Did you hear what Tommy Hilfiger said?' Urban legend, urban fashion and African-American generation Xers
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`Did you hear what Tommy
Hil®ger said?' Urban legend,
urban fashion and African-
American generation Xers
Received: 15th June, 2001
Kimberly R. McNeil
is an assistant professor of marketing in the School of Business and Economics at North Carolina A&T State University.
Current research interests include the in¯uence of demographic factors, motivations, lifestyles and marketing
communications on consumer behaviour.
Keywords:
rumour, urbanwear,
fashion, designers, urban Olenda E. Johnson
legend is an assistant professor of management in the School of Business and Economics at North Carolina A&T State
University. Current research interests include the application of social identity theories to cross-discipline constructs.
Ann Y. Johnson
is an instructor in the Department of Human Sciences at Prairie View A&M University. Areas of specialisation include
merchandising and design, consumers in the marketplace and the psychology of fashion.
Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the in¯uence of an urban folktale on
the purchasing intentions and buying behaviour of the consumer. Speci®cally, it
examines a rumour involving fashion designer Tommy Hil®ger, in which he purportedly
made disparaging statements about African-Americans. A survey of African-American
generation Xers revealed a relationship between the rumour and the decision to
purchase Tommy Hil®ger clothing. Implications of the ®ndings are discussed.
Introduction the past ®ve years (Royal 2000; Spiegler
1996). Having its roots in the inner city,
`Urban legend: a modern day folktale that
urban fashion has a particularly strong
appears mysteriously and spreads
appeal among young African-American
spontaneously in various forms, containing
Kimberly R. McNeil elements of humor or horror. (The horror generation (gen) Xers Ð individuals born
School of Business
often ``punishes'' someone who ¯outs between 1965 and 1978 and often referred to
& Economics,
North Carolina Agricultural society's morals or conventions.)' as the baby-bust generation (Hawkins et al.
& Technical State University, www.urbanlegend.com 2001). Most noted for loose-®tting clothes
Greensboro, and bold logos, urbanwear embodies the
NC 27411, USA
`street' attitude associated with hip-hop
Tel: 1 336 334 7189
Urbanwear, a fashion trend linked to rap culture. Fashion designer Tommy Hil®ger
ext. 50043
Fax: 1 336 334 7093 music and the hip-hop culture, has was the ®rst major designer to capitalise on
E-mail: kray@ncat.edu dominated the American youth market over this trend. Hil®ger gained entreÂe into the
234 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management & Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240`Did you hear what Tommy Hil®ger said?'
urban market by courting rap artists and explores this possibility by examining the
other hip-hop stars, creating a premium relationship between the Tommy Hil®ger
brand whose logo is now seen on everything rumour and the purchasing intentions and
from baggy jeans to bath towels (Agins buying behaviour of young African-
1999; Spiegler 1996). In the ®scal year Americans. Are African-American gen Xers
ending March 1999, the Tommy Hil®ger as consumers in¯uenced by what they hear
brand tallied $1:7bn in net sales Ð about a product or brand?
translating into nearly $4bn at retail (Agins
1999).
Literature review
In the autumn of 1996, a rumour exploded
on the Internet stating that Tommy Hil®ger Consumers, especially gen Xers, tend to
had made disparaging remarks about follow what is trendy and worn by the `in
African-Americans and Asians Ð attacking crowd' (Agins 1999; Spiegler 1996). They
his core clientele, the early adopters of his possess a deep-seated desire to belong, often
fashions (Luscombe 1997; Mikkelson 2000). becoming image- and brand-conscious
One version has the designer appearing on consumers. This is perhaps particularly the
The Oprah Winfrey Show and saying `If I case for African-American gen Xers, where
knew that Blacks and Asians were going to `style' has been synonymous with African-
wear my clothes, I would have never American culture (White and White 1998).
designed them.' Another version places the At the same time, research shows that
designer on CNN's Style with Elsa Klensch, purchasing decisions are increasingly
stating that `some people (Asians) just don't in¯uenced by the perceived credibility and
look well in [my] designer clothes'. The coporate image of the companies that
source of the rumour is unclear; however, it market and manufacture consumer
bears a striking resemblance to similar products (Lafferty and Goldsmith 1999). If
urban myths about other fashion designers the company is positively portrayed,
(such as Liz Claiborne) consumers generally maintain a positive
(www.urbanlegends.com/ulz/ disposition toward the company and its
tommy.html). products. However, if the company is
Importantly, Tommy Hil®ger has never negatively portrayed, less favourable
appeared on either TV show Ð Oprah or feelings may subsequently in¯uence
CNN Style (Pitts 1999; www.tommy.com). whether consumers decide to purchase the
Despite vigorous denial of the rumour in the company's products (Lee and Bernstein
press and on the Tommy Hil®ger website, 2000; Ligos 1999).
the story persists (Luscombe 1997; Often `what is trendy' is derived from
www.tommy.com). Moreover, as the word-of-mouth communications. Retail
rumour has spread there has been a call to Entrepreneur of the Year, Anne Yuri
boycott Tommy Hil®ger clothing, especially Namba, touts that her home business was
in the African-American community fuelled entirely by word of mouth. As her
(www.urbanmyths.com/email_hil®ger. fame spread, so did the demand for her
html). unusual, highly distinctive fashions (Chain
The strength and persistance of the Store Age 2000). Likewise, Marcus (1999)
Tommy Hil®ger rumour suggests that this reported that word of mouth plays an
urban legend could possibly in¯uence sales integral role along with demographic
of the brand in a core market, African- information when decisions are made in the
American gen Xers. With in¯uential fashion industry. In essence, fashion
African-American magazines telling their demand may be generated by the
readers not to spend their consumer dollars simultaneous presence of local externalities
with businesses that do not value or and word-of-mouth communication
`respect' the African-American consumer (Corneo and Olivier 1999).
(Graves 1998), the impact of such rumours Along these same lines, rumours or urban
could be tremendous. The present study legends about a company have also been
& Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 235McNeil, Johnson and Johnson
shown to affect consumer decisions. Such their brands, negative information can have
rumours have a way of creeping into the the opposite effect. This possibility is
marketplace and somehow gaining credence explored by examining the effect of the
among all categories of people Ð the young, Tommy Hil®ger rumour among a group of
the well educated and the urbanites alike African-American gen Xers.
(Turner 1992). The consequences for some
companies have been severe, forcing them
Methods
to defend themselves against a usually
malicious myth (Freedman 1991). Turner Researchers distributed 350 surveys to ®ve
(1992) describes several companies that historically black colleges and universities
have been affected by rumours or urban (HBCUs) in the south-west, south-east and
legends, among them Adolph Coors, along the eastern coast of the USA. The
Popeye's Fried Chicken, British Knights, surveys were administered by a university
Reebok and Phillip Morris. In the autumn of professor or student during the spring 2000
1990, for example, a rumour began to semester. The surveys were distributed
circulate about Popeye's Fried Chicken during class and collected upon completion.
franchise, claiming that Al Copeland, The cover page of the questionnaire stated
Popeye's CEO, contributed a substantial that the purpose of the study was to gather
sum to the election campaign of David insight into the students' sense of style as
Duke. At that time David Duke, a former well as their ideals.
Grand Wizard of a racist organisation, the The questionnaire was constructed such
KKK (Ku Klux Klan), was running for one that most questions about Tommy Hil®ger
of Louisiana's US Senate seats. As a result, clothing and the Hil®ger rumour followed
many African-American and white more general questions about individual
consumers withheld their patronage from style and preference for other designers.
Popeye's in protest. Two scales, a style consciousness scale and
Similarly, Reebok, an athletic clothing an affective scale, were used to assess the
company, has been forced to defend itself students' style consciousness and their
for more than a decade against a rumour feelings about the Tommy Hil®ger
that the company manufactured its products `statement'. The ®ve items for the style
in South Africa and supported apartheid consciousnes scale were adapted from the
(Turner 1992). Initially the company chose consumer styles inventory (Sproles and
not to respond to the rumour. However, Sproles 1990) and the attention to social
since being confronted with protests and comparison information scale (Lennox and
boycotts, the company has gone to great Wolfe 1984). The ®ve items were summed,
lengths to dispel the story. They have producing scale values of 5±25, á 0:62.
emphatically denied the rumour in a The affective scale was comprised of a six-
forceful `Reebok is NOT in South Africa' ad item semantic scale, measured on a seven-
campaign (Kazi-Ferrouillet 1990). Reebok point continuum (eg bothered versus not
also appointed a travelling spokesman to bothered, offended versus not offended).
plead its case to African-American college Again, scores on the seven items were
groups and community and political groups summed, producing values of 7±42,
(Turner 1992). Even today, the company á 0:86. The survey also included general
addresses the issue on its website demographic information: age, gender,
(reebok.com). race/ethnicity, major and home town.
With the advent of the Internet and the
abundant information available, it is
Data analysis and results
dif®cult to determine what is true and what
is false. Thus, rumours disguised as truths Two hundred and ninety-four completed
are wittingly or unwittingly spread. For surveys were received. A total of 23 surveys
fashion designers, who are often dependent had one or more missing items. Because the
upon word of mouth to create demand for missing data were random, those surveys
236 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management & Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240`Did you hear what Tommy Hil®ger said?'
were retained, with cases excluded on a Hil®ger make the statement.) Sixty-®ve per
pairwise or casewise basis for statistical cent (190) believe the rumour, while 40 per
analysis. The average age of the respondents cent (117) have heard that he did not make
was 21, ranging in age from 18 to 41. Sixty the statement. Thirty-six per cent (106)
per cent (173) were female, 40 per cent were indicated that they have decided not to
male (117). Ninety-®ve per cent of the purchase Tommy Hil®ger items because of
students were African-American (279). The his supposed comments.
remaining 5 per cent were Asian, white and To examine more fully the relationship
native African. between knowledge of the Hil®ger rumour
Forty-six per cent (135) of the students and the purchasing, cross-tab analyses were
reported wearing Tommy Hil®ger items. used. First, the association between when
Another 20 per cent (59) acknowledged the rumour was ®rst heard (within the last
owning but not wearing Tommy `gear'. month, within the last two to six months,
Thirty-®ve per cent (102) owned between within the last seven to 12 months, and
one and three items, 16 per cent (48) four to more than a year ago) and the last purchase
six items, 7 per cent (21) seven to ten items date of any Tommy Hil®ger items (utilising
and 9 per cent (26) owned ten or more items the same classi®cation) was examined
(ranging from clothing and accessories to (Table 2). The cross-tabulation revealed that
perfume and undergarments). Fifteen per 27 per cent (50) of those who heard the
cent (42) of the students have spent $25 or rumour more than a year ago last purchased
less on a single Tommy Hil®ger item, 33 per Tommy Hil®ger items over a year ago,
cent (98) between $26 and $60, 10 per cent while 33 per cent (61) of these students did
(29) between $61 and $80, and 9 per cent not own any Tommy items at all.
(25) over $80 Ð some spending as much as Interestingly, 22 per cent (40) of those who
$245 for a Tommy Hil®ger jacket. indicated that they heard the rumour over a
Table 1 shows the response to questions year ago had purchased Tommy items
about the Tommy Hil®ger `statement'. As within two to six months of the time the
shown, 88 per cent (259) of the students had survey was taken.
heard the rumour, most reporting that Next, the association between those who
`Tommy said he did not make his clothing believed the rumour and the decision not to
for Blacks' or some similar variation (eg `He purchase Tommy Hil®ger items was
only made his clothes for rich whites'). examined (Table 3). Sixty-®ve per cent (190)
Seventy per cent (204) heard the rumour of those surveyed indicated that they
verbally from others and 7 per cent (21) via believed the rumour. Of those students, 51
the Internet. (Interestingly, 18 students per cent (96) reported that they have chosen
claim to have personally heard Tommy not to buy Tommy `gear' as a result.
Similarly, of those who acknowledged being
told that the rumour was untrue (117) Ð
Table 1 Response to questions about the Tommy that Tommy Hil®ger did not make the
Hil®ger rumour
statement Ð 34 per cent (39) indicated that
Yes No they have still chosen not to purchase any
Question % %
Tommy Hil®ger items.
Did you hear the rumour about the Finally, the relationship between style
statement Tommy Hil®ger made? 88 12 consciousness, feelings about the rumour
Have you heard that Tommy Hil®ger
did not make the statement? 40 49a and the purchasing decision was assessed.
Do you believe that Tommy Hil®ger The mean score on the style consciousness
made the statement? 65 19a scale was 16.76 (mid-point 15), indicating
Have you chosen not to purchase
Tommy gear as a result of this that students were fairly style conscious.
rumour? 36 51a Students, on average, also had moderate
a
feelings about the rumour (mean 26.08,
The remaining percentage (to total 100) represents
those who have not heard the rumour or missing mid-point 25). Correlation analysis (Table
cases. 4) showed that the more style conscious the
& Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 237McNeil, Johnson and Johnson
Table 2 Cross-tabs: `when rumour ®rst heard' with `date last purchased'
First heard rumour
Within the Within the last Within the last More than a
last month 2±6 months 7±12 months year ago
Date last Within the last 2 (15%) 3 (17%) 2 (5%) 12 (7%)
purchased month
Within the last 2±6 6 (46%) 4 (24%) 9 (21%) 40 (22%)
months
Within the last 1 (8%) 5 (29%) 7 (16%) 19 (11%)
7±12 months
More than a year 1 (8%) 1 (6%) 12 (28%) 50 (27%)
ago
Do not own Tommy 3 (23%) 4 (24%) 13 (30%) 61 (33%)
Hil®ger items
Gift 2 (1%)
Total 13 (100%) 17 (100%) 43 (100%) 184 (100%)
Table 3 Cross-tabs: `believe the rumour' with Hil®ger, in which he purportedly made
`decision not to purchase' disparaging remarks about African-
Believe rumour Americans, on the decision to purchase
Tommy Hil®ger items by African-American
Yes No gen Xers. The ®ndings show that the
Decide not to Yes 95 (51%) 4 (7%) rumour has gained some level of credence
purchase No 90 (49%) 51 (93%) among the African-American students
Total 185 (100%) 55 (100%)
surveyed in this study. More than 88 per
cent of the students were aware of the
rumour. More importantly, many of them
student, the more likely he/she was to have acknowledge that they have consciously
recently purchased Tommy Hil®ger items. chosen not to purchase Tommy `gear' as a
At the same time, those who believed the result.
rumour were more likely to have the One implication of these ®ndings is that
strongest negative feelings about the the staying power of the rumour could
comment. In addition, the stronger the eventually harm sales of the Tommy
feelings, the more likely they were to have Hil®ger brand in a core target market. When
made the decision not to purchase Tommy coupled with the push for young African-
Hil®ger. Americans to support African-American
urbanwear designers (Royal 2000), the effect
of the rumour may lead to lost market share.
Summary and discussion
A recent Wall Street Journal article reported a
The purpose of this study was to explore the 28 per cent decrease in sales for the Tommy
effect of a rumour about designer Tommy Hil®ger company (Agins 2001). Although
Table 4 Correlation analysis
Style Believe Date last Decide not
conscoiusness Feelings rumour purchased to purchase
Style consciousness Ð
Feelings ÿ0.04 Ð
Believe rumour ÿ0.11 0.24 Ð
Date last purchased ÿ0.24 0.04 0.17 Ð
Decide not to purchase ÿ0.07 0.31 0.35 0.18 Ð
p , 0:01, p , 0:001
238 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management & Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240`Did you hear what Tommy Hil®ger said?'
the dip may not be totally attributable to the style conscious and socially conscious. Thus
rumour, the company's decision to reduce all designers, regardless of popularity, must
its participation in the hip-hop market and take careful steps to monitor their image
`return to its preppy roots' suggests that the and communications with their consumers.
myth may have harmed pro®ts to some Tommy Hil®ger remains successful and
degree (Agins 2001). popular despite the rumour. Yet it has not
The Tommy Hil®ger company continues been without effort. Like Reebok before
to defend itself against the story, regularly them, Tommy Hil®ger has demonstrated
updating a press release on the `malicious that urban legends should not be ignored.
rumour'. It is also noteworthy that Tommy Addressing these potentially damaging
Hil®ger has used more African-American rumours is an important component of any
models in its advertising and the company marketing programme. Through an
has sponsored promotional events that are integrated marketing approach, Tommy
likely to attract young African-American Hil®ger continues to handle this situation
consumers (eg the Qwest Ð a hip-hop strategically and effectively.
music label Ð `unleashed cuts' talent
challenge). These efforts may be perceived
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240 Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management & Henry Stewart Publications 1361-2026 (2001) Vol. 5, 3, 234±240You can also read
