote,
Their specificity may depend as much on the but political instructor would. It might read as
period in which they came about as on ethnic follows: “We are using the term political instructor
or national factors. Moreover, they are likely to to translate politruk, a portmanteau word derived
10 G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsfrom politicheskii rukovoditel’ ‘political instructor.’ on such a device frequently because it might turn
It refers specifically to a Party official assigned into a crutch. It might also undermine confidence
to provide soldiers in the Soviet armed forces in the translator’s ability.
with ideological guidance.” A footnote for a term
like the Fr grandes écoles (which translators would
Technical Issues for Translators and Editors
most likely leave in French in the translation, that
is, they would “translate” it as a loanword rather • Punctuation follows the conventions of the target
than as ‘the great schools,’ given that the word language.
école figures in the names of all the schools at
• Reproduction of toponyms follows the conven
issue) might read: “The grandes écoles are the pre
tions of the target language: Rus Moskva > Eng
mier institutions of higher learning in France
Moscow. Street names appear in the original
and include the École Normale Supérieure, the
language, though the words for street, avenue,
École Polytechnique, the École Navale, etc.”
etc., especially in languages generally unknown
Footnotes should be spare and to the point.
to the culture of the target language, are trans-
Comments of a discursive or interpretive nature
lated: Fr Rue de Rivoli > Eng Rue de Rivoli (not
belong properly in the translator’s preface.
Rivoli Street), Sp Avenida de la Constitución >
Footnotes can also serve to identify and elucidate Eng Avenida de la Constitución (not Constitution
puns and wordplay, proverbs, literary or general Avenue), Rus Nevskii prospekt > Eng Nevsky Pros
cultural references, etc. They should, however, pect, but Rus ulitsa Gor’kogo > Eng Gorky Street.
explain only what is clear to source language read-
• Newspaper and journal titles appear in the
ers but not to target language readers. Furthermore,
original language: Le Monde, The New York
they are not the only way to clarify a term. For
Times, Renmin ribao, Pravda. Book and article
example, the translator may insert an unobtrusive
titles also appear in the original language, but
word or two by way of explanation. If readers of
are followed by a translation in parentheses.
a text translated from the French can be expected
This holds equally for titles in the text proper
to glean from the context that the grandes écoles
and in footnotes. Capitalization of titles fol-
are French institutions of higher learning but not
lows the conventions of the language of the
necessarily that they stand above the rest in pres-
title or of the translation of title, thus: Le
tige, the translator might inconspicuously insert a
Contrat social (The Social Contract), Literatura
word of explanation: the prestigious grandes écoles.
i revoliutsiia (Literature and Revolution).
Occasionally the need for footnotes may be
• Local units of measurement are followed in
attenuated or entirely obviated by the inclusion of
parentheses by a conversion into the metric
the source-language term after the translation in
system: fifty miles (eighty kilometers), a hun-
parentheses. Let us return to the use of political
dred mu (sixty-seven hectares). Local monetary
instructor as the English equivalent of Rus politruk.
units are to be preserved; no conversion need
If, again, the context surrounding the term makes
be given.
its connection with the armed forces sufficiently
clear, the translator may put it in parentheses in • Names of institutions generally appear in
the original after the translation—political the original language—École Normale Supéri
instructor (politruk)—thereby both indicating eure, British Council, the Duma—unless
its status as a technical term and signaling its conventional translations exist (White House >
provenance to members of the reading audience Fr Maison Blanche) or the translation tradition
who happen to be conversant with the term in its of the target language dictates otherwise. Names
original form. But it is not advisable to fall back of institutions may also be translated, preferably
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts 11only the first time they appear, when the literal the reference, the translator must search for
meaning is necessary to make a point. it, using the relevant data bases, or query
the author. In addition, the translator must
• Foreign words used by the author are generally
render all bibliographical references in foot-
retained (and followed by a translation should
notes according to the scholarly conventions of
the translator deem it necessary). If the foreign
the target text.
word is in the target language (for example, if
the author uses an English word and the trans- • The main reference works for the translator are
lation is into English), the translator will want monolingual dictionaries of the source and
to indicate this by placing the word in italics or target languages. Bilingual dictionaries are
in a footnote. N.B. This rule does not apply to useful in two instances: 1) when the translator
loanwords that have earned a place in the target knows what a word in the source language
language (like the word marketing in French, means but cannot momentarily come up with
Russian, and many other languages). the equivalent in the target language, and
2) when the translator has learned from a
• References to words and titles in writing sys-
monolingual dictionary that the word is a plant,
tems differing from that of the target language
animal, or the like, that is, when equivalence
must be transliterated. Translators should use
is likely to be one-to-one. Thesauruses provide
the standard transliteration system when one
more synonyms than even the most complete
exists. Some systems, such as the Chinese pinyin
bilingual dictionaries.
Romanization, have been adopted by virtually
all languages; other systems, however, are lan- When reference works fail, the translator
guage-specific. The Library of Congress system should have recourse to an educated native speaker
(see Barry Randall, ALA-LC Romanization of the source language, preferably one who is pro-
Tables. Washington: Library of Congress, 1997) fessionally competent in the field of the text in
is becoming the standard for transliteration question. Professionally competent native speak-
into English, but not into French, German, ers of the target language can also be hired to read
Spanish, etc. When the transliteration system the translation and provide notes for the translator
is language-specific, the translator must con and editor. (See also “Communication Between
vert the system used in the source language to Translator and Editor” and “Evaluation.”)
the system used in the target language. (Thus
what appears as Tchernobyl in a French text will
Evaluation
appear as Chernobyl in its English translation.)
Sometimes the situation is complicated by the The process of evaluation will differ according to
fact that two systems co-exist, a popular one whether editors know the source language. Those
used primarily for names and toponyms who know the language will proceed most effi-
(as in the personal or city name Gorky) and a ciently if, instead of moving back and forth
scholarly one used for lexical items, titles, refer- between the translation and the original, they
ences, and quotations (Gor’kii). Translators in read the translation as an independent text and
doubt as to the proper system to apply should refer to the original only when a passage in the
consult the local translators’ association. translation trips them up in one way or another.
Those who do not know the language are in a dif-
• When the author quotes a passage from a
ficult position: how can they judge the quality of
source written in the target language, the trans-
the end product? They can prepare by reading
lator must reproduce the original passage, not
analogous texts translated from their author, espe-
translate back from the author’s translation of
cially if these have been positively received. As for
the passage. If the author has not provided
12 G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsthe new translation, they too must read it as an In the case of academic texts appropriate
independent text and judge its cogency. A careful t ranslators are harder to find, because few social
reading is likely to reveal potential trouble spots, scientists—in the English-speaking countries,
but any evaluator who lacks access to the original at least—have sufficient command of a language
will have to consult with the translator when a to enable them to translate a text from that
passage fails to ring true. Alternatively, they can language. Even fewer have received training in
hire an external reviewer with competence in the the techniques of translation. The social science
two languages and the topic of the text. field needs to appreciate the critical importance of
the process and effects of translation. If social
scientists are to become the translators of their
Final Recommendations
colleagues—as they must for translations to meet
Translators are trained, not born. They must, of exacting academic criteria—their disciplines
course, possess a solid knowledge of the relevant must take responsibility for ensuring that proper
two languages, but professional training is also of training in translation becomes more widely
the essence. The nature of the required training available—and more highly valued—in the social
will differ according to the nature of the text science community.
under consideration.
One recommendation can be implemented
Different texts call for different translators: immediately: advisors in social science depart-
academic social science texts are best handled by ments should encourage their graduate students
academic social scientists, because a knowledge of to enroll in advanced language courses and work
the field is essential to the success of the translation; shops in translation. They can induce students
texts aimed at a more general audience and texts of to do so by offering them funding as research
the type generated by government agencies and assistants to translate scholarly work in areas
NGOs are best translated by professional transla- pertinent to their research. Another recommen
tors, preferably with training and/or experience in dation will take more time to implement:
the area involved. We urge commissioning editors the field as a whole needs to acknowledge trans
to seek the proper translator accordingly. lations of major contributions to its disciplines as
an integral part of the scholarship presented by
It is relatively easy to find qualified translators
tenure-track faculty members. The prestige and
for texts aimed at a general audience. Professional
merit that derive from translating a seminal
translators with sufficient specialized training
study by, say, Foucault or Habermas, a work that
and/or experience in the social sciences exist and
will be read by everyone in the field, deserve
may be contacted through translators’ associations.
professional recognition.
(For a list of recognized association, go to the Web
site of the Fédération Internationale des Traduc If these recommendations help to implement
teurs/International Federation of Translators, at the goals set forth in the guidelines, they
www.fit-ift.org/en/news-en.php, and click on will increase the number and quality of trans
Members.) Most of the members of national lations in the field and thereby the breadth
associations are native speakers of the language of and depth of the field itself. They will in turn
the country in question and therefore translate encourage social scientists to write in their own
into that language, but they also include native languages (see Appendix I), thus fostering con
speakers of other languages qualified to translate tributions from diverse linguistic and cultural
out of that language. They can therefore serve as communities to international communication in
the first recourse for those needing to commission the social sciences.
translations either way.
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts 13Appendix A
Participants in the Social Science Translation Project
Principal Investigators Luo Xuanmin
Director, Center for Translation and Inter
Michael Henry Heim
disciplinary Studies; Professor, Department of
Professor, Department of Slavic Languages and
Foreign Languages, Tsinghua University.
Literatures and Comparative Literature,
University of California, Los Angeles. Ramona Naddaff
Co-Director, Zone Books; Assistant Professor of
Andrzej W. Tymowski
Rhetoric, University of California, Berkeley.
Director of International Programs, American
Council of Learned Societies. Bruno Poncharal
Maître de conférences, Institut d’Études
Anglophones, Université de Paris VII.
Natalia Avtonomova
Janet Roitman
Senior Research Fellow, Institute of Philosophy,
Chargé de recherche, Centre National de la
Russian Academy of Sciences.
Recherche Scientifique.
Chuanyun Bao
Irina Savelieva
Dean, Graduate School of Translation and
Professor, Higher School of Economics, State
Interpretation, Monterey Institute of
University, Moscow.
International Studies.
Lynn Visson
Richard Brecht
Staff Interpreter, United Nations, retired;
Director, Center for Advanced Study of Language,
Editor, Hippocrene Books.
University of Maryland.
Wang Feng
Olga Bukhina
Professor, Department of Sociology, University of
Coordinator of International Programs, American
California, Irvine.
Council of Learned Societies.
R. Bin Wong
Leonora Chernyakhovskaya
Director, Asia Institute; Professor, Department of
Director, Moscow International School of
History, University of California, Los Angeles.
Translation and Interpreting.
E. Perry Link
Professor, Department of East Asian Studies,
Princeton University.
14 G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x tsAppendix B
Glossary
bilingual. Having two native languages. (See also speak of “conceptual” false friends. The standard
native language.) English, French, and Russian translation of
Ch xuanchuan is propaganda/propagande, but in
calque. A literal translation of a word or expression
Chinese the term does not have so uniformly
used to convey the same meaning. Such loan trans-
negative a connotation as in other languages. And
lations often sound awkward at first, but come to be
although the word democracy takes a similar form
accepted with use. The Eng false friend is a loan
in all European languages, its meaning varies not
translation from Fr faux ami; the Eng to kill time a
only from culture to culture but even from speaker
loan translation from Fr tuer le temps; the Fr gratte-
to speaker. (See also loanword, loan translation.)
ciel is a loan translation from Eng skyscraper. The
term calque is a loanword from Fr calque. Also called foreignize. Make a translation read in such a way
loan translation. (See also loanword.) as to indicate or even emphasize its origins in the
source culture. (See also domesticate.)
domesticate. Make a translation read so smoothly
in the target language as to obscure its origins in heritage speaker. A person who speaks a lan-
the source culture. (See also foreignize.) guage at home that differs from the one spoken in
the society at large and who has had no formal
dominant language. The language that speakers
education or no more than a primary-school edu-
of more than one language know best and there-
cation in that language. Heritage speakers’ level of
fore the language into which they will normally
linguistic competency varies considerably.
translate. For most it is the native language, but for
speakers who grow up and receive their education interpreting, interpretation. The oral expression
in a country where the language is other than their of a text originally uttered in another language (as
native language it is the language of their adopted distinct from translation, the written expression
country. (See also native language, native speaker.) of a text originally formulated in another lan-
guage). Interpretation can be either consecutive,
false friend. A word that occurs in the same or
if the interpreter delivers the text in segments
virtually the same form in two languages, but has
after the speaker, or simultaneous, if the inter-
different meanings in each: Eng sympathetic vs.
preter delivers the text at the same time as the
Fr sympathique (= Eng likeable, nice), Eng gift vs.
speaker. Although many of the skills required of
Ger Gift (= Eng poison). They are often loanwords,
interpreters and translators overlap, others are
such as Rus killer (= Eng hit man, hired assassin),
specific to one or the other group.
Fr pick-up (= Eng record-player). One may also
G u i d e lin e s f o r th e T ranslati o n o f S o cial S ci e nc e T e x ts 15You can also read
