8 Fishing Resources - rioccadapt
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
8 Fishing Resources Jaime Mendo (Peru), Guillermo Caille (Argentina), Enric Massutí (Spain), Antonio Punzón (Spain), Jorge Tam (Peru), Sebastián Villasante (Spain), and Dimitri Gutiérrez (Peru). This chapter should be cited as: Mendo, J., G. Caille, E. Massutí, A. Punzón, J. Tam, S. Villasante, and D. Gutiérrez, 2020: Fishing Resources. In: Adaptation to Climate Change Risks in Ibero-American Countries — RIOCCADAPT Report. [Moreno, J.M., C. Laguna-Defior, V. Barros, E. Cal- vo Buendía, J.A. Marengo, and U. Oswald Spring (eds.)], McGraw Hill, Madrid, Spain (pp. 275-328, ISBN: 9788448621667).
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
CO N T E NTS
Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter.................................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or system......................................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture production.................................................................................................................................... 278
8.1.2.2. Importance for food security, employment and the economy.................................................................................... 279
8.1.2.3. Current status and trends in fishing resources.................................................................................................................. 280
8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system with climate and climate change.................................................................................. 281
8.1.4. Review of previous reports............................................................................................................................................................................. 281
8.2. Risk components in relation to the sector .......................................................................................................................................................... 282
8.2.1. Hazards..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 283
8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces................................................................................. 283
8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province..................................................................................................................................... 283
8.2.1.3. Magellan Province............................................................................................................................................................................. 283
8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province.................................................................................................................................. 283
8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................ 283
8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea....................................................................................................................... 285
8.2.2. Exposure................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 285
8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces................................................................................. 285
8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province..................................................................................................................................... 285
8.2.2.3. Magellan Province............................................................................................................................................................................. 286
8.2.2.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province.................................................................................................................................. 286
8.2.2.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................ 286
8.2.2.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea....................................................................................................................... 286
8.2.3. Vulnerability............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 287
8.2.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces................................................................................. 287
8.2.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province..................................................................................................................................... 287
8.2.3.3. Magellan Province............................................................................................................................................................................. 288
8.2.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province.................................................................................................................................. 288
8.2.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm-temperate NW Atlantic
provinces................................................................................................................................................................................................ 288
8.2.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea....................................................................................................................... 288
8.3. Characterization of risks and their impacts........................................................................................................................................................ 289
8.3.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces................................................................................................... 289
8.3.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province........................................................................................................................................................ 290
8.3.3. Magellan Province............................................................................................................................................................................................... 291
8.3.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province.................................................................................................................................................... 291
8.3.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic provinces........ 291
8.3.6. Lusitanian province and Mediterranean Sea......................................................................................................................................... 292
8.4. Adaptation measures ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 293
8.4.1. Adaptation options............................................................................................................................................................................................. 293
8.4.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and tropical NE Pacific provinces................................................................................. 293
8.4.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province..................................................................................................................................... 293
8.4.1.3. Magellan Province............................................................................................................................................................................. 293
276 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
8.4.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic province.................................................................................................................................. 295
8.4.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and warm temperate NW Atlantic
provinces ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 296
8.4.1.6. Lusitania province and Mediterranean Sea......................................................................................................................... 297
8.4.2. Planned adaptation activities........................................................................................................................................................................ 297
8.4.2.1. Supranational scale.......................................................................................................................................................................... 297
8.4.2.2. National and sub-national scale................................................................................................................................................. 297
8.4.2.3. Local or municipal scale.................................................................................................................................................................. 302
8.4.3. Autonomous adaptation activities............................................................................................................................................................. 302
8.5. Barriers, opportunities and interactions............................................................................................................................................................... 302
8.6. Measures or indicators of adaptation effectiveness..................................................................................................................................... 303
8.7. Case Studies......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 306
8.7.1. Autonomous adaptation to climate variability of fan shell (Argopecten purpuratus) extraction in Peru.............. 306
8.7.1.1. Case summary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 306
8.7.1.2. Introduction to the case problem.............................................................................................................................................. 306
8.7.1.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................. 307
8.7.1.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 309
8.7.1.5. Lessons learned.................................................................................................................................................................................. 309
8.7.2. Social adaptation of women to climate change in the Galician shellfish picking industry (Northwest Spain).... 309
8.7.2.1. Case summary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 309
8.7.2.2. Introduction to the case problem.............................................................................................................................................. 310
8.7.2.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................. 310
8.7.2.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 311
8.7.2.5. Lessons learned.................................................................................................................................................................................. 311
8.7.3. Adaptation to Climate Change of the Peruvian Fishing Sector and Coastal Marine Ecosystem Project -
PE-G1001/PE-T1297............................................................................................................................................................................................. 312
8.7.3.1. Case summary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 312
8.7.3.2. Introduction to the case problem.............................................................................................................................................. 312
8.7.3.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................. 312
8.7.3.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 313
8.7.3.5. Lessons learned.................................................................................................................................................................................. 313
8.7.4. Fishing in Samborombón Bay, Argentina: vulnerability and guidelines for adaptation to climate change............ 313
8.7.4.1. Case summary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 313
8.7.4.2. Introduction to the case problem.............................................................................................................................................. 313
8.7.4.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................. 314
8.7.4.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 314
8.7.4.5. Lessons learned ................................................................................................................................................................................. 314
8.7.5. From fishing to sea turtle tourism: the case of El Ñuro, Piura, Peru.......................................................................................... 315
8.7.5.1. Case summary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 315
8.7.5.2. Introduction to the case problem.............................................................................................................................................. 315
8.7.5.3. Case description................................................................................................................................................................................. 315
8.7.5.4. Limitations and interactions ....................................................................................................................................................... 315
8.7.5.5. Lessons learned.................................................................................................................................................................................. 315
8.8. Main knowledge gaps and priority lines of action........................................................................................................................................... 316
8.9. Conclusions............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 316
Frequently Asked Questions...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 317
Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 318
Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 318
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 277
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
Executive Summary species with greater thermal, salt and hypoxia tolerance;
formulating new foods; adaptive and ecosystem-based man-
agement plans; spatial monitoring of marine resources and
Fisheries and aquaculture are extremely attractive sectors biodiversity; reducing discards and bycatch; risk analysis in
in some Ibero-American countries. The Ibero-American region management plans; adapting port infrastructure; insurance
is home to unique, diverse and productive ecosystems that system for extreme weather events; promoting consumption
contribute more than 10% of the world’s fishery production. In of fish species with low commercial value; friendly fishing
Latin America and the Caribbean alone, this sector provides gear and equipment; protecting critical or essential habitats
jobs for almost 2.4 million people. in mangroves and estuaries; improving governance systems
Both fisheries and aquaculture are subject to various haz- (co-management); diversifying livelihoods.
ards. Potential hazards to fisheries and aquaculture include
(i) changes in local sea temperatures; (ii) ocean acidifica-
tion; (iii) sea level rise; (iv) changes in ambient oxygen con-
centration; (v) increase in storm severity and frequency; (vi)
8.1. Introduction
changes in sea current circulation patterns; (vii) changes in
rainfall patterns; (viii) changes in river flows; and (ix) changes 8.1.1. Conceptual framework of this Chapter
in biogeochemical (nitrogen) flows.
Since ancient times, humans have resorted to fishing a
In most countries of the region, fisheries and aquaculture means to secure food. It has traditionally been carried out
have not been paid as much attention as other productive as artisanal fishing at sea and in continental waters all over
sectors. This is in spite of the fact that the effects of climate the planet. The industrialization and expansion of fishing in
change on the sector’s productivity are already becoming the 20th century led to a rapid increase in landings, encour-
apparent. Projections paint a critical landscape for some aged by the growing demand for fish products for direct and
countries, and a high risk for the communities that depend indirect human consumption by the more developed econo-
on the sector. mies. These markets have been increasingly supplied by fish
imported from developing countries, or caught in the waters
The Caribbean is one of Ibero-America’s most vulnerable
of developing countries by several ocean-going fleets.
regions with regard to climate change hazards, including
sea level rise. High mortality and bleaching of coral reefs According to the IPCC (2014), marine and inland water
can already be observed in the region, and projections for ecosystems will be impacted by climate change, affecting
the end of the century show further temperature rises and fisheries and aquaculture. Marine climatic stresses, such
acidification. as temperature increase, sea level rise, acidification, deoxy-
genation, among others, will impact biodiversity, ecosystem
In Atlantic Iberian waters, changes in species composition
productivity, as well as the distribution of species and their
and distribution are leading to major changes in fisheries,
life cycles, leading to impacts on fishing, such as variability
which will impact fishing communities and consumers.
or reduction of catches, as well as socio-economic impacts,
Mussel production is at high risk in the face of reduced pro-
such as unemployment, increase in poverty levels, etc.
ductivity, an increase in toxic algal blooms and acidification.
(Figure 8.1). Against this backdrop, the impacts of climate
Planned adaptation actions for fisheries and aquaculture— change on fisheries and aquaculture will depend on the level
especially in Latin America and the Caribbean—are scarce, of risk, which in turn depends on the degree of vulnerability,
while most adaptation actions for this sector are autonomous exposure and adaptive capacity.
in nature. RIOCC countries feature a large portfolio of public
Meanwhile, vulnerability and adaptation measures can be
policies on climate change, both in terms of adaptation and
assessed in relation to the sustainability of fishery produc-
mitigation; however, despite government efforts, they have
tion, the condition of national economies, food or livelihood
not yet been implemented effectively in the fishing sector.
security; and in terms of regions, countries, communities,
Overfishing, pollution, the introduction of exotic species, sectors, fishing operations, households or individuals (Daw
and the misuse of aquatic bodies in the region (especially et al., 2009).
in Latin America), are non-climatic stressors that aggravate
the impacts of climate change.
Adaptation efforts in the fisheries and aquaculture sector
8.1.2. Main figures of the sector or
should be directed at increasing the adaptive capacity of system
the most vulnerable communities (whether due to lack of
resources, gender, or other factors), by strengthening gov- 8.1.2.1. Fisheries and aquaculture
ernance, knowledge development, and reducing poverty and
food insecurity. production
There are adaptation options for both fisheries and aquacul- According to the FAO (2018), fisheries and aquaculture pro-
ture. The main adaptation options in the sector are: growing duction worldwide (fish and shellfish) amounted to approxi-
278 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 8.1.2.2. Importance for
CLIMATE CHANGE AND FISHING RESOURCES food security,
Governance levels
employment and the
CLIMATE VARIABLITY
AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Sector dependence economy
Production alternatives
Resource status The scientific community agrees on the
paramount importance of oceans and in-
land waters to secure food and adequate
HAZARDS RISK LEVEL
nutrition for a world population that is
expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050
Rise in sea surface temperature Vulnerability
Sea level rise Exposure (see, for example, Selig et al., 2017), as
Acidification
Hazard well as the critical role of supporting the
Hypoxia generation of ecosystem services that
Floods are essential for the well-being and even
Harmful algal bloom increase ADAPTATION ACTIONS survival of approximately 750 million
people living in coastal and island areas
(IPBES, 2019; IPCC, 2019). The trends in
per capita fish consumption during 1960
DIRECT IMPACTS SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS to 2013 in some RIOCC countries such
ON THE RESOURCE Fewer catches as Spain, Peru and Mexico are increas-
Decreased productivity Unemployment ing, while in others, such as Cuba, the
Changes in species distribution Rise in poverty levels trend is negative (Figure 8.2). On aver-
Mass mortality Food insecurity age, annual per capita fish consumption
Insecurity at sea Infrastructure damage in Latin America and the Caribbean in-
creased from 7.1 kg in 1961 to 9.6 kg in
Figure 8.1. Conceptual framework of the impacts of climate change and variability on 2013, and the countries that consumed
fisheries and aquaculture, with regard to risks and adaptation actions. Source: prepared by the most fish in 2013 were Portugal, with
the authors. about 53.8 kg, Spain, with 42.4 kg, and
Mexico with 10.5 kg.
85% of the world’s population employed
in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors
mately 171 million tons in 2016, of which 151 million tons are in Asia, followed by Africa (10%) and Latin America and
(88%) were used for direct human consumption. Production the Caribbean (4%) (FAO, 2018). Artisanal fishing is a major
from marine (79.3 million) and inland fisheries (11.6 million) and often underestimated source of employment, food se-
accounted for 53.2% and production from aquaculture (80 curity and income, especially in the developing world and in
million) totaled 46.8% of overall production. Aquaculture pro- rural areas. It accounts for 90% of the sector’s employment,
duction in 2016, including aquatic plants, was 110 million either full- or part-time (World Bank, 2012). An estimated
tons (80 million fish and 30 million aquatic plants), estimated 70% to 80% of aquaculture enterprises are small-scale (Sub-
at a first sale value of US$243.5 billion. Marine aquaculture asinghe et al., 2012). In Peru, Christensen et al. (2014)
made up for 28.7 million tons and freshwater aquaculture show that fishing for human consumption provides most of
51.4 million tons, representing 16.8% and 30% of overall the income of the Peruvian fishing sector and accounts for
production respectively. The total economic value of the first 87% of employment in the fishing sector, compared to 13%
sale of fisheries and aquaculture production in 2016 was in the fishmeal industry and other related enterprises. In the
estimated at around US$362 billion, of which US$232 billion Mediterranean, the importance of recreational fishing should
came from aquaculture (FAO, 2018). Total world catches fell also be noted. In the Balearic Islands, one of the few areas
by 2 million tons from 81.2 million tons in 2015, mainly due where this type of fishing has been studied (Morales-Nin
to the decline in catches from Chile and Peru as a result of et al., 2005, 2007, 2015), it is estimated that 5-10% of
the effects of El Niño (FAO, 2018). The marine areas with the archipelago’s population (73,000 people) is dedicated
the highest production worldwide are in the Northwest Pa- to this activity, using a great diversity of fishing methods
cific, East Central Pacific, Northeast Atlantic and Southeast and gear (e.g., hand lines, trolling, traps and jigging from
Pacific, while the inland waters with the highest production boats, rods from land and underwater fishing with harpoons)
are in Asia and Africa. Of the 25 leading countries in the and exploiting a high number of species (up to 60 fish and
world catch ranking, 6 of them belong to the RIOCC region, in cephalopods). Catches of the recreational fishing in Mallor-
the following order of importance: Peru (5th world producer), ca have been estimated between 1,200 and 2,700 t/year,
Chile (12th), Mexico (16th), Spain (19th), Argentina (22nd) which makes up about 30-65% of the official commercial
and Ecuador (23rd) (FAO, 2018). fishing landings (4,000 t/year).
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 279
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
80
Portugal
Peru
Spain
Chile
8.1.2.3. Current status and
trends in fishing
Per capita consumption (kg/person/year)
Cuba Venezuela
Panama Mexico
70
Ecuador Others (12 countries)
resources
60
According to FAO (2018), the percentage
50
of stocks exploited at biologically unsus-
tainable levels increased from 10% in
40
1974 to 33.1% in 2015, with the largest
increases occurring in the late 1970s
30
and 1980s. This translates into nega-
tive trends in global fishing production,
which become even more pronounced
20
when looking at reconstructed global
catches that include discards and illegal,
10
unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing,
as reported by Pauly and Zeller (2014).
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Capture reconstruction studies paint an
even bleaker picture. For example, for
Year Galicia (Spain) Villasante et al., (2016)
reported that, in a conservative scenar-
Figure 8.2. Per capita fish consumption (kg/year) in RIOCC countries. Source: compiled by
io, the total volume of rebuilt catches is
the authors with data from FAOSTAT (2019).
1.5 times higher than official catches;
while for Argentina the authors reported
that rebuilt catches can be even twice
as large as official catches. Official FAO
In economic terms, fisheries and aquaculture contribute statistics show negative trends in total catches for South
to the GDP of the RIOCC countries in many ways. In Cen- America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal, as opposed to
tral America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Hondu- Mexico, Brazil and Central America (Figure 8.3). Fish stocks
ras, Nicaragua, and Panama), fisheries and aquaculture within biologically sustainable levels have shown a declining
produced an average of 422,210 tons per year between trend from 90% in 1974 to 66.9% (with 59.9% fully exploited
2000 and 2010, valued at US$2.039 billion per year (FAO, and 7% under-exploited) by 2015. This situation is worrying
2014). These countries contributed 24.5% to the primary because maintaining stocks at levels below maximum sus-
sector GDP and 2.6% to the national economy. Expor ts tainable yield (MSY) not only has negative ecological conse-
from Latin America and the Caribbean accounted for about quences, but also reduces fish production in the long term,
25% of world exports in 2016 and were focused on shrimp, which subsequently carries negative social and economic
tuna, salmon and fishmeal from Ecuador, Chile and Peru, consequences. Overfishing generally reduces income and
respectively. In 2016 and 2017, exports increased due to economic efficiency, as well as increased variability and de-
higher production and rising prices of tuna (FAO, 2018). creased resilience of fish stocks or other fishing resources
With regard to the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain, the fishing (Hsieh et al., 2006). This is particularly relevant as over-ex-
sector contributes 1% of GDP, and is particularly relevant ploited populations are often much more susceptible to the
in regions such as Galicia, the Basque Country, Anda- impacts of climate change. Aquatic ecosystems have been
lusia and the Canary Islands. Fishing in Galicia makes severely altered by fishing and there has been a widespread
up about 40% of the Spanish fleet, 50% of its catches tendency to fish at increasingly lower levels of the food web
and 60% of direct and indirect employment in the fishing as the number of fish at higher levels dwindles. This has
sector (Villasante et al., 2016), contributing to more than brought about diminishing harvests at lower trophic levels
10% of the region’s GDP (compared to 0.1% of the fishing (Pauly et al., 1998; Allan et al., 2005). Some species known
sector’s GDP in the European Union), which demonstrates for their high reproductive activity and high renewal rate may
its strategic value for its development. In Por tugal, the become extinct (Sadovy and Cheung, 2003), and species at
fisheries and aquaculture sectors represent less than 1% low trophic levels and with high biomasses exhibit historical
of GDP. However, these sectors may be crucial in many lows, which results in decreased annual catches (Da Rocha
coastal areas (Sines, Leixões, Setúbal and Aveiro, among et al., 2014). Bycatch and habitat degradation also lead
others). In 2016, Spain and Portugal’s fishing fleets had to losses in marine biodiversity (Worm et al., 2006, 2009;
9,459 and 8,100 vessels, with a fish landing volume of Allan, 2005), which can impact certain ecological processes
895,000 tons and 173,000 tons and an economic value such as predation (Myers et al., 2007), bio-erosion (Bellwood
of more than 2,086 and 390 million euros, respectively et al., 2003), availability of food for sea birds (Jahncke et
(STECF, 2018). al., 2004) and the transport of nutrients (Allan et al., 2005).
280 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
14 to changes in the growth, body size, dis-
Peru tribution, productivity and abundance of
Chile
marine species, including those exploited
12 Spain
Mexico by fisheries (Perry et al., 2005; Behren-
Brazil feld et al., 2006; Brander, 2007; Portner,
10 Argentina 2010; Simpson et al., 2011; Cheung et
Ecuador al., 2010; Breitburg et al., 2013). The
Others (14 countries)
effects of climate change on marine life
Millions of tons
8
extend to all its levels of organization,
from individuals, populations and com-
6
munities to entire ecosystems (Rijnsdorp
et al., 2009; Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno,
4 2010; Walther, 2010; Poloczanska et
al., 2013). It should be noted that the
2 magnitude of phenological responses to
climate change varies among function-
al groups and trophic levels. Therefore,
0
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 decoupling of phenological events is
expected to lead to changes in trophic
Year
interactions, food web structures and
Figure 8.3. Annual catches (million tons) in RIOCC countries. Source: prepared by the ecosystem function (Edwards and Rich-
authors with data sourced from FishstatJ (2019). ardson, 2004).
Most aquatic animal species for human
consumption are poikilotherms, and are
Dominant selective pressure from fishing is also likely to therefore affected by ocean warming. Sea level rise, ocean
affect the genetic makeup of stocks (Hutchings, 2000). acidification and deoxygenation, changes in ocean produc-
tivity, circulation patterns, and the frequency and intensity
of extreme weather events (e.g., monsoons) are also major
8.1.3. Relationship of the sector or system hazards facing the aquaculture industry, either through im-
pacts on the physical and chemical properties of water or
with climate and climate change damage to port and aquaculture infrastructure (De Silva and
Soto, 2009). Changes in the global climate therefore present
Climate processes affect the way marine ecosystems work significant challenges and opportunities for societies and
at different time and spatial scales (Rouyer et al., 2008), economies.
which in turn can have direct or indirect consequences for
socio-ecological systems (Figure 8.4). There is a natural vari-
ability in currents, temperature, oxygen, and other factors
that affect the feeding, growth, and migratory patterns of
8.1.4. Review of previous reports
aquatic populations (Miller et al., 2010). Their variations are The Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
not only seasonal, but also inter-annual (e.g., El Niño South- on Climate Change (AR5; IPCC, 2014) reviews the scientific
ern Oscillation, ENSO) and multi-decadal (the Pacific Decadal evidence on trends and causes of climate change, risks to
Oscillation and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation). These natural and human systems, and options for adaptation and
modes of variability are manifested in changes in global at- mitigation. Chapter 27 of this report analyzes impacts, ad-
mospheric circulation, cyclone and hurricane patterns, mon- aptation and vulnerability in South America (SA) and Central
soons, and precipitation and heat patterns, accompanied by America (CA) (Magrin et al., 2014) for water resources, land
related drought and flooding events (Reid, 2018) that affect and inland water systems, coastal systems, food produc-
marine and freshwater systems throughout the food web, tion systems and food security, human settlements, industry
beginning with phytoplankton production and species that and infrastructure, renewable energy and health. Chapter
support fishing (Chavez et al., 2008; Salvatteci et al., 2018). 26 (Romero-Lankao et al., 2014) assesses the literature on
In addition to this natural climate variability, to which fish- observed and projected impacts, vulnerabilities and risks,
ing resources have adapted somehow, man-made climate as well as adaptation actions and options in three North
change has either caused or is expected to cause biological American countries: Canada, Mexico and the United States.
and ecological changes in the ocean (Brierley and Kingsford, Chapter 23 of the report (Kovats et al., 2014) reviews the
2009). Specifically, changes in the physical conditions of the scientific evidence on the observed and projected impacts
ocean (e.g., temperature, ocean currents) and of its biogeo- of climate change in European countries, including those on
chemical conditions (e.g., acidification, oxygen content, pri- the Iberian Peninsula. It analyzes the impacts of sea lev-
mary production, structure of plankton communities) can lead el rise and extreme precipitation, extreme weather events
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 281
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
pre-industrial levels. With regard to fish-
Physical-chemical Social-ecological Specific impacts ing resources, Chapter 3 of this report
changes effects (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018) describes
the observed impacts and projected risks
Species composition
on natural and human systems that in-
Production and yield
Distribution
clude fisheries and aquaculture food
Production Seasonality production systems in developing island
ecology countries.
Diseases
Ocean currents Coral reef bleaching
The IPCC has recently published a Spe-
Calcification
ENSO cial Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere
Sea level changes Fishing, fish in a Changing Climate (IPCC, 2019) that
Security and protection
fa
farming (aquaculture) Efficiency and costs
Rainfall and post-harvest
assesses new insights into how climate
Infrastructure
River currents operations change is leading to alterations in the
Lake levels
ocean and the cryosphere and how
Loss of/damage to livelihood assets they will keep changing. It talks about
Thermal structure
Communities Livelihood means strategies the risks and opportunities that these
Heavy and frequent and livelihoods changes bring to ecosystems and peo-
storms Health and safety hazards
ple, as well as the mitigation, adaptation
Salinity Displacements and conflicts
and governance options to reduce future
Acidification
risks. The Report highlights the impor-
Temperature tance of the world’s oceans and frozen
Adaptation and mitigation costs
Society and Market impact areas and the need for urgent action to
economy prioritize timely, bold and coordinated
Water distribution
initiatives to address unprecedented ob-
Floods and coastal defenses
served changes. It further analyses ob-
served changes and impacts, projected
Figure 8.4. Climate change impacts on fisheries and aquaculture. Source: adapted from
changes and risks, and how responses
Badjeck et al. (2010). to ocean and cryosphere changes are
implemented in relation to the physical
environment, ecosystems, people and
ecosystem services. Finally, the report
concludes that a significant reduction in greenhouse gas
(cold or hot), hydropower production, sea temperature rise
emissions, protecting and restoring ecosystems, and care-
and climate and their implications for agriculture, fisheries,
fully managing the use of natural resources would preserve
forestry and bioenergy production. The report also contains
the oceans and cryosphere as a source of opportunities for
a chapter on the ocean, (Chapter 30; Hoegh-Guldberg et al.,
adapting to future changes, limiting livelihood risks and pro-
2014) which examines the extent to which regional changes viding multiple additional benefits to society at large.
in the ocean can be accurately detected and attributed to
anthropogenic climate change and ocean acidification, based
on the marine ecological and physiological responses to cli-
mate change and ocean acidification discussed in Chapter 8.2. Risk components in relation
6 of the same report (Pörtner et al., 2014). This chapter
assesses the impacts, risks and vulnerabilities associated to the sector
with climate change and ocean acidification in seven ocean
sub-regions, and discusses the expected consequences and According to the IPCC (2014), risk results from the interaction
adaptation options for key ocean-related sectors, including between vulnerability, exposure, and danger or hazard. Under
fisheries and aquaculture. this approach, hazards or dangers are actual biophysical
events, such as temperature rises driven by climate change,
Likewise, the IPCC has published a special report on the im- and defined by their magnitude and probability (1 or 2°C).
pacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, Exposure refers to what is affected by the danger (e.g. fish-
in the light of strengthening the global response to the threat ing potential) and vulnerability describes how sensitive the
of climate change, sustainable development and efforts to affected system or population is to a particular hazard, given
eradicate poverty (IPCC, 2018). This report assesses miti- its exposure (a resource that is overexploited or has a narrow
gation pathways to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-indus- tolerance range will be more sensitive to this hazard). The
trial levels, new scientific evidence of changes in the climate main hazards posed by climate change to marine fisheries
system and its associated impacts on natural and human and aquaculture are rising sea temperatures, changes in
systems, specifically focusing on the magnitude and pat- seasonality, rising sea levels, increased extreme and cat-
terns of the risks posed by a global warming of 1.5°C above astrophic events, increased precipitation, acidification and
282 RIOCCADAPT REPORT
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
hypoxia, and the proliferation of toxic microalgae. FAO (2018) related to El Niño and La Niña are expected to become more
considers non-climate stressors to be a more serious hazard frequent (Cai et al., 2015). However, El Niño will continue being
to inland fisheries than climate-driven ones. These hazards hazardous in the Southeast Pacific region, affecting its climate
lead to changes in species distribution, ecosystem productiv- (IPCC, 2013; Bertrand et al., 2018). Rising mean sea levels,
ity, coastal erosion and flooding, increased mortality of fish- together with more intense ENSO causing heavy rainfall and
ing/aquaculture resources and fishing-related ecosystems. unusual waves and swells (PRODUCE, 2016a), pose a hazard
These in turn pose risks to food security, poverty, health, to fishery infrastructure off the coasts of Chile and Peru.
unemployment, loss of human life, and income across the
countries, depending on the magnitude of the impact, expo-
sure and vulnerability. Daw et al. (2009) provide a summary 8.2.1.3. Magellan Province
of the ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of cli-
mate change on fisheries along with some examples (Figure In Argentinean Patagonia, sea surface temperature (SST) has
8.5). These result from processes linked to ecosystems or changed over the last 50 years and projections suggest an
to political, economic and social systems. increase of more than 3°C by the end of the century, as well
as a 25% increase in precipitation (Popova et al., 2016). Rising
sea levels and swells pose a serious hazard, especially for the
8.2.1. Hazards Chilean Patagonian shelf (ECLAC, 2015). They increase the
risks to landing sites and marine farming systems, as well as
infrastructure along the region’s coastline. Together with the
8.2.1.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and proliferation of harmful microalgae, the surge in extreme and
tropical NE Pacific provinces catastrophic events (storms, increased precipitation and hypox-
ic events) that occur along the coasts and are widespread in
The temperature rise in the tropical NE Pacific region, as op- the high seas threaten fisheries and aquaculture in the region.
posed to Central America, is affecting resources (Lluch-Cota
et al., 2013). Deoxygenation—which manifests itself as an ex-
pansion of hypoxic areas or an increase in their intensity—is a 8.2.1.4. Warm temperate SW Atlantic
significant hazard, since the minimum oxygen layer is notorious
in this region both for its size and hypoxia levels (Fiedler and province
Lavin, 2017). The hazard of acidification is also a concern in
The SST along the Atlantic coast of South America has
this region as projections reveal that the region has one of the
warmed over the last 30 years at rates between 0.2°C and
lowest levels of aragonite for coral development (Lluch-Cota et
0.4°C per decade (Lima and Wethey, 2012). In the South
al., 2018). Mass deaths of species within the Gulf have been
Atlantic of Brazil, Uruguay and part of the Patagonian shelf
associated with harmful algal blooms, and there is evidence that
in Argentina, the SST has changed most rapidly over the past
the number of toxic species and the frequency and duration of
50 years and is projected to increase by more than 3°C by
events are increasing (Lluch-Cota et al., 2018).
2099 (Popova et al., 2016). The increase in SST is expected
to be coupled with acidification and a resulting reduction in
pH from 0.3 to 0.4 between 2081 and 2100 (IPCC, 2014).
8.2.1.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific province This region has exhibited one of the largest increases in
Unlike other regions, the South Pacific coast of South America precipitation worldwide over the last century, and this trend
has experienced coastal cooling of approximately 1°C from is likely to continue. Precipitation is expected to increase by
at least the 1970s to the first decade of the 2000s, extend- 5 to 20% by 2050 (Nagy et al., 2008), along with the higher
ing from central Peru to south-central Chile (Gutiérrez et al., river flows brought about by El Niño-related events (Vögler
2011; Magrin et al., 2014; Gutiérrez et al., 2016; Yáñez et et al., 2015). An increase in the frequency and strength of
al., 2018). This upwelling region is affected by seasonal, in- cyclonic swells has been observed in the coastal areas of
ter-annual (e.g., ENSO), and decade-long fluctuations (Chavez the Río de la Plata (D’Onofrio et al., 2008), coupled with an
et al., 2008). Future projections estimate an increase in the increase in the speed and frequency of southern winds on
intensity and duration of winds that favor upwelling off the land that boost coastal erosion rates (Gutiérrez et al., 2016).
coast of Chile, and a decrease (moderate) or non-significant
changes off the coast of Peru (Belmadani et al., 2014; Wang
et al., 2015; Gutiérrez et al., 2019). Furthermore, there will 8.2.1.5. Tropical SW Atlantic, Brazilian N
be an increase in stratification as well as a strong warming shelf, tropical NW Atlantic and
of the surface of Peruvian waters and, to a lesser extent, of
Chilean waters (Oerder et al., 2015; ECLAC, 2015). These warm-temperate NW Atlantic
latter changes could favor an expansion of the subsurface provinces
oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) at low pH, amplifying hypoxia
and acidification in shallow areas. Although there is no con- Increasing SST in the Central West Atlantic is a highly
sensus on changes in frequency or amplitude, extreme events disparate hazard influenced by the major currents in the
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 283
Chapter 8 – Fishing Resources
Climate change Social and
ecological-fishing systems
Green- Temperature
Ecosystems
house
Extreme events Ecosystem processes
gases Biophysical effects
Aquatic environment
Re
p
Sea level rise Fish populations and production
er
cus
sions on soc
Acidification Dir
ect Ecological effects
effe
cts
y
iet
Politics, society
Fishing activities
and economy
Markets
Yields
Migration Socio-economic effects
Work Effort
Consumption patterns Livelihood means
Mitigation measures Management
Fuel prices
Ecological repercussions Socio-economic
(outlined in the first study) Direct repercussions repercussions
Affluence of migrant fishers
Changes in yields Damage to infrastructure
Rise in fuel prices
Changes in species distributions Damage to gear
Health damages due to diseases
Increase in variability of catches Increased risk at sea
Relative financial performance
Seasonal production variations Losses/Gains of maritime routes of other sectors
Flooding of fishing communities Availability of manageable
resources
Less security
Adaptation funds
Figure 8.5. Ecological, direct and socio-economic impacts of climate change on fisheries and examples of each case. Source: Daw et al., 2009.
region (Oxenford and Monnereau, 2018). These range sonal dead zones (lacking sufficient oxygen) in the Gulf
from slow warming (the Brazilian North Shelf) with a TSM of Mexico (GoM) continue to expand each summer (Hel-
increase of 0.38°C between 1957 and 2012, and from leman and Rabalais, 2009). On the other hand, in the
0.15°C to 0.16°C (the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, Central West Atlantic the decrease in pH has mirrored the
respectively). Regional-scale models suggest that in the global trend and occurred hand in hand with a sustained
Caribbean the small annual SST range will continue to decrease in the aragonite saturation state (Ωar) (despite
drop from a current average of 3.3°C to only 2.3°C by the being seasonally and spatially variable according to the
end of the century, making seasonality less pronounced influence of SST and salinity) from an annual average val-
(Nurse and Charlery, 2016). The tropical Atlantic (Stramma ue of 4.05 to 3.39 within a span of just 11 years (1996
et al., 2012) has seen a decrease in its minimum oxygen to 2006; Gledhill et al., 2008). Ωar values in this region
layer (suggesting a hypoxic habitat boundary for species are expected to reach 3.0-3.5, while pCO 2 reaching 550
with high oxygen demand), and a decrease in upwelling μatm will reduce Ωar toChapter 8 – Fishing Resources
Sea level rise (SLR) is also a major hazard for the region. The surface waters of the western Mediterranean also show
Over the last six decades, the sea level increased at a rate a clear and significant warming trend during the last decades
of 1.8 ± 0.1 mm/year in the Caribbean (Palanisamy et al., of the 20th century, with an average rate of change around
2012) and is projected to rise between 0.35 and 0.65 m (de- 0.03°C/year-1 (Pascual et al., 1995; Salat and Pascual
pending on the emissions scenario used) by the end of the 2002, 2006; Calvo et al., 2011) and 0.04°C/year-1 during
century (2081 to 2100) compared to the 1986-2005 period the first decade of the 21st century (Kersting et al., 2013;
(Church et al., 2013). Comparing the decades from 1950 to Marbà et al., 2015). In fact, it has recently been found that
1960 and from 1998 to 2008, the frequency of SLR-related the water of the Mediterranean is acidifying at a rate of
extreme events has increased significantly (20 percent to ~0.0044 pH units/year-1 (Arrow et al., 2015). These values
60 percent) throughout the Caribbean, while there has been exceed the acidification average in the other oceans during
little change in the platform of Northern Brazil (Church et al., the same period (-0.1 units; Raven et al., 2005). The level of
2013; Losada et al., 2013). The Mississippi delta in the Gulf the Mediterranean Sea has also increased since the 1990s
of Mexico is experiencing a sea level rise three times higher between 2 and 8.7 mm/year (Easter, 2006), contrary to the
than the global average and its coastal impact varies region- height of the waves, which show a significant decrease of
ally according to tidal range and tidal frequency (Losada et approximately 0.08 cm year-1 during the 1958-2001 period
al., 2013). This implies that the Caribbean and the Gulf of (Lionello and Sanna, 2008).
Mexico, which have experienced micro tides and a rise in sea
temperature, will be the most affected, while northern Brazil,
with its macro tides and lower frequency of storms, will be 8.2.2. Exposure
affected in the east.
Finally, there is evidence that more tropical storms in the 8.2.2.1. Warm temperate NE Pacific and
Caribbean region and the Gulf of Mexico are becoming dan-
gerous category four and five hurricanes (Murakami et al., tropical NE Pacific provinces
2012; Magrin et al., 2014).
The models project that most tropical areas are exposed to
changes in productivity and ecosystem structure and a re-
duction in the catch potential of sardine, squid (Pörtner et al.,
8.2.1.6. Lusitanian province and 2014; Cheung et al., 2016) and shrimp (Lluch-Cota, 2018)
Mediterranean Sea (see section 8.3). Also, small-scale fishing and tourism are
highly exposed to these changes as they depend heavily
In the Atlantic region of northern Spain, the surface water on coastal resources in coral reef, mangrove, and seagrass
temperature has increased between 1982 and 2014 at a ecosystems. Livelihoods and food security are therefore at
rate of 0.026 ºC-yr-1 (Costoya et al., 2015). This warming risk from the effects of climate change.
is also detected in waters up to 1000 m deep (González-Po-
la et al., 2012), but there is no recent evidence of it at
>5000 m (Prieto et al., 2015). According to Vargas-Yáñez 8.2.2.2. Warm temperate SE Pacific
et al. (2010), in the Mediterranean region east of the Ibe-
rian Peninsula the increase in surface water temperature province
during 1948-2007 varied between 0 and 0.5ºC. Between
depths of 200 and 600 m, the temperature increased be- While there is still uncertainty about how different drivers of
tween 0.05ºC and 0.2ºC and the salinity between 0.03 and change will impact productivity and biodiversity in this region,
0.09. At greater depths (1000 and 2000 m), the increase they can be presumed to affect the phenology, spatial dis-
in temperature and salinity was 0.03º-0.1ºC and 0.05-0.06, tribution and species composition of primary and secondary
respectively. This area has also seen reduction in pH over producers. Declining productivity and rising sea temperatures
recent decades. Although acidification is also present in affect anchovy (Engraulis ringens) biomass and catch levels
deeper layers, its rates are lower than in surface waters (Brochier et al., 2013; Gutiérrez et al., 2019), which can
(Rivers et al., 2001; Castro et al., 2009). Another hazard in greatly endanger the development of the world’s leading im-
this region is sea level rise, which was estimated at around portant fish oil and fishmeal industries and the production
2 mm/year-1 for the 20th century (Marcos et al., 2005; Ca- of land and aquaculture animals. By and large, although the
ballero et al., 2008; Leorri et al., 2008). However, sea level upwelling systems in the Eastern Pacific only cover a small
rise levels obtained for the last decade of the 20th century area, the impacts of climate change on them will have dispro-
and the first few years of the 21st century are almost 1 portionately harsh consequences for human society (IPCC,
mm/year-1 higher than those published for the entire 20th 2019). Coastal communities will also be exposed to sea level
century. An increase in wave height of approximately 1.5 rise, as well as abnormal heavy rainfall and waves caused
cm/year-1 between 1958 and 2001 associated with cli- by more frequent and intense ENSO. Moreover, marine fish
mate change has also been recorded in the Cantabrian Sea, cultures (such as salmon) and invertebrates (such as Ar-
along with an increase in the number of storms (Anadón and gopecten purpuratus and Concholepas concholepas) in this
Roqueñi, 2009). region will also be exposed to deoxygenation and acidifica-
RIOCCADAPT REPORT 285You can also read
