GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS FALL 2021 ISSUE
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GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS FALL 2021 ISSUE COLLAPSE
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Hilary Lawson
Imran Bayoumi
DIRECTORS OF WRITTEN COTENT
Connor Oke
Kristen Pern
DIRECTOR OF NEWSWATCH
Desmond Barton
DIRECTOR OF PODCAST
Luca Bonifacio-Proietto
DIRECTOR OF DIGITAL DESIGN
Melanie Samiento Bravo
DIRECTOR OF COMMUNICATIONS
Salwa Hakem
DIGITAL DESIGN AND COMMUNICATIONS
ASSOCIATE
Megan Goudie
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Julia DaSilva
Sarah Klein
Chanel MacDiarmid
FEATURE CONTRIBUTORS
Brittany Barwsie, Katie Bennett, Thomas
Chan, Fatema Diwan, Sara Duodu, Matthew
Funk, Elizabeth Gallagher, Hannah Loewith, Christie Ma, Rebecca
Seward-Langdon, Elliot Simpson, Arthur
Smith-Windsor, Samantha Tristen, Sarah
Whelan
NEWSWATCH CONTRIBUTORS
Jude Asare, Jigme Garwang, Dorottya Szekely, Christian Tramontin
PODCAST CONTRIBUTORS
Adam Aber, Brennan Curtis, Sky Shi
COVER DESIGN BY
Megan Goudie
Letter from the Editors-in-Chief At the start of this year, politicians, journalists, and economists alike predicted that 2021 would bring about the end of the pandemic for most of the world. In- stead, an unequal vaccine rollout, economic pressures,emerging security threats, and new variants of COVID-19 have made 2021 a year of collapse. We asked our writers to reflect on the theme of collapse as they worked on their stories for our Fall 2021 issue. The fall of Afghanistan to the Taliban underscored the continuing failure of post-conflict stabilization missions and the enduring costs of war. Elsewhere, the fragility of global supply chains has exposed some of the fundamental weaknesses of our current economic system. Around the world, human rights are under threat as citizens elect unpredictable, authoritarian re- gimes that are bolstered by unchecked disinformation and conspiracy theories. And scenes of climate catastrophe dominated the headlines this year, warning of a future punctuated by floods, fires, food shortages, and crumbling infrastruc- ture. While alarming, the collapse of institutions, systems, and ways of life that we have often taken for granted is not surprising. In many ways, COVID-19 has ac- celerated existing trends whose foundations were laid well before the pandemic. The failure by world leaders and policymakers to recognize these trends has no doubt played a part in determining where we are today. As you read these stories, we encourage you to imagine how the events and themes presented in them may impact our future world. In some ways, the de- struction wrought by collapse offers us the opportunity to leave behind old systems that brought us to this point. It also offers us the chance to build new systems that serve us in more equitable and sustainable ways. Please join our writers in reflecting on the ways theidea of collapse has played out in 2021, and join the global conversation on how we move forward. Editors-in-Chief, Hilary Lawson & Imran Bayoumi Hilary Lawson & Imran Bayoumi GLOBAL CONVERSATIONS IS A STUDENT-LED PUBLICATION AT THE MUNK SCHOOL OF GLOBAL AFFAIRS AND PUBLIC POLICY, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.
INTRODUCTION Our fall 2021 edition arrives as the world has slowly started to shift back to nor- mal people are back to class, back to work, and back to at least some semblance of the lives they had before COVID-19. Over the past semester, we’ve been able to enjoy lunch once again with our friends, converse in class, play sports, and gather after the day is done. Yet, instead of the hopeful recovery we were promised, the world still feels un- certain. A new COVID-19 variant threatens to undo much of the progress we’ve made. Climate change continues to advance at a rapid pace and international meetings like COP26 lead nowhere. Countries such as Afghanistan, Venezuela, and Syria have fallen apart. And in the Western world, the cost of living is in- creasingly becoming unaffordable for all but the upper strata of society. Our fall addition dives headfirst into these feelings of pessimism and insecuri- ty. The theme is “collapse.” We asked our writers to investigate the systems that are deteriorating,failing, and inadequate for the decade of change ahead. They tackled issues ranging from the fall of Afghanistan to the Taliban to the failure of reconciliation in Canada and the deteriorating American election system. But hopefully, by examining the collapses we see around us today, we will emerge to the other side with solutions to these pressing problems. As history has shown, crises can create opportunity and drive change. The Biden-Harris admin- istration can raise the cap on refugees in response to the worsening humanitar- ian crises in Afghanistan and Haiti. Canada can rise to the challenge of recon- ciliation and play a more prominent role in amplifying the merits of democracy worldwide. These are just some of the opportunities discussed in this issue. We hope that after reading this edition of Global Conversations, you walk away with a better knowledge of the biggest challenges ahead. But we also hope that you note that – even in the talk of collapse – that there is a better path forward. None of the problems identified in this issue are beyond solving. In this edition are fresh solutions developed by the next generation of thinkers. One day, they will take us to great places. We hope you take their words to heart. Directors of Written Content, Connor Oke & Kristen Pearn 4 Global Conversations Fall 2021
COLLAPSE In this issue... American leaves behind a geopolitical mess in ... 4 BY MATT FUNK Cracks in the foundation: trouble with the American ... 9 electoral administration BY ELLIOT SIMPSON The collapse of global democracy and ... 12 Canada’s role in saving it BY THOMAS CHAN The great (un)equalizer: The fading illusion of equality ... 15 BY SARA DUODU Next exit: the great filter ... 18 BY SARAH WHELAN (Un)fair shot: The alarming failure of COVAX ... 21 BY FATEMA DIWAN The collapse of Haiti and the inadequate ... 24 American response BY CHRISTIE MA Code green: the COVID-19 waste crisis ... 27 BY BRITTANY BARWISE A rise in hate crimes, a decrease in safety ... 30 BY SAMANTHA TRISTEN Meta platforms and the threat of digital collapse ... 33 BY KATIE BENNET The collapse of oil extraction, the rise of green ... 36 imperialism, and the perpetual colonial systems BY REBECCA SEWARD-LANGDON No stock available: The collapse of global supply chains ... 39 BY ELIZABETH GALLAGHER The collapsing façade of reconciliation ... 41 BY HANNAH LOEWITH The collapsing Sino-American relations over Taiwan: ... 43 the unintended dangers of “neo-containment” strategy BY ARTHUR SMITH-WINDSOR 5 Global Conversations Fall 2021
America leaves behind a geopolitical mess
in Afghanistan
BY MATTHEW FUNK | GLOBAL SECURITY
E XACTLY one month following the terror- After two decades, 2.3 trillion USD spent,
and countless military and civilian lives lost,
ist attacks of 9/11, the United States waged its
America leaves behind a geopolitical mess.
War on Terror against ‘exporters’ of terror
While the worst effects will be borne by the
and governments who supported them. One
Middle East, a potential resurgence in global
such target was the Taliban, which controlled
terrorism and a looming refugee crisis risks
Afghanistan and harboured al Qaeda, in-
destabilizing much of the world.
cluding their leader Osama bin Laden. The
initial phase of the operation was brief —
the Taliban were ousted from Afghanistan THE TALIBAN TAKEOVER:
within two months — but the ensuing phase HUMANITARIAN IMPLICATIONS
of reconstruction became a stalemate span-
PHOTO SOURCE: UNSPLASH, MOHAMMAD RAHMANI
ning the tenure of four presidents. In April The Taliban, who spent the past 20 years in
of 2021, newly inaugurated President Joe conflict, have now turned to the more mun-
Biden announced that a full withdrawal of dane task of governing — something they’re
American troops from Afghanistan would woefully unequipped for. The UN estimates
be completed by the 20-year anniversary of that by the new year, 97 percent of Afghans
9/11, putting an end to America’s longest war. could be living in poverty, making Afghani-
By mid-August, the Taliban descended on stan a contender for the world’s worst
humanitarian crisis. Much of the current hu-
Kabul — the last holdout in their occu-
manitarian crisis stems from the U.S.’s with-
pation of Afghanistan — prompting a holding of aid — nearly three-quarters of
frenzied American exit eerily similar to Afghanistan’s GDP (approximately 8.5 billion
that of Saigon in 1975. USD) came from foreign aid.
6 Global Conversations Fall 2021
While the U.S. is other groups in Afghanistan like Islamic State
Islamic-Khorasan (ISK) — the group responsible
relatively insulated for the August 26 bombing at the Kabul airport
— are sworn enemies with the Taliban.
from Afghanistan’s
turmoil, the mounting As terrorist networks gain a foothold in Afghani-
stan, this increases the risk of attacks against its
instability has stoked neighbours Iran and Pakistan, as well as to Eu-
ropean countries like France. Additionally, as
fear throughout jihadist groups from opposing factions converge
the Middle East, as on Afghanistan, the risk of civil war becomes
increasingly likely.
well as in Europe.
Worse still, the spread of violence is likely to
When the Taliban seized power, the aid flow worsen the effects of an impending refugee crisis.
was shut, and separate foreign accounts Afghanistan’s neighbours Pakistan and Iran have
worth an additional 9 billion USD were both announced that they do not have the capac-
frozen. Despite early promises that they had ity to accept any refugees, having taken in nearly
softened their stance, the Taliban appear 1.5 million and 780,000 asylum seekers, respec-
to be governing with the same brutality as tively, in 2020. With only minor commitments
in their previous power stint, which makes from the U.S. to settle Afghans who helped the
Afghanistan’s previous donors reluctant to American mission, the onus for resettling the
resume aid in the form of cash transfers. As refugees will fall largely on Europe. Germany cur-
the humanitarian crisis worsens, these do- rently houses over 180,000 Afghan refugees and is
nors and the Taliban are in a standoff, and poised to accept another 40,000 this year.
neither wants to compromise.
However, Europe is less willing to accept refugees
The U.S., however, is especially unlikely to deliver than it was in 2015 amidst the Syrian crisis as they
funds to the Taliban. While continuing to with- aim to avoid another populist backlash. With 3.5
hold aid will cause Afghanistan to descend into million Afghans internally displaced and the UN
further chaos, it will also mean that the Taliban’s estimating 500,000 will leave Afghanistan be-
grip on power will be short-lived. While the U.S. tween August and December, it is unclear who
is relatively insulated from Afghanistan’s turmoil, will accommodate them. Recently, Europe’s
the mounting instability has stoked fear through- migration crisis has been exacerbated by Belarus
out the Middle East, as well as in Europe. waging a grey-zone campaign against EU states
Lithuania and Poland. To stoke instability, Belarus
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE WIDER has been trafficking migrants to the borders and
REGION coercing them to cross. A rise in far right demon-
strations in Poland indicates that this strategy is
One such fear is that the crisis has provided an working.
opportunity for extremist groups to further desta-
bilize Afghanistan. While the Taliban rules over A NEW WAY FORWARD
Afghanistan, the nation’s geography makes it
nearly impossible to control entirely. This power While the U.S. now aims to shift its focus else-
vacuum is likely to cause a migration for terrorist where, namely towards the South-China Sea, it
groups, many of which are now calling Afghan- leaves other countries to inherit its mess. The
istan “the center of global jihad.” With little to pattern of chaos that the US has left in its wake
no prospects for many Afghans to make ends requires a shift in its interventionist philosophy.
meet, experts believe that some will be forced To avoid future fiascos, the US needs to fully
to join extremist groups in return for financial adopt the three tenets of the Powell doctrine. The
relief. Although the new Taliban government has doctrine, developed by the late Colin Powell, dic-
demonstrated allegiance to groups like al Qaeda, tates that military action should only be taken if
7 Global Conversations Fall 2021
the following three questions are answered in
the affirmative: Is a vital national security interest
threatened? Do we have a clear attainable objec-
tive, and an exit strategy? Have the risks and MATT FUNK
costs been fully and frankly analyzed? Afghani-
stan and prior interventions have arguably had
negative answers for all three criteria, and cer-
tainly for the latter two. After failing to adhere to
the Powell doctrine, America must now observe
Matt is a first-year student in the Master of Global
Powell’s Pottery Barn rule: “you break it, you own
Affairs program at the Munk School, planning on
it.”
pursuing specializations in both Global Secu-
While the U.S. cannot provide financing to a des- rity and Global Markets. He completed his un-
potic government like the Taliban, there are other dergraduate degree at Queen’s University with
ways it can help the Afghan people. In the imme- a major in Economics and a minor in Political
diate term, the U.S. should dramatically increase Science. His primary interests include American
its commitment to relocate Afghan refugees, be- foreign policy, Great-Power Competition, and
yond just those who aided in military operations. hybrid warfare.
While this will ease the burden on its European
allies, the U.S. can also provide funding to other
neighbours of Afghanistan, namely Uzbekistan,
Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan to house refugees.
In the future, America must avoid the temptation
to arm Taliban opposition. Afterall, it was Ameri-
ca’s indirect meddling during the Soviet-Afghan
War that eventually gave rise to the Taliban and al
Qaeda. However, internalizing this shift in inter-
ventionist philosophy will be a challenge in itself.
8 Global Conversations Fall 2021
Cracks in the foundation: trouble with the
American electoral administration
BY ELLIOT SIMPSON | NORTH AMERICAN AFFAIRS
I N April 2021, just as the news cycle was Six months and seven million dollars later,
Cyber Ninjas could not find any fraud or
moving on from America’s 2020 federal
other reasons to overturn Joe Biden’s win in
election, the Arizona State Senate hired tech
Maricopa County. In the hearing held after-
firm Cyber Ninjas to carry out an audit on
ward to assess the audit, Cyber Ninjas’ CEO,
the results in Maricopa County. For refer-
Doug Logan, was invited to defend his firm’s
ence: Maricopa County is thefourth-largest
handling of the audit. He declined, not will-
county in the nation, Cyber Ninjas had no
ing to do so under oath. The election results
previous experience auditing federal elec-
have been upheld in over 60 separate court
tions, and the sources funding this audit
cases, and America’s electoral machinery has
remain murky.
held firm. But will the system hold in 2024?
The conversation about voting in the United
States, and the headlines thatsell the con- THE FUTURE THREAT TO ELEC-
versation, focus on the availability of polling TORAL INTEGRITY
stations, voter suppression, and gerryman-
dering. These are all worthy of attention and The Constitution gives states much latitude
symptomatic of democratic backsliding. But in how they administer elections. Subse- PHOTO SOURCE: FOREIGN AFFAIRS MAGAZINE
the more insidious threat is that many of the quently, election oversight varies greatly
election officials that upheld the results and across the country but has generally re-
Joe Biden’s subsequent win risk being re- mained outside of the national conversa-
placed before the next election. tion. This is because it has always been seen
as above reproach and so fundamental to
American democracy that, by norm, it has
But will the system hold in remained apolitical and non-partisan.
2024? For many Democrats, the fear is that Republican
statehouses are restricting efforts to “get out the
9 Global Conversations Fall 2021
vote” to limit turnout. These fears are In an interview with The Economist, Auburn Uni-
well-founded: as of March 2021, 250 laws versity’s Kathleen Hale, who trains and certifies
have been proposed in 43 states to restrict election officials across America, affirmed that the
voting by mail and even early- and elec- 2020 Election was a resounding administrative
tion-day voting. As such, the majority of success. Election officials, she says, were asked
Democrats’ efforts to push back in Congress to “build the machine while they were flying it,”
have focused on fighting against this perfidi- citing the exceptional challenge they faced in
ous effort to suppress the vote. This effort running a pandemic election and then during
includes the current fight in Texas, where subsequent audits and recounts. However, Hale
the Justice Department has sued Texas over worries that these same officials are receiving
its new voting law, which allegedly violates death threats from individuals wishing to over-
civil rights and limits voting access unfairly turn the election.
other groups in Afghanistan like Islamic State
Islamic-Khorasan (ISK) — the group responsible Other officials have seen their faces taken from
for the August 26 bombing at the Kabul airport — their office website and posted on social media
are sworn enemies with the Taliban. in the crosshairs of a gun, while others have had
protesters picketing outside their house. While
some officials are being replaced, others are too
America is very traumatized to work the next election. In Mich-
narrowly divided, igan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and elsewhere,
election officials are quitting or retiring early.
and it can no longer
rely on norms Secretaries of state have significant sway and
control over how elections are administered and
such as the losing how votes are counted – and races to this import-
candidate conceding ant office are underway in several key states. Of
the 15 Republican candidates for secretary of state
or the certification of votes in five battleground states, ten have declared that
the 2020 election was stolen, or else have called
being an apolitical process. for further investigation.Worryingly, only two
believe that Biden won the election fairly.
While any effort to disenfranchise voters is
worthy of outrage, political scientists are unsure In Georgia, current Secretary of State Ben
whether such voter suppression laws have any ef- Raffensperger famously denied President Trump’s
fect. For instance, a recent study by the Quarterly request to “find” him 11,780 votes, facing so much
Journal of Economics found that voter ID backlash and threats that he and his family had
complaints of “selective disenfranchisement,” to go into hiding temporarily. He will face Jody
have little to no negative effect on voter registra- Hice in next year’s race for secretary of state. This
tion or turnout. man famously tweeted “This is our 1776 moment,”
regarding the American Revolution on January
This battle being waged is an important one, and 6, 2020, just before the Capitol Hill riots. Indeed,
many aspects of it grab headlines and hold the most of Hice’s campaign for secretary of state
public’s attention. But at the same time, it diverts is based on his belief that the 2020 election was
attention away from the more granular aspects fraudulent. As of today, he is seen as the frontrun-
of election administration that are likely to have ner ahead of Raffensperger, more than doubling
more effect when Americans return to the polls. his fundraising total.
Secretary of state races in Arizona and Michigan,
AFTERMATH OF THE 2020 ELECTION both vital swing states, are being run on similar
themes with prominent and sometimes leading
candidates running on a “Stop the Steal” ticket.
10 Global Conversations Fall 2021This is happening at all levels of election
administration. For example, in Michigan,
Republicans are trying to replace canvassers
and other election officials with candidates ELLIOT
who believe Joe Biden stole the election. SIMPSON
MOVING FORWARD
The battle is also playing out at the legislative lev- Elliott is a second-year student at the Munk
el – as Republican states have passed laws making School of Global Affairs & Public Policy at
it easier to find, prosecute, or replace election the University of Toronto. He graduated from the
officials. On top of the death threats many elec- University of Edinburgh in 2016. Then worked
tion officials have received for upholding the
with Deloitte Canada’s Public Sector Transfor-
2020 results, this has made the job unpalatable
mation Team. In 2019, Elliott joined the team at
for some. Job vacancies for local election officials
Ritual and launched the app in Montreal. He has
abound, opening the door for some to take the
job who, rather than seeing it as an apolitical role worked in several industries including telecom-
as it has always been, may use it as an opportunity munications and marketing, and spent some time
to swing results towards their candidate. consulting within the Scottish Parliament. El-
liott’s interests lie mostly in the sphere of global
security, and defence – and he has been condi-
America is very narrowly divided, and it can no tionally accepted to the Royal Canadian Navy
longer rely on norms such as the losing candidate reserve unit at HMCS York.
conceding or the certification of votes being an
apolitical process. The process by which America
votes, and counts these votes, did not collapse in
2020 – but the guardrails now seem shaky. While
voters have rarely had to worry or even think
about electoral administration, with it shifting
into the political realm, this now seems strangely
naïve.
Donald Trump has begun to hold rallies for the
2024 election, broadcasting the same lie about his
stolen victory to anyone who will listen. It is clear
that Americans interested in maintaining free and
fair elections need to look at who is able to vote,
but in the end it may be who counts the votes
that really matters.
11 Global Conversations Fall 2021The collapse of global democracy and
Canada’s role in saving it
BY THOMAS CHAN | CANADA AND THE WORLD
I N their 2021 annual Freedom in the World CANADA’S DEMOCRACY GROWS
report, Freedom House, a non-profit re- STRONGER AS THE WORLD
search and advocacy organisation focused WEAKENS
on democracy, political freedom, and human
rights, outlined a worrisome trend for glob- Despite these global trends towards demo-
al civil liberties. For the fifteenth consecu- cratic decline, Canada has remained as one
tive year in a row, the global state of liberal of the strongest democracies in the world
democracy and political freedom has deteri- (behind only Finland, Norway, Sweden, and
orated.Nearly three quarters of the world’s New Zealand). With strong democratic insti-
population, almost six billion people, live in tutions, norms, and values in place to sustain
a territory that has experienced some lev- political freedoms, Canada is well suited to
el of erosion of democratic values, norms, serve as a champion for sustainable democ-
or systems in the past year. Democracy’s racy for the world. Canada’s political leader-
ability to guarantee the political rights and ship has signalled their intent to bolster the
representation of its citizens has weakened, promotion of democracy and human rights
public trust in institutions is dwindling, and abroad. Since remarking that Canada was
authoritarian actors are gaining power and “back” on the world stage after first taking
influence. States once considered to be pro- office in 2015, Prime Minister Justin
gressing towards becoming politically “free,” Trudeau’s foreign policy has prioritized giv-
PHOTO SOURCE: BBC WORLD NEWS
including Russia, Hungary, and Myanmar, ing Canada a more prominent role in inter-
are returning to authoritarian tendencies. national affairs. Becoming a champion for
Autocratic leaders have also taken advantage democracy and political freedom would serve
of COVID-19 to consolidate power via emer- as a noble foreign policy pillar for Canada,
gency decrees that limit public gatherings, and one that if executed properly, could re-
free movement, and increase surveillance, turn it to the prominent role of an effective
often under the initial guises of public international player it has long sought to be.
health measures.
12 Global Conversations Fall 2021Since the end of the Second World War, the utility of democracies in the 21st century
successive Canadian governments have and autocracies,” Canada’s democracy pro-
consistently underlined the importance of motion could be an effective way to increase
promoting democracy abroad as part of their its status as an influential middle power.
foreign policy agenda. Support for democ-
racy has also been codified into some of Canada’s commitment to strengthening democ-
Canada’s multilateral commitments, such as racy abroad could be pursued through multiple
the Charter of the Organisation of American pathways. Supporting free and fair elections
States and the North Atlantic (NATO) Treaty. are but one component of strong democracies,
Likewise, promoting democratic governance and Canada must therefore focus on supporting
has been a significant policy goal across aspects that underpin free and fair societies as
many of Canada’s international efforts in well, such as an empowered civil society, a free
recent years, such as attempts to establish press, and respect for minorities. Politically, Can-
democratic institutions in Afghanistan, and ada should provide clear and consistent support
restore democracy in Venezuela through for those demanding human rights and political
coordination within the Lima Group. These freedom, while condemning or “express[ing] grave
efforts have demonstrated Canada’s interest concerns” for states and authorities that seek
in strengthening democratic values, albeit to impede democratic or violate human rights.
with mixed success. Investing in access to independent information
would be another method of official assistance,
such as by providing funds and training for
Canada must recognize that it is independent media outlets and journalists while
decrying violations of press freedom.
unable to reverse
global democratic Canada’s ongoing support for political represen-
tation in Belarus through statements, significant
backsliding alone. funding to civil society organisations, and target-
ed sanctions provides a roadmap for how foreign
CANADA’S RENEWED SUPPORT FOR policy can prioritise strengthening democracy
abroad. Extending this aid to movements that
STRENGTHENING DEMOCRACY
seek to expand civic participation, including
ABROAD women’s rights, LGBTQ2, and ethnic and cultural
rights activist groups are additional ways of culti-
Canada’s renewed support and advocacy for vating an open society. Increasing federal funding
liberal democracy abroad benefits larger strate- for the International Development Research Cen-
gic goals. In defending democratic values and tre (IDRC) would be a straightforward method to
systems abroad, Canada would be supporting achieve these goals. Additionally, requiring dem-
groups, movements, and states that share similar ocratic progress as a condition for development
values, such as commitments to human rights assistance and support could reinforce the need
and the rule of law. For proponents of the demo- for concrete actions that support democracy
cratic peace theory, the prevalence of democratic and civil society in developing countries. Indeed,
powers would result in international stability, less the latest Trudeau government committed to
conflict, and greater prosperity, thus strengthen- many of these actions under its party platform
ing the rules-based liberal international order during the recent federal election.
that has prevailed since the end of the Second
World War. Stronger support for democracy In pursuing democratic initiatives abroad, Canada
could be an opportunity for Canada to take an must also recognise the limits to what it can
pivotal role on a global stage with increasing achieve. On this critical point, three concerns
tensions between democracies and non-democra- are apparent. First, Canada should reflect on the
cies. In this era-shaping divide, one that American costs involved. While funding civil society and
President Joe Biden has deemed “a battle be- election monitoring initiatives are relatively low
tween the utility of democracies in the between cost and low risk avenues for change, strategies
13 Global Conversations Fall 2021with higher risks and greater resources, such as
military intervention, should be avoided in virtu-
ally all instances. The mixed outcomes of using
direct intervention to impose democracy, as op-
THOMAS
posed to bottom-up approaches, have shown the CHAN
need to better involve local communities and
populations in the processes of democratic tran-
sition.
Thomas is a first-year student in the Master of
Second, tensions between domestic and inter-
Global Affairs program at the Munk School of
national interests must be considered. Canada’s
political leadership will have to make difficult yet Global Affairs and Public Policy. He completed
pragmatic choices on deciding whether to en- his undergraduate degree in Conflict Studies and
courage democracy in certain regions, especially Human Rights from the University of Ottawa.
if it engenders economic, security, or geopolitical Prior to Munk, Thomas worked across the federal
concerns. On this point, it is lamentably conceiv- government, including at Global Affairs Cana-
able that a government would (and perhaps in da, Environment and Climate Change Canada,
some cases should) choose to prioritise maintain- and the Canadian Human Rights Commission.
ing diplomatic and trade relations over encour- Thomas also served as a political staff member for
aging democratic reforms or protecting human a federal cabinet minister. His research interests
rights. In addition to larger geopolitical tensions, include Canadian foreign policy, diplomacy, press
this reasoning could in part explain the non-con- freedom, human rights, climate change, and secu-
frontational support offered by Canada and its rity.
peers to the recent pro-democracy movements in
Hong Kong.
Third, Canada must recognise that it is unable
to reverse global democratic backsliding alone.
Ensuring that ideological allies are willing to also
promote their shared values will be a necessity
moving forward. Despite emerging challenges
such as a contentious guest list, the Summit for
Democracy set to be hosted by the United States
in December 2021 will hopefully result in a com-
mitted multilateral action towards revitalising
democracy worldwide.
14 Global Conversations Fall 2021The great (un)equalizer: The fading illusion
of equality
BY SARA DUODU | GENDER & IDENTITY POLITICS
E ARLY in the COVID-19 pandemic, many the United States but also around the globe,
in the fight for racial equality. However,
politicians, news organizations, and celeb-
when further interrogating the outcomes
rities touted the virus as being the “great
of the 2020 protests, it is difficult to deter-
equalizer.” The argument was that since the
mine whether they had an entirely positive
effects of both COVID-19 and the pandemic
effect. With the rise of support for the BLM
did not discriminate based on age, gender,
movement, also came more vocal support for
race, sexual orientation, etc., it would be
alternate movements such as All Lives Matter
the beginning of a global cultural reset. Yet,
and Blue Lives Matter. A 2020 Opinium poll
inequality continues to persist today and the
found that 55% of adults in the UK believe
chasms between groups continue to widen
that the BLM movement has increased racial
across the globe. As the weeks turned into
tensions while 44% of ethnic minorities felt
months, COVID-19 did very little to level
the same.
the playing field, instead exposing and ex-
asperating deep divides that have long lay
This movement has not increased racial tensions
dormant. The “great equalizer” seems to have
but has brought them to the forefront of public
left more problems than solutions and soci-
attention. Black people were not the only ones
eties across the globe are more divided than
who faced increased discrimination during 2020.
they have ever been.
People of Asian descent around the globe experi-
enced increased incidents of racial discrimination
COVID-19 AND GLOBAL
PHOTO SOURCE: DAZED DIGITAL
and violence as a result of misconceptions about
INEQUALITY the COVID-19 virus. People were quick to revert
to racial stereotypes in the face of the unknown,
On the surface, the Black Lives Matter (BLM) demonstrating that the “equality” that has been
movement appears to be a COVID-19 success the standard for so long was really no more than
story. The murder of George Floyd while in an illusion.
police custody galvanized people not just in
15 Global Conversations Fall 2021COVID-19 deepened leading them to not seek out testing or treat-
ment in formal health care institutions.
existing divisions
and created a strong THE DEEPENING OF EXISTING
binary along political DIVISIONS
lines across the globe. This is not to say that COVID-19 is the root
cause of all of these social and political issues.
In addition to increased incidences of racial dis- While the world has made strides in the fight
crimination across the globe, the last 20 months for equality, there was always a long way to go,
has seen further entrenchment of discriminatory and it was only on the surface that equality/
policies. The Polish government has continued tolerance existed. The reality has always been
to crack down on LGBTQ+ and women’s rights, that there have been segments of even the
ignoring cries from their own citizens and the most progressive of societies that have held
European Union (EU) against these repressive unsavoury views about gender, sexual orien-
policies. Protests have erupted across Poland and tation, and race. COVID-19 deepened existing
there has been public backlash against the LGBT- divisions and created a strong binary along
free zones in certain regions of the country. De- political lines across the globe.
spite the backlash, there are many supporters of
this government, emboldened by the more overt The deep and ever-growing divisions between
support for broader oppressive policies across the
the globe. In the United States, Texas and Georgia right and the left about COVID-19 policies,
have passed regressive abortion laws and voting such as masking and vaccines, has been an
rights’ acts, respectively, putting decades of extension of the growing extremism across
progress at risk. It would be easy to pass these the globe in the half-decade that preceded
incidents off as the actions of rogue actors and it, culminating in these seemingly irreconcil-
uncommon occurrences, but the reality is that able differences. It also did not help that most
there is a marked uptick in these kinds of policies countries retreated into nationalism as a result
in countries that have, to date, made considerable of the pandemic, creating an environment that
progress towards equality. favoured homogeneity, centred around nation-
al identity. The “great equalizer” has not yet
led to greater equality and based on the trends
Not only have minorities found themselves the since the pandemic began, has served more as
active targets of certain social groups and poli- a foundation for greater divisions and regres-
ticians, but they have also felt the effects of the sion into a world where only certain kinds of
pandemic disproportionately. During the pan- people are valued.
demic, women have taken on a larger burden of
unpaid care work, they have seen increased inci- REBUILDING FOR A BETTER FU-
dences of gender-based violence, and according
TURE
to estimates from McKinsey, job losses for women
as a result of the pandemic were 1.8 times higher
Despite these concerning trends and the
than those for men. Racialized communities were
seemingly bleak outlook, there is still hope for
more likely to get infected with COVID-19 due
a better, more equal world. There are many
to a number of factors including their jobs on
challenges that countries face that require
the frontlines, their housing situations, and their
considerable attention, but it is imperative that
access to healthcare, to name a few. Finally, a
the international community does not sideline
study showed that 30.2% of LGBTQ+ people in
the fight for equality. It is no longer sufficient
the United States lost their jobs as a result of the
for the international community to condemn
pandemic and due to historical trends, are less
these developments without any real action.
trusting of health care professionals potentially
16 Global Conversations Fall 2021The EU’s consideration of withholding billions
from Poland is a small step towards more tangible
punishments for states and actors who do not
uphold their commitments to democratic ideals SARA
and equality. Without proof of any real punish- DUODU
ment for backsliding, there no longer exists any
real incentive for these more right-wing politi-
cians to maintain this illusion of equality. While
COVID-19 itself may not have been the “great
equalizer,” it has put plainly in front of us
Sara is a first year student in the Master of
some of the divisions that we have taken for
granted. By exposing these fissures, we have the Global Affairs program at the University of Toron-
opportunity to get to the root of the issue and to. She completed her undergraduate degree at
create the world in which we thought we were the University of Western Ontario in History and
already living; however, if left to fester, we might Political Science. She also completed a master’s
reach a point of irreparable division. degree at the University of Western Ontario in
History, specifically focusing on how race was
framed in early 20th century American newspa-
pers. As an undergrad, she was a research assis-
tant for the co-chair of the Consortium on Elec-
toral Democracy and published a paper in the
undergraduate International Affairs journal
about Turkey and the challenges of EU accession.
In her summers, she worked at the Bank of Mon-
treal in Information Security and most recently,
the Private Wealth digital team. Sara’s interests
include the intersection of divisive media and
race, the role of social media in social movements,
and digital capacity building in the Global South
17 Global Conversations Fall 2021Next exit: the great filter
BY SARAH WHELAN | OUTER SPACE
T HE vast expanse of history between noth- Robin Hansen of the Future of Humanity
Institute postulates the existence of a “Great
ing and everything – accounting for the past
Filter:” some barrier through which no life
13.8 billion years – has seemingly only pro-
has passed before. Analogous is the radio-si-
duced us, homo sapiens, to stand in awe of
lence observed throughout the universe.
it all. Why is that? As physicist and Nobel
Does this Great Filter lie in our future, and
laureate Enrico Fermi famously asked in the
what may it look like? Stephen Hawking sug-
1950s, “Where are they?”
gested in his final book, Brief Answers to the
Big Questions, that an asteroid collision may
Scientists estimate that there are 200 quadrillion
be the biggest threat to planetary, and hence
stars in the observable universe dispersed within
human, long-term survival.
200 trillion galaxies. So immense is this scale that
it becomes hard for the human mind to grasp.
Our solar system is but a blip in the Milky Way There are two solutions
galaxy. Truly, where is everyone else? The Fermi
Paradox, credited to Enrico Fermi, arises out of to the Fermi Paradox:
this observation: so much opportunity for life, either everyone
but so little life. Is our planet, and our species,
really so special as to have been the only planet never existed and we
to foster an environment suitable for abiogenesis are indeed the first
to occur – the process through which life arises
from nonliving matter – and for life to evolve and and only, or, put
PHOTO SOURCE: SETI.ORG
thrive? There are two solutions to the Fermi
Paradox: either everyone never existed and we are
frankly, everyone
indeed the first and only, or, put frankly, everyone else is already gone.
else is already gone.
But what other existential threats are lurk-
WHAT IS THE GREAT FILTER? ing – dangers that could be humanity’s Great
18 Global Conversations Fall 2021Filter? Climate change, weaponized biotech-
nology, rogue particle physics experiments,
The exploration and
and artificial intelligence all pose risks to use of outer space
humanity’s continued existence. We all
know how the saying goes: “don’t put all
shall be carried out
your eggs in one basket.” Humankind are the for the benefit … of
eggs; the basket is our Pale Blue Dot. Where
do we go from here? How can humanity all humankind.
ensure its continued presence in the uni-
verse in the face of the lurking collapse of all -ssing this realm is necessary for ensuring a
we’ve ever known? peaceful transition to becoming inter-planetary,
though challenges to achieving this end may arise
The Kardashev scale, proposed by Soviet astrono- from the current “crisis of multilateralism.” To no
mer Nikolai Kardashev, is a method of measuring surprise, lunar competition has arisen between
a civilization’s level of technological advancement. the United States and a China-Russia partner-
Robert Zubrin has adapted the scale to reflect ship. Both are wrestling to recruit states in hopes
how widespread a civilization is in space; climb- of forming a global coalition, with plans to con-
ing the ranks of this adapted scale indicates galac- struct a lunar base at the moon’s south pole.
tic exploration by humans. Extraterrestrial settle- Division between space actors may sow healthy
ments present a solution to humanity’s current competition, but we should be wary of, and plan
Earth-bound predicament. But simultaneously, accordingly for, disputes that result in military
they present extreme technological, legal, and conflict.
ethical challenges.
WHO WILL LEAD US FORWARD?
THE CHALLENGES OF
EXTRATERRESTRIAL EXPLORATION Zooming in from the macro, state level to a finer scale
– a scale of the individual – it becomes natural to ask
“The exploration and use of outer space shall who these individuals at the forefront of advancing
be carried out for the benefit … of all [human] humanity to the final frontier will be. Pondering this
kind; outer space is not subject to national ap- idea may lead one to look to studies of intersectionality
propriation by claim of sovereignty; astronauts and feminist technoscience and what has been learned
shall be regarded as the envoys of [human]kind,” about the importance of identity representation. Those
proclaims the United Nations Outer Space Treaty, at the helm of transforming humanity into a spacefaring
signed in 1967. Christopher Johnson, space law society should reflect society itself. Efforts in achieving
advisor for the Secure World Foundation cited this end are reflected in the subunits of UN COPUOS:
the treaty as the “most important and most fun- Access to Space For All, Space for Persons with Dis-
damental source of international space law.” An abilities, Space4Women, and Space4Youth. One can
uptick in space activity has sparked debate on the hope that these are more than token projects and that
need for updated governance of outerspace. As the voices uplifted through these initiatives will visibly
humanity looks to the final frontier, it is impera- shape the plans and policies of the global space agenda.
tive to critically reflect on the destruction coloni-
zation inflicted on native peoples and native lands As Josh Clark has said, “The responsibility for our own
worldwide, acknowledging that “those who forget lives, for the future of the human race, rests solely in
their history are condemned to repeat it.” the hands of those of us alive today … If we [go], so
[too do] all the things that make us human.” In other
At the helm of this effort is The United Nations words, we are all we’ve got.
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outerspace
(COPUOS), convening annually to review scien-
tific and technical space-related advancements
as well as legal issues surrounding space-based
activity. Currently lacking is an overseeing of
spaced-based military activity. An agenda addre-
19 Global Conversations Fall 2021SARAH
WHELAN
Sarah is a first year student in the Master of
Global Affairs program. She completed her un-
dergraduate degree in Software Engineering at
Western University in 2019. During her time at
Western, Sarah worked as a Program Coordinator
in Engineering Outreach where she focused on
increasing diversity in the profession by engaging
groups typically underrepresented in STEM. Be-
fore starting her Master’s, Sarah worked at vari-
ous technology startups in Toronto with focuses
on blockchain, quantum computing, and materi-
als design. At Munk, she is interested in exploring
sociopolitical and intersectional perspectives to
global development and critically examining the
ways in which technology is often thought of as
a panacea. Sarah is also a Venture for Canada
fellow.
20 Global Conversations Fall 2021(Un)fair shot: The alarming failure of
COVAX
BY FATEMA DIWAN | GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT
O N March 11, 2020, all eyes were on the all income groups.
WHO as it declared COVID-19 a global pan-
demic and announced that we were “all in High income countries
it together.” Since everyone was vulnerable,
both collective action and cooperation was that comprise only 16% of the
needed now more than ever. In a way, it was world’s population grabbed al-
the day of reckoning of multilateralism built
over decades. Over the next few months, most 50% of all doses.
as borders tightened, supply chains broke,
deaths increased, and the world isolated, it The speed of the COVID-19 vaccine devel-
was evident that our collective recovery opment was only outdone by the speed with
depended on ensuring every person, every- which rich countries booked up the avail-
where is protected. We didn’t just need a able stocks. As per a report by the People’s
vaccine, we needed vaccine equality. Vaccine Alliance, high-income countries that
comprise only 16% of the world’s population
THE COVAX EFFORT TO grabbed almost 50% of all doses. High-in-
VACCINATE THE WORLD come countries were able to pre-book stocks
while low-income countries put in their first
GAVI, a public-private alliance that since 2000 orders almost eight months after the former
had been working behind-the-scenes towards had made its deals. Major vaccine manufac-
increasing immunization access for children in turers delivered 47 times as many doses to
PHOTO SOURCE: ABC NEWS
lower-income countries against several diseas- high-income countries compared to low-in-
es, sprung to the forefront. In April 2020, just a come countries. Moderna alone has delivered
month into the pandemic, it announced COVAX 84% of its doses to high-income countries.
– an international effort to ensure vaccine tech- For the pandemic to end, 70% of the world’s
nologies are equitably shared and vaccines, when population needs to be one-dose vaccinated.
developed, reach everyone in every country across As of today, 51.6% of the world’s population
21 Global Conversations Fall 2021has received at least one dose of the vaccine. Only donate their leftover or unused supplies. This
4.5% of those are from low-income countries. didn’t work out well either. Countries started to
throw out soonto-be-expired vaccines at poor-
GAVI and the UN foresaw this massive vaccine er nations. COVAX has a two-months-to-expiry
inequality right at the start. Then, why couldn’t clause and countries in the Global South often
they prevent it? lack the resources for speedy and effective vac-
cine distribution. As such, many countries are
COVAX SHORTCOMINGS unable to efficiently use the soon-to-be expired
vaccines. Just last month, Haiti had to send back
COVAX stumbled at multiple levels. First, it 500,000 doses donated by the US because they
wasn’t clear about its role. COVAX wasn’t a couldn’t be administered before its expiry date.
platform for vaccine distribution, but rather a
collaborative effort to research, manufacture, Second, it failed to empower lower-income coun-
negotiate pricing, and distribute vaccines. Under tries to battle the right to access or knowledge
COVAX, every country regardless of its ability to transfers. Perhaps naively, COVAX relied a little
pay, would be an equal stakeholder of the vaccine too much on the cooperation and generosity of
program. rich countries. Vaccine equality wasn’t just a ques-
tion of distribution but access. Lower-income
Self-financing or higher income countries would countries cannot hope to have equal access if all
pool money to purchase and donate vaccines the approved vaccines come from higher-income
through the COVAX facility. COVAX would use countries. (AstraZeneca manufactured by India’s
this collective purchasing power to negotiate Serum institute was a lucky exception and ended
prices with manufacturers; thus, ensuring prices up being the largest contributor to the program.)
stayed reasonable and lower-income countries COVAX paid little to no attention to knowledge
weren’t left out. Moreover, while self-financing transfers, building manufacturing capabilities
countries could ask for more doses, they would or even confronting vaccine patents – steps that
receive it only once 20% of the population across would’ve built capacities of lower-income coun-
all countries had received their first shots. The tries instead of leaving them at the mercy of
goal was equality. others.
What happened next was anticlimactic. Wealthier Lastly and most importantly, it failed to demand
countries showed ‘interest’ in the program but accountability. Member countries have failed to
went on to strike individual deals with manufac- keep up with their pledges, from funding to
turers, increasing competition, and hiking prices vaccine distribution. Out of 1.8 billion vaccines
for COVAX and other lower-income countries. promised, as of October 2021, only 261 million
Vaccines were hoarded at a massive scale even doses had been delivered. It also faces a huge
while in many countries, frontline workers them- funding gap of $6.4 billion in 2021 despite initial
selves struggled to get the shot. According to funding commitments.
PVA,100 million doses in G7 countries are set to
expire at the end of 2021 and over 800 million will COVAX is still trying to meet its agenda, but
be wasted by mid-2022. across countries is largely being seen as a failed
initiative. So far, it has shipped only 435 million
doses, a far cry from its goal of delivering 2 billion
Many countries are doses by the end of 2021.
unable to efficiently
MOVING FORWARD
use the soon-to-be
expired vaccines. The failure of COVAX is an alarming signal not
just for the failure of multilateral institutions but
also for our collective response to the climate
Seeing a surge in prices and dwindling commit- emergency. Failures are also lessons and we can-
ments by rich countries, COVAX turned from not afford to ignore this one. Multilateral organi-
financing vaccine equality to urging countries to
22 Global Conversations Fall 2021-sations need to push beyond being limited to
service delivery and funding bodies to being plat-
forms for collaboration, cooperation, and knowl-
edge transfer. This means speaking up against FATEMA
self-interested policies, enforcing accountability, DIWAN
and demanding solid commitments from high-
er-income countries amongst many others. Just
like COVID-19, climate change is affecting low-
er-income countries disproportionately. A CO-
Fatema is a first-year student in the Master of
VAX-like response would be disastrous.
Global Affairs program at the Munk School of
Global Affairs and Public Policy. She has an un-
dergraduate degree in Journalism and a postgrad-
uate degree in Literature. Prior to joining Munk,
she spent 4 years consulting and working with
nonprofits in India. She has worked on various
rights-based campaigns for Amnesty Internation-
al India, consulted on digital strategy for Mé-
decins Sans Frontières (MSF) India, and executed
a narrative change and advocacy campaign on
adolescent health rights.
23 Global Conversations Fall 2021The collapse of Haiti and the inadequate
American response
BY CHRISTIE MA | MIGRATION
H AITI is undergoing a humanitarian crisis. opportunities. However, migrants have con-
tinued to make their way north due to immi-
Recent political and natural disasters have
gration restrictions and economic downturns
prompted thousands to flee their homes
in previously attractive destinations, such as
in search of a better life. But despite the
Chile and Brazil. As a result, Haitians travel
chronic poverty and sociopolitical instability,
through South America to reach the United
President Joe Biden has expelled thousands
States, which is seen as a safe and secure
of Haitians back to their home country.
country with vast economic opportunity.
Biden previously promised a more humane
approach towards American immigration
policies but has failed to live up to his The recent assassination of Haitian Presi-
commitment. Instead, he further destabilized dent Jovenel Moise in July of 2021 was fol-
the Haitian crisis. lowed by a 7.2 magnitude earthquake that
PHOTO SOURCE: WIKIMEDIA COMMONS, FIBONACCI BLUE
struck the country a month later, killing over
2,000 people. Both events will likely prompt
WHY ARE HAITIANS MIGRATING TO more migration. As climate change leads to
THE UNITED STATES? an increasing number of extreme weather
hazards, such as hurricanes, flooding, and
The current number of migrants attempt- landslides, the U.S. should expect to see a
ing to cross the U.S–Mexico border is the growing number of migrants and refugees.
highest in 21 years, but Haitians have been
attempting to enter the United States for
THE UNITED STATES-MEXICO
decades. Many left their home country years
ago due to the country’s chronic instability BORDER
fueled by corruption, poverty, and violence.
Since the 7.0 magnitude earthquake in The majority of Haitian migrants travel
2010, over 1.5 million people were left home- through South and Central America to get to
less, prompting many to migrate to neigh- the Rio Grande Valley border in Texas be-
bouring countries in South America for job cause rumours claim it is an easy place to
24 Global Conversations Fall 2021cross the border. In just one week of September contrasts thehumane immigration system it
2021, over 10,000 Haitian migrants camped out promised during the election. Instead, there has
along the Del Rio border under scorching heat been mass deportation of Haitians, forcing them
with little access to food, water, or sanitation. By back to a crisis-ridden country.
September 24, 2021, federal authorities cleared
an encampment that housed up to 15,000 Haitian THE PUBLIC RESPONSE
migrants. U.S. border services deported 2,000
migrants using chartered flights, while 8,000 will- There has been outrage against the Biden admin-
ingly returned to Mexico. istration as the reliance on Title 42 remains highly
controversial. Ambassador Daniel Foote, the for-
mer U.S. envoy for Haiti, resigned in September
Over 150 human rights groups 2021 to protest the mass deportation of Haitian
have challenged Title 42, claiming migrants. He critiqued the American response
as “deeply flawed” and refused to “be associated
its usage is inhumane, baseless, and with the United States’ inhumane, counterpro-
in violation of U.S. immigration ductive decision to deport thousands of Haitian
refugees and illegal immigrants to Haiti.” Foote
laws asserted that deportations are “not the answer”
and will only exacerbate the Haitian crisis.
WHAT HAS BEEN THE AMERICAN
RESPONSE? Likewise, over 150 human rights groups have chal-
lenged Title 42, claiming its usage is inhumane,
During the 2020 presidential campaign, Biden baseless, and in violation of U.S. immigration
stopped in Miami’s Little Haiti neighbourhood laws. Senior legal advisers, including Harold Koh,
and vowed, “I’ll give you my word as a Biden, I’ll a legal adviser and Obama administration veteran,
be there. I’ll stand with you.” However, he has described the usage of Title 42 to expel migrants
since sent dozens of Haitians on deportation as “illegal” and “inhumane.” Leading public
flights, totalling nearly 8,000 people. Most Hai- health experts and academics share the advocacy
tians were deported using the Title 42 policy, a group’s concern. Since May 2020, public health
public health rule enacted during the pandemic leaders argued that Title 42 expulsions themselves
that allows border services to turn asylum seekers could pose a public health threat in light of the
away at the border. A former Biden administration COVID-19 pandemic, as people are grouped for
official claims that Title 42 “was prioritized as a days before deportation, heightening the risk of
deterrence tool.” Officials used deportation flights COVID-19 transmission across national borders.
to break the cycle of Haitian migration to the U.S, As a response, many have been calling for Presi-
as the administration believed that deportees who dent Biden to reverse the policy since he took
shared their experiences after returning home office in January 2021.
would deter future migrants.
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
On May 22, 2021, President Biden announced the
18-month Temporary Protected Status (TPS) for Former President Trump reversed decades-old
Haitians. The relief program extended temporary asylum policies that allowed for those who arrived
protected status to Haitians who had arrived in at the U.S. border with a credible fear of perse-
the U.S. on or before May 21, 2021. This status al- cution the right to enter the country and make a
lows them to live and work without fear of depor- formal asylum claim. Instead, the Trump adminis-
tation. However, no such protection is available tration barred asylum claims for nearly all mi-
for the thousands of migrants who reached Del grants from any country and continually lowered
Rio in September. the admissions ceiling every year. Lawmakers
have urged the Biden administration to restore
Despite Biden’s promises during the 2020 elec- previous asylum rules rooted in the Refugee Act
tion,Haitian people feel abandoned. The current of 1980 that enabled migrants to seek asylum as
administration’s approach to border security long as they can demonstrate a “well-founded
25 Global Conversations Fall 2021You can also read
