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THE MAGAZINE OF THE BONN CENTER FOR DEPENDENCY AND SLAVERY STUDIES
DEPENDENT
20 | 2
SLAVERY
WITHOUT
SLAVES?
PAGE 4
FELLOW‘S EVENTS CONFERENCES, LECTURE
REPORT PROGRAM SERIES AND OTHER EVENTS
PAGE 11 PAGE 38 PAGE 42
2 | TABLE OF CONTE N T S
CUBA
04 | S PECIAL FOCUS P. 2 8
08 | O PINION
11 | FELLOW‘S R E PORT G UI N E A
B I S S AU
16 | I NTE RVIE W P. 3 2
2 2 | I N ME MOR IA M
2 5 | NEWS
2 6 | FI ELD R E SE A R CHE RS ’ REP ORT S
38 | EV E NTS PR OGR A M NI C A R AG UA
P. 3 6
4 0 | NEW PUBLICATION S
42 | CONF E R E NCE S
51 | I MPR INT
R E SE A R CH ARE AS | 3
I R AQ
P. 3 4
MALI
P. 1 1
I SR A E L
P. 4 4
ANGOLA
P. 3 2
SÃO TOM É
E P R ÍN CI PE
P. 32
Our research will contribute to the academic debate on numerous and varied
expressions of strong asymmetrical dependencies from a trans-regional
and deep-time perspective. We are interested in social processes in order to
better understand why and how distinct forms of asymmetrical dependencies
emerged in different places and periods. Our aim is to identify the factors
behind their development over time. Therefore, our research looks at a diverse
range of places across the world. In this magazine, we focus on the blue-
colored regions; the ones marked in yellow are ongoing projects of other of the
Bonn Center for Dependency and Slavery Studies’ scholars.
4 | S P EC IA L FOC US
SLAVERY
WITHOUT
SLAVES?
Law and the legitimacy
of asymmetrical dependencies.
Martin J. Schermaier
Every society organizes itself into different forms of dependency, many of which are asymmetrical. They
may be forms of personal dependency which exist only between particular individuals and only for a limited
period of time; or they may be institutionalized forms, which assign certain roles and behaviors to certain
groups of people.
WHAT IS INSTITUTIONALIZED DEPENDENCY?
The range of conceivable dependencies is large: if per-
son A asks person B to pass the bread basket during a
meal together and B complies with this request, they
do so in the expectation that A would do the same if
asked. Person A is aware of this expectation, and so
by asking B to do something A tacitly agrees to do
the same, or something similar, for B. We call this
courtesy, but there is also a form of attachment here
that structures the social behavior of A and B: B has
done A a favor, so A knows they are beholden to B. This
is nothing other than a form of personal, and at the
same time situational, dependency. If B were the child
or the paid domestic help of A, this mutual expecta-
tion would not exist. There would be no obligation on
person A to return the favor for person B. Children and
parents, domestic workers and employers are in an
institutionalized form of dependency where any ser-
vice rendered by one party has already been matched
SP ECI A L FO CU S | 5
THE VIEW FROM INSIDE:
“INTERNAL REGULATIONS” OF DEPENDENCY
One might think that a society’s internal regulations
are based on how that society legitimizes its social
hierarchies. In fact, research by legal historians has
shown that this is often not the case. One example are
legal regulations for slaves and freedmen in ancient
Roman law, which in some respects resemble mod-
ern labor law down to the last detail. There are also
parallels in the economy: the division of labor always
follows the same pattern, in its basic structures at
least: on the one hand are those who plan, set up and
monitor processes; on the other, there are those who
carry them out.
How exactly such hierarchies of agency are framed in
law is irrelevant for the actual degree of dependency
suffered by the workers. Only from our modern
perspective is there a crucial difference between
an employee who is the property of their employer,
and an employee owing labor to them: property,
for us, carries a much broader meaning than it did in
antiquity. We construct employment relationships as
being entered into and terminated by contract and, as
such, on a voluntary basis – by doing this we largely
ignore social or economic constraints. These days the
global division of labor has reached a level that means
we can no longer see these constraints. In European
history the internal legal structure of dependency
relations appears to be largely interchangeable; this
by a service provided by the other. Being embedded in is partly due to the fact that this internal structure
a regular exchange relationship means that no new usually follows the pattern laid down by ancient
expectations – and so no new dependencies – arise in Roman law. So a shared normative heritage underpins
the case given. the phenomenological similarities of dependency
relations.
“ It is the task of jurists to detect rules
within institutionalized forms of
dependency and to resolve conflicts
“ We construct employment relationships
as being entered into and terminated
”
between the parties. by contract and, as such, on a voluntary
basis – by doing this we largely ignore
”
social or economic constraints.
Jurists have the task to detect the rules within such
institutionalized forms of dependency and so to
resolve conflicts between the conflicting parties. However, most people would not equate modern
But how are dependencies institutionalized in the working conditions with ancient slavery. What would
first place? The decisive factor is to read dependency chained galley slaves have in common with unionized
itself as a regular occurrence, as part of the normative workers? It’s a drastic example, but even here we
order. However, in the European tradition, this sort can find legal commonalities, such as the ability of
of interpretation was originally the province not of employers to sanction non-performance. This exam-
jurists, but of theologians and philosophers. ple makes clear that a purely legalistic approach to
dependency is useless. Dependencies are social phe-
nomena; as such they are best described in sociologi-
cal terms. Law merely provides the normative frame-
work for classifying various forms of dependency
and situating them within our contemporary notions
6 | S P ECIAL FOC US
of conflict resolution. While the terms required to do
this are arbitrary and subject to change, the number of
legal instruments is comparatively small. “ A slave’s lived reality was determined by
their master, in a way that was largely
free from legal constraints. The law
only determined how a person became a
slave, how they could be freed, and what
THE VIEW FROM OUTSIDE: role a slave might have in their master’s
”
LEGITIMIZING DEPENDENCY property and with regards to third parties.
While it is characteristic of institutionalized forms of
dependency that they are enshrined in law, dependency From the third century onwards, this rather unambig-
is not created by law. Instead, law plays an important uous world came under increasing pressure from two
role on a different level, namely concerning the ques- directions: from (a) new forms of strong asymmetri-
tion which dependencies are compatible with the legal cal dependency that were coming into being, and (b)
concepts of their period. So this concerns the “external” Christian teachings.
part of institutional dependency, the question of its
legitimation. While legitimacy discourses seek to align
with internal regulations that govern dependency rela- a) There was a shortage of slaves in a number of
tions, their aim is not to argue in favor of the legitimacy different sectors, particularly in agriculture.
of existing inequality, but instead to justify existing The once abundant supply of prisoners of war,
regulations. The legitimation of dependency relations who had been sold as slaves, dried up and came
is not rooted in the existing order, but in prepositive to a complete standstill for several decades.
notions of how an ideal society should look like. New forms of dependency developed under the
guise of private law, which obliged artisans and
We frequently underestimate such notions of order. their descendants to stick to certain trades, and
One of them is the division of people into free and tied tenant farmers to their land. The resulting
unfree, which originated in antiquity. It is an attrac- social classes would go on to define the social
tively simple classification: unfree people are slaves, order of the Middle Ages.
while free people are not. This notion suggests that
unfreedom is clearly delineated. Even modern Western b) Christian teachings hold that before God, there
societies believe that where there is no slavery, there is no difference between free and unfree: the
is equality. Whether we achieve this goal depends death of Christ redeems all believers regard-
solely on the definition of who is a slave. The narrower less. Neither apostles nor church fathers drew
the definition, the sooner we have attained perfection. social-revolutionary conclusions from this, but
the ecclesiology of the early church in particular
is characterized by a strong conviction that the
OLD CERTAINTIES, NEW DOUBTS division into free and unfree was irrelevant.
Slaves could become priests and bishops, and
European legal history is also marked by efforts to marriages between unfree and free were valid
eliminate slavery by definition. Ancient societies took in the eyes of God. We have reports from the
the existence of slaves for granted. Educated people Early and the High Middle Ages of churches and
could quote Aristotle on some peoples being masters monasteries that freed all their slaves. Scho-
by nature, while others are slaves by nature. Slavery lastic theologists accepted slavery as a reality
existed in all Mediterranean societies. This fact was but described it as praeter naturam, unwanted
invoked by jurists confronted with the Stoic argument by God.
that all men are equal. Even significant differences in
the social positions of individual slaves (and individual
free people) did not change the division of the world EUROPE’S FIG LEAF
into “unfree” and “free”. Slaves might be treated like
beasts, or they might undertake important social Especially in Central and Western Europe these two
tasks, depending on how their masters decided to tendencies led to the widespread denial of slavery.
use them. A slave’s lived reality was determined by Around the year 1500 jurists claimed that slavery had
their master, in a way that was largely free from legal ceased to exist, and a short while later the French
constraints. The law only determined how a person political philosopher Jean Bodin claimed that slavery
became a slave, how they could be freed, and what had become extinct in Western Europe by 1520. But
role a slave might have in their master’s property and more than a century later, in 1645, the Pomeranian
with regards to third parties. lawyer David Mevius used Roman slave law to argue
that serfs displaced from the lands of their masters in
SP ECI A L FO CU S | 7
the turmoil of the Thirty Years’ War must return there. Quotes
Here, as in all other cases of unwaged labor, slave law Gaii Institutiones 1.9: Et quidem summa divisio de iure preso-
served as a normative framework for clarifying the narum haec est, quod omnes homines aut liberi sunt aut servi
“The principal division of the law of persons is the following,
legal relationship between masters and laborers.
namely, that all men are either free or slaves.”
This tension between, on the one hand, a discourse Domitius Ulpianus 50.17.32: Quod attinet ad ius civile, servi pro
of legitimacy that denied slavery and, on the other, a nullis habentur: non tamen et iure naturali, quia, quod ad ius
practice in which slave law was applied, was sustained naturale attinet, omnes homines aequales sunt.
by social conditions and supported by regulations. By “As far as civil law is concerned, slaves are not regarded as
the High Middle Ages, classical slavery had come to persons; but this is different according to natural law, because
as far as natural law is concerned, all men are equal.”
be replaced by other forms of dependency (serfdom,
feudalism, the guilds), some of which are explicitly C. 29 qu. 2 c. 1 (Pope Julian I, † 352): Omnibus nobis unus pater
differentiated from slavery. The leading moral author- est in coelis, et unusquisque, dives et pauper, liber et servus,
ity, the Roman Church, allowed the enslavement of equaliter pro se et pro animabus eorum rationem reddituri sunt.
non-Christians, at least in those cases where they had “ We all have one father in heaven, and each one, whether
been captured in a just war or had sold themselves. It rich or poor, free or slave, must answer equally for himself
turned a blind eye to the slave trade flourishing in the and for the souls of others.”
Mediterranean, in which Venice and Genoa took an
active part.
“
Prof. Dr. Martin J. Schermaier
is Professor of Roman Law and Civil Law at the
By the High Middle Ages classical slavery University of Bonn, Director of the Institute for
had come to be replaced by other forms Roman Law and Comparative Legal History, and
of dependency: serfdom, feudalism, the a full member of the North Rhine-Westphalian
”
guilds. Academy of Sciences, Humanities and Arts.
He teaches and researches classical Roman
private law, current German civil law and the history of ideas of
European law in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period.
History would repeat itself a few centuries later in the He is a Principal Investigator in the Cluster of Excellence
abolition movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth “Beyond Slavery and Freedom” and Speaker of Research Area C
centuries: While trans-Atlantic slavery was rejected (“Institutions, Norms and Practices”).
and fought against, other forms of strong asymmetri-
cal dependency — such as serfdom, the sale of children Publications
and increasingly wage labor — were tolerated or even Materia: Beiträge zur Frage der Naturphilosophie im klassischen
römischen Recht (Forschungen zum Römischen Recht, vol. 38).
newly created. Anything that was not the one rejected
Vienna/Cologne/Weimar 1992, pp. 341.
type of dependency (which was always dubbed “slav-
ery”) appeared legitimate. There was no teleological Die Bestimmung des beachtlichen Irrtums von den Glossatoren
weighing or functional comparison of different forms bis zum BGB (Forschungen zur Neueren Privatrechtsgeschichte,
of dependency, at least not in the dominant discourse. vol. 29). Vienna/Cologne/Weimar 2000, pp. 789.
From Meticulous Guide to Average Joe: The Reasonable Man –
German Style. In: Modelli teorici e metodologici nella storia del
NEW QUESTIONS
diritto privato, vol. 4. Naples 2012, 419–442.
From a historical and especially from a legal-histor- Borrowed Plumes and Robbed Freedmen: Some Aspects of
ical point of view, however, what is interesting is not Plagiarism in Roman Antiquity. In: A. Burrows, D. Johnston, R.
only this tension between the rejection of slavery Zimmermann (eds.): Essays in Memory of Lord Rodger. Oxford
on the one hand, and the legitimization of slave-like 2013, 237–249.
conditions on the other. It is just as important to find
Dominus actuum suorum: Die willenstheoretische Begründung
out how the “internal regulations” of these condi-
des Eigentums und das römische Recht. In: SZ 134 (2017) 49–105.
tions went on to develop. Was Roman slave law (or
freedperson law) really formative for how modern Contemporary Use of Roman Rules: Prescription and Limitation
labor law developed? What impact did discourses in the Usus Modernus Pandectarum. In: H. Dondorp, D. Ibbetson,
of legitimacy have on the shaping of this law? How E.J.H. Schrage (eds.): Limitation and Prescription. Berlin 2019,
did medieval and modern jurists legally shape forms 297–336.
of strong asymmetrical dependency? We still need
Habebant omnia communia: Überlegungen zum Gemeineigen-
answers to these and many other questions, and over
tum in Philosophie, Theologie und Recht. In: H. Dondorp, M.
the coming years the Bonn Center for Dependency and Schermaier, B. Sirks (eds.): De rebus divinis et humanis. Essays in
Slavery Studies will address them. honour of Jan Hallebeek. Göttingen 2019, 225–247.
8 | O P INION
ON THE POLITICAL
DIMENSION OF
QUARANTINE:
A LOOK BACK
Lisa Hellman
The history of quarantine is a history of power and xenophobia. These reflections by Lisa Hellman, a
researcher at the Cluster of Excellence “Beyond Slavery and Freedom” at the University of Bonn, were
published in the Lebenszeichen (“signs of life”) series on the university’s website. Contributions to this
series were written under the impression of the measures imposed to control the corona virus pandemic by
members of the university.
This situation we are currently in is exceptional,
unprecedented. And yet we have seen it all before:
in black and white images from the Spanish Flu; or, in
a museum case somewhere, those suits like creepy
penguins worn by plague doctors. Both are testament
to human ingenuity in trying to protect ourselves
against disease. But a look back into history also
shows those who were made to pay the price in such
exceptional times.
There are various explanations for why a quarantine
should last forty days. Some point to Hippocrates’
theories about forty days as a tipping point for dis-
ease. Others look to the Bible: when God flooded the
earth, he made it rain for forty days and forty nights.
Jesus spent forty days fasting in the wilderness. All
we know for certain is that in Europe, the concept
of separating the sick from the healthy goes back to
antiquity. But theories about epidemics exist outside
of Europe as well. Ancient Chinese records from about
1000 BC onwards, for example, documented out-
breaks of the plague as well as different quarantine
OPIN IO N | 9
Chevalier Roze à la Tourette by Michel Serre (1658–1733) shows
the impact of the plague epidemic in Marseilles in 1720.
The painting is now displayed in the Musée Atger in Montpelier.
practices. So we have records going back thousands exactly was the plague? Where did it rage? And just
of years about isolating patients, as well as about how many people did it kill? Estimates on mortality
observing and healing them. vary wildly, between five and sixty percent of the
global population – a huge difference. But there is one
“
thing we can learn from measures taken against the
In Europe, the concept of separating plague: then as now, the struggle against infection
the sick from the healthy goes back to was a constant balancing act between economic
”
antiquity. losses, human contact and the fear of death.
The term “quarantine” reflects an interconnected THE HISTORY OF QUARANTINE IS A HISTORY
world from the start. It was first used in medieval OF POWER AND XENOPHOBIA
Venice. Faced with the Black Death, the leaders of the
trading hub authorized a committee to detain ships, For centuries, quarantine has been both a medical and
cargoes and individuals in the Venice lagoon for up to a political practice; as such, it sheds light on the cru-
forty days. Over the course of time these quaranta cial role of race and class. As I write, it has emerged
giorni turned into a quarantinario. Eventually the in New York that African Americans are much harder
period of isolation was reduced to thirty days – a hit both economically and medically by the corona
trentinario – but the original name stuck. virus than the White population. This is not a surprise.
Historically, minorities and the poor have repeatedly
As a matter of fact, much of what we know about been hardest hit by epidemics – and blamed for
practices of quarantine and beliefs about infectious spreading them.
diseases in the past comes from disease outbreaks,
not least the fourteenth-century outbreak of the So the history of quarantine is not only a story about
Black Death. That is a little ironic, because even after medical and scientific progress, but also about power.
almost seven centuries of research, there is still Quarantine hospitals in Venice like the lazzaretto
disagreement about fundamental questions: What on the island of Santa Maria di Nazareth – today’s
10 | OPINION
Lazzaretto Vecchio – looked after new arrivals. But So-called “camp girls” were similarly stigmatized in
they also served to isolate locals who had fallen ill the United States during the First World War. As more
with the plague from the healthy. More such hospitals and more US soldiers suffered from venereal disease,
came into being over time, but the practices they it was the women (“girls”) who were given the blame.
employed varied. One was built in Philadelphia in 1799 They had to undergo compulsory venereal disease
after a yellow fever epidemic: but in order to protect tests and were imprisoned in droves, because it was
European colonists, not to look after the health of the women were seen as a serious threat to success in
enslaved. Its purpose was to ensure the economic war. More than 30,000 sex workers were imprisoned
sustainability of the slave trade from an epidemiolog- in the U.S. even after they had been found to be free
ical perspective. of disease.
“
Over time, calls for quarantine became increasingly
intertwined with xenophobia. In 1892, ships carrying Quarantine has always been a political
Russian Jewish immigrants arrived at Ellis Island. issue, and still is today. In most cases it
Some of the passengers were sick with typhoid and served to isolate particular sections of
”
cholera. Soon, there was an outbreak of anti-Sem- society.
itism. Even the front page of the New York Times
proclaimed, “We don’t need this kind of riff-raff on our
shores.” Around 1900, Chinese residents of San Fran- All of these stories show that quarantine has always
cisco were targeted. Fearing an outbreak of bubonic been a political issue, and still is today. In most cases
plague, the city authorities completely quarantined it served to isolate particular sections of society
a 12-square-block section of Chinatown for several – fortunately, this is no longer the case. But this is
days, causing many Chinese laborers to lose their jobs. precisely why we must never stop to ask these funda-
This led to fierce public discussions about whether to mental questions: who can be quarantined, who must
mass-deport Chinese citizens. be quarantined? Who requires protection, and who
may be left without protection? Whose movement
In a similar way, quarantine regulations were used may be restricted and at what cost? Is cross-border
to restrict African Americans. Early in the nineteenth travel a threat or an opportunity? If these questions
century many southern states of the United States are not regularly reassessed, the answers adapted
passed so-called Negro Seamen Acts, which banned accordingly, the most fundamental values of our soci-
Black sailors from disembarking from their ships, ety will suffer. Infectious diseases, and pandemics in
stigmatizing them as “dangerous outsiders”. Their particular, put any society under enormous pressure.
presence, it was argued, would cause “outside agi- The way we act in these situations not only reveals a
tation” in the slave regions of the South. Any form of society’s values and resources: it also lays bare the
racial unrest and slave revolt was attributed to their cracks and inequalities deep within its social fabric.
“moral contagion”. The fact that these Negro Seamen
Acts were also referred to as “quarantines” illustrates
the extent to which notions of contagion can go far
beyond purely physical disease.
There can also be a gender-specific dynamic to
ideas about infection and measures of isolation. In Dr. Lisa Hellman
eighteenth-century Great Britain, ports represented is leader of the Research
the nation’s strength, symbolizing maritime power Group “Coerced Circulation of
Knowledge” at the Bonn Center
as well as economic prosperity. On the other hand, a
for Dependency and Slavery
port could be a place of weakness, making England Studies. She works in the
vulnerable to disease. The movements of sailors were intersection between social,
regarded as a threat to the nation’s collective health, cultural, maritime and global history, with a
which is why there were demands to quarantine both special interest in gender. In the last years,
sailors themselves and the women with whom they her research has led her to pay increased
interacted. Fear of the transmissibility of plague and attention to diplomatic history and the history
of science. In her current project, she follows
syphilis led to tensions along class lines. It was alleged
eighteenth century prisoners of war in Siberia
that relationships with sex workers contaminated the and North Asia. The core question driving Lisa
otherwise pure domestic sphere with “vile diseases”, is how intercultural interaction changed the
endangering the welfare and future of the nation. lives of the men and women involved.F E L LO W ‘ S RE PO RT | 11
As a visiting Heinz Heinen Fellow at the Bonn Center for Dependency and Slavery Studies, I proposed to
work with the discursive displacements of the language of slavery in both colonial and contemporary West
African settings. To that end, I investigated the use of slavery-related vocabularies in court cases. In this
piece, I explain and discuss how it is possible that more than a century after the formal abolition of slavery
by French colonial officers, court cases related to so-called “descent-based slavery” are to be found in 2020,
with a special focus on Mali.
From 2017, social media platforms linked to Soninke
BREAKING THE SILENCE? communities in West Mali all of a sudden abounded
THE ONGOING LEGACIES with horrible images of people being beaten, mothers
and children with bleeding eyes, heads and bellies; old
OF INTERNAL AFRICAN and young people chased from their houses, or locked
up for several days naked in their houses; people tied
SLAVERY IN MALI up with ropes and beaten over a stone, the destruction
of goods and gardens. The online debates mentioned
Lotte Pelckmans pro- and anti-slavery groups and accused each other
of being part of one or the other. The victims, the large
majority of which are illiterate, deposited claims with
the police and some cases went to court, thanks to
help of anti-slavery activists as well as family and
friends in the very large diaspora.
How, after decades of public silence on slavery, can
we explain this sudden outbreak of violence directly
mentioning “slavery” issues from 2017 to date? Many
people believe that this issue should remain hidden12 | FE LLOW‘S R E PORT
and not be talked about, but others are revolting and strong taboos on social change continue to operate
calling for change, by trying to lift the silence and the in the moral economy of many Soninke communities,
taboos. This generates intense friction and tension, also in the provinces of Diema and Nioro (see map
which sometimes results in violence. Our newly below), where the violence started in 2017.
funded project on the protracted rural displacements
of people with slave descent aims to answer this fric-
tion in more depth in the future. I present here three
non-exhaustive and rather preliminary explanations:
Yelimane
Nioro
• first, the quest for honor and the respecting of
silence; Kayes Diema
• second, interregional protests by groups with
slave status and
Bafoulabe
• third, strong out-migration which affects the
Kita
economy but not so much the ideas people
have about social status which involves several
socially acceptable forms of exclusion and
inequality. Kenieba
The common thread that runs through this text is the
case of only one among several activists who started
breaking the silence. While privileging his story and Mali with the Kayes region
voice, I am aware of many more people affected by (marked yellow) and the na-
mes of its provinces.
and active in this issue in very different ways.
HONOR AND RESPECTING ONE’S PLACE
My first explanation for the current frictions is that, WEST AFRICAN ANTI-SLAVERY MOVEMENTS
while social hierarchies inherited from the internal
African slave past continue to be alive in almost every My second explanation is linked to regional anti-slav-
ethnic group in Mali, they are surrounded by silence ery activism. Nioro and Diema provinces are very close
and strong taboos on problematizing the inequalities to south-east Mauritania, and historically cross-bor-
and discriminations linked to them. Honorability is der interactions are common. On local radio, Malians
strongly related to restraint and avoiding all forms of learn about the successes scored by the Initiative pour
public display of dissent and emotion. la Resurgence du mouvement Abolitioniste (Initiative
for the Resurgence of the Abolitionist movement IRA)
“
Mauritania; an anti-slavery movement headed by a
Strong taboos on social change continue charismatic leader called Biram who denounces the
to operate in the moral economy of many use of religious arguments to discriminate against
”
Soninke communities. people with slave status.
Despite his frequent imprisonment, Biram entered
Everyone should “know his/her head” and respect national politics as an opposition MP and ran as presi-
their place in society. A person is born into a certain dential candidate in 2019. He is popular, mainly among
social group with rights and obligations and this urban young people of slave descent in Mauritania.
should not be questioned. Knowing how to keep silent Ahmet Coulibaly (infra) says IRA-Mauritania inspired
on these issues is part of earning respectability, and him to become an anti-slavery activist himself in Mali.
compliance with social norms and regulations is Apart from IRA, there are several other anti-slavery
highly valued. Denouncing injustices related to one’s movements and organizations in neighboring Sene-
social status in the social hierarchy is “like taking gal, Niger and Mali which have become more visible
down the pants of one’s father”, according to a local over the past decades. I have anayzed the emergence
saying: it insults the family and its ancestors. Thus of several of these movements in the past.F E L LO W ‘ S R E PO RT | 13
SPATIAL VERSUS SOCIAL MOBILITY in Paris or in Mali, and whether first, second or third
generation immigrant, (the families of) those who try
Thirdly, Mali’s Kayes region, and especially the Son- to cross the invisible lines of the hierarchy (e.g. mar-
inke groups living there, have known a very strong rying into the “wrong” status group), are more often
out-migration since the colonial heyday, initially than not severely punished through – transnationally
mainly to Senegal, the Ivory Coast and Central Africa; imposed – “embargoes”.
and from the 1970s onwards mostly to France, and
more recently also to southern Africa as well as Such embargoes are used as an effective means of
Dubai, China, and other Asian destinations. This punishment: the embargoed person or even his family
out-migration is very marked, and in many villages back home, are no longer allowed to access vital ele-
this means that whole households are entirely made ments of the village community: they cannot visit the
up of women, children and the elderly and depend on market, fetch water, pray in the mosque, attend vil-
remittances sent by men living abroad. lage meetings, and so on. In the long term, this means
it is impossible to survive and it has resulted in some
“
people being forced to move out of their communities
Most freeborn groups in Mali continue and settle elsewhere. It is these protracted forms of
to have the monopoly over economic, displacement over the span of more than a century
political and religious resources. However, after the official abolition of internal slavery, which
migration and trade have brought eco- our new project will study up close.
nomic gain to other status groups as well,
”
including those of slave descent.
THE QUEST FOR SOCIAL CHANGE
Although these strong diasporic tendencies and Ahmet Coulibaly had spent most of his life outside
pronounced spatial mobilities did not necessarily of Mali trading goods in Asia and the Gulf countries,
result in social mobility within traditional hierarchies, before he decided to return and settle at home in 2017.
it did mean that economic success was no longer the He was surprised by how status related inequalities
privilege of groups with freeborn status. While most in his community seemed to have become stronger
freeborn groups in Mali continue to have the monop- rather than weaker. He witnessed how people of slave
oly over economic, political and religious resources, descent were not only exploited by local freeborn
migration and trade have brought economic gain to groups, but relates that they were also the primary
other status groups as well, including those of slave victims of raids by cross-border terrorist groups, who
descent. I met one of them, Ahmet Coulibaly, in Decem- are destabilizing large parts of the Sahel.
ber 2018 in exile in the capital city of Bamako. Ahmet
has three wives and invested his trading fortunes For the sake of his children’s future and inspired by
in a two-story brick house in his home village in the IRA-Mauritania, Ahmet decided to denounce and speak
Diema region. Being totally illiterate himself, he wants out about the discrimination against his status group:
to translate his economic success into emancipation those presumably descended from slaves. In fact, he
and better chances for social climbing for his children insists – as many others do – that his parents have
through schooling. However, due to their slave status, never been “enslaved” as such, but rather, that they
and maybe also due to jealousies about their father’s had been absorbed into the category of people with
economic success, his children are systematically slave status, because in the past they had migrated
discriminated against. Bright and successful children from one region to another. In order to get access to
of slave descent often face bullying or insults from marriage and land, they had to accept incorporation
freeborn children in Mali. They may be ordered to through absorption into the group of former slaves of
bring water or to give up their chair and sit lowly on the local Soninke villages they wanted to settle in.
the floor – thus being “put in their place”.
TRANSNATIONAL SPACES OF MORALITY
Spatial movements out of the home communities
“ In Mali, the status as newcomers, outsid-
ers or strangers can create an association
with those who used to be slaves in the
past, and which has now come to define
have thus not necessarily meant that people have people as part of the “descendants of
”
changed their ideologies about social order, inequality slaves” of the local community.
and hierarchy. Indeed, the moral spaces of the Soninke
community have been strongly guarded and were
strongly reproduced in the diaspora. Whether living14 | FELLOW‘S R E PORT
So it was their status as newcomers, outsiders or SOCIAL MEDIA VERSUS COURT LANGUAGE
strangers that created their association with those
who used to be slaves in the past, and which has now Even though the courts are supposed to be neutral
come to define them as part of the “descendants of actors, they are in fact not. In a society where social
slaves” of the local community. This means they are hierarchies are not considered problematic and
also anachronistically called slaves and – depending inequality is part of everyday social organization,
on their location – are expected to provide virtually judges also operate on the ideology that people of
unpaid labor on ritual occasions, as well as part of slave status are of lesser value and have lesser rights.
their incomes and/or remittances for the support and On top of that, they can usually not pay (enough). This
benefit of “freeborn” groups. Over time, these injus- rigid status structure is so deeply entrenched in the
tices have not been addressed and Malian journalist society that even people in high positions who try to
Diallo qualified this silent social conflict as a “ticking denounce such discriminations risk being judged for
time bomb”. violating tradition. Slave status has been declared
officially inexistent in the region since the abolition
of slavery by external colonial forces in 1905, but it
BREAKING THE SILENCE THROUGH WHATSAPP has in actual practice been maintained and confirmed
in daily interactions. A long history of debates over
Ahmet, who is relatively rich but fully illiterate, social status in religious ideologies and Islamic legis-
started denouncing the worst forms of exploitation lative practice has been actively mobilized by differ-
against his group, including the systematic abuse of ent groups to either validate or nuance contemporary
married women with ascribed slave status, by people inequalities based on social status.
considered of “freeborn status”, thereby breaking the
silence and social taboos surrounding both social The court cases are now part of the struggle between
(slave) status and sexual interactions. His platform: pro and contra slavery or “historical freeborn” versus
WhatsApp voice messages and radio. His messages “slave” groups. Both groups (those with “freeborn”
were strongly contested and considered shocking by versus those with “slave” status) have been gathering
many, but nevertheless inspired some people with money among their respective diaspora members
ascribed slave status to address local politicians, ask- in order to bribe the judges and win the court cases.
ing them to stop worse forms of discrimination, such Paris-based informants have told me that even com-
as calling them by the anachronistic and pejorative munal village savings, made by all the active male
word kome (“slave” in the Soninke language). In some members of the village (both “freeborn” and of “slave”
communities this was granted. descent), had been confiscated by the “freeborn” to
bribe judges to their advantage. No court case so far
However, in several other places, for the so-called has been won by those with ascribed slave status.
“freeborn groups”, who have already seen their eco-
nomic power and privileges dwindling strongly over
the past decades, this was one step too many on the POLARIZATION AND LEXICONS OF SLAVERY
road of changing power relations. In some localities
(e.g. Kingui) a special unit of youngsters considered While on social media the language of slavery is
of freeborn status was installed to “guard” traditions very commonly used, with self-declared pro- and
and put the so-called “terrorist anti-slavery rebels” anti-slavery groups, in Malian courts use of the
in their place, even if this meant using violence. And vocabulary of slavery/servility is prohibited by law.
violence there was. Following the abolition of both the slave trade and
the internal African slave trade in French colonies in
In 2018, the Rassemblement Malien pour la Fraternite 1905, slavery was supposed to be over and therefore
et le Progres (RMFP, “Malian Association for Broth- mentioning the social status of a person (slave/mas-
erhood and Progress”), an association based in Paris ter) has become officially impossible with time. This
which fights against historical injustices in Soninke means that the social issues of stigma, legacies and
communities, wrote a memorandum in which at discrimination based on the slave past are not only
least 26 cases of persecution have been described, difficult, but officially illegal. Nevertheless, in some of
documented with videos and photos and reported to the 2018 court documents, the word “maîtres” (mas-
the police. Since the police often chose side with the ters) is openly used, while for the group of people with
“freeborn” political elites, some of these cases were slave status, the description “plaintiffs who [...] are
taken to the local courts thanks to the financial help restrained by circumstances of their attaining a lower
of family members in the diaspora. social status” is used.F E L LO W ‘ S R E PO RT | 15
“ The social issues of stigma, legacies and
discrimination based on the slave past
are not only difficult, but officially illegal.
Nevertheless, in some court documents,
Dr. Lotte Pelckmans
is an anthropologist,
interested in the cross-
the word maîtres (masters) is openly roads between Migration
”
used. and Slavery Studies. She
has been trained at Leiden
(NL) University and has
been working in Dutch, French, German
Secondly, people who are illiterate are usually not
and Danish Academia. Her work focuses
the principal actors in court: they need mediators, on rights and the intersecting social and
and these mediators choose sides and have their own spatial mobilities of people with slave
interests. The moral taboo on discussing the legacies status, conflict and social media, as well
of slavery is a societal one, which is translated into an as Anti-Slavery Movements in West Africa
institutional silence of the courts. As a result, there is and the West African diaspora. Her work
a “glass ceiling” of access for the victims. As long as has been published in Politique Africaine,
Journal of African History, Revue Euro-
there is no national law in the penal code legally crim-
péenne des migrations, and others.
inalizing the ongoing discrimination based on internal
legacies of slavery (such laws have been adopted in Based at the Centre for Advanced Mig-
neighboring Niger and Mauritania), judging the worst ration Studies at Copenhagen University
excesses of asymmetrical dependencies will remain (DK), she is currently associate professor
very difficult. and working on two research projects,
one focusing on court cases, literatures
and narratives of contemporary slavery
As long as such legal protections are not in place,
in Ghana (, the other one dealing with
Ahmet and some of his family members are in exile the long history of protracted (invisible)
and dare not to put one foot outside of the compound displacements related to (legacies of)
hosting them in the capital city of Bamako, for fear of descent-based slavery in Mali
being recognized by a Soninke person. They can only (slaveryforcedmigration.org).
envisage a return to their home village, where much
of their possessions have been destroyed, if legal Links
https://tinyurl.com/LottePelckmans
reform can back up their return from exile.
https://tinyurl.com/LPelckmans
E-Mail: pelckmans@hum.ku.dk16 | I NTE RVIE W
INTERVIEW: In our interview, Heinz Heinen Fellows STEFAN
“
BRINK and CAROLINE LASKE and guest researcher
OUR MOTIVES and Capes-Humboldt Research Fellow PAULO
FOR A CRUZ TERRA explain their motives for a research
stay in Germany, classify the research agenda of
RESEARCH STAY
”
our Cluster of Excellence, and evaluate their work
IN GERMANY during the corona virus crisis.
You have been Fellows or Guest is an individual task, and since the is to have four strands of research,
Researchers at the Bonn Center for teaching and supervision burden is the largest and most famous is
Dependency and Slavery Studies so heavy there, you do your research Mathematics, of course, due to the
(BCDSS) since October. What moti- either during a sabbatical, or, more long-time member Albert Einstein.
vated you to apply for – generally commonly, you apply for some I was attached to the History team.
speaking – doing research in Ger- scholarship, fellowship or external We all got an office of our own, fully
many? funding to buy some time for one equipped. We were told we had
to three years. The research envi- no obligation other than to do our
Paulo Cruz Terra: ronment at UK universities is not research and all the staff were there
What is attractive in Germany is the focused on seminars or workshops, to help us achieve that. Twice a week
massive investment in academia, instead daily life is totally focused there were voluntary seminars, of
and more specifically in the human- on undergraduate teaching which one was more of a lecture, or
ities, compared to other countries. informing of your research during
The Cluster of Excellence “Beyond In Scandinavia you should ideally a “working lunch” with some ques-
Slavery and Freedom” is a concrete have time to do research in your aca- tions afterwards. The other smaller
example of what could represent an demic position, especially if you are seminar, with a topic-focused group,
actual policy in terms of research a Professor. But it is also very com- was more of a workshop, with a pre-
since it supports innovative initia- mon to apply for a research project sentation of a topic or problem or a
tives. (especially in Sweden), where you text, and then an hour plus intensive
are in a team and in that team you discussion, chaired by a very knowl-
Stefan Brink: can devote normally two to three edgeable scholar. These seminars
I was not aware of the Bonn Center years to research on a specific topic, were extremely fruitful and produc-
for Dependency and Slavery Stud- which can be disseminated in arti- tive occasions, and ought to be a role
ies and its research profile, but was cles, conference volumes or a col- model for every IAS.
informed by a Bonn colleague of the lection of articles in an edited vol-
call, and it was recommended to me ume. You are advised that trying to As for Germany, I am not required
that I apply , since I have been work- get articles into prestigious journals to visit a weekly Higher Seminar
ing on Early Scandinavian slavery is very important. (maybe I am misled here), however I
for the last 25 years. have attended seminars focused on
The US system looks very much the PhD students with staff attend-
like the UK one, with a nearly total ing. As for the BCDSS, I think the IAS,
How does research in Germany focus on undergraduate teaching. Princeton, model could be very use-
differ from research in your home However, in the US there are sev- ful to adopt.
countries? Is there a difference? eral “Research Centers”, Institutes
of Advanced Studies, at the major Caroline Laske:
Stefan Brink: universities. My experience is from Germany has an excellent reputa-
Well, it depends on where this aca- the Institute of Advanced Studies, tion for encouraging, valuing and
demic research is taking place. The Princeton, which is considered to funding fundamental research.
normality, in the humanities, at e.g. be one of the most important IAS in As research budgets are being cut
a UK University, is that your research the world. The idea at IAS, Princeton, everywhere, the first area thatI N TE RV IE W | 17
tends to be affected is fundamental In your opinion, how does the Do you consider dependency and
research. Germany appears not to research agenda of the BCDSS fit slavery studies to be fundamental
go down that short-sighted avenue. into the current trends in depen- and important for understanding
dency and slavery research? Is it contemporary societies? And if so,
Paulo Cruz Terra: complementary or does it extend why?
The substantial difference between the research framework?
Brazil and Germany in terms of Stefan Brink:
research is the investment and Paulo Cruz Terra: Absolutely, since “asymmetrical
importance given to research by The research agenda of the BCDSS dependencies” are to be found in
the different governments. In Brazil, contributes to improving a current any society, now and in the past.
we are witnessing a considerable tendency in my field of study, Labor Studies of what is happening today
decrease in terms of public invest- History, which is moving beyond the are vital for a society that sees huge
ment in research, and there is also dichotomy of “slavery” and “free- migrations, which will affect many
not much private support there. The dom”. Actually, the BCDSS extends societies fundamentally, creating
actual government is downgrading it by proposing the key concept of social tension, trafficking, changes
the importance of science in gen- “strong asymmetrical dependency”. in workforce, begging, changing
eral, and frontally attacking the This concept helps, for example, minimum wage rules, growth of a
humanities – for example there was to rethink the analysis of different “precariat”, large groups of people
no funding for humanities subjects labor relations – like convict and never integrated into society. All
in the last public research programs. tributary labor, serfdom, etc. – in such things may lead to new and
Besides that, there are constant terms of investigating the connec- problematic asymmetrical depen-
attempts to constrain researchers’ tions and comparisons among dency structures in societies, espe-
freedom, like the project to limit the them. The research agenda of the cially in western welfare states,
authorization to leave the country BCDSS also extends the current ten- which “must” be rather “static” to
to participate in academic events. dency by including a diverse range function. And to face such changes,
Authoritarian initiatives that target of spaces and temporalities. It we need to better understand such
research are on the increase in Brazil. seems that the BCDSS will be, soon, societal trends by studying the past,
a reference on Labor History studies wherefore historical studies are as
and a crucial space of research in vital as contemporary ones.
“
this field.
Authoritarian initiatives Caroline Laske:
targeting research are on Stefan Brink: The research agenda of the BCDSS
the increase in my home In my opinion the BCDSS has the is highly interesting and very top-
country, Brazil. However, potential to be a, if not THE, lead- ical. It has found a hitherto unoc-
despite all precarious- ing research center, depending on cupied niche of extending slavery
ness, many Brazilian how the structure could be. At the studies, not only beyond the trans-
researchers are resilient moment my impression is the focus atlantic slavery trade phenomenon
”
and creative. is on the four Research Groups but also to include other forms of
with PhD students, writing their dependencies, which highlight that
dissertations. Then there is a lec- slavery is a continuum that can-
ture series with invited speakers, not necessarily be stowed away
Another important distinction is in informing us of ongoing research in a particular box. In the innova-
the university structures. In Brazil, in the field. The construction dif- tive nature of this approach lies a
there are significant regional dis- fers, hence, from many other Insti- very high potential for becoming a
crepancies between public universi- tutes of Advanced Studies, probably world leading research center that
ties, and some of them are incredibly depending on requisites stipulated puts slavery in a larger context.
precarious in terms of working con- in the Grant.
ditions. At the first university that I
worked, for example, the classroom If this two-sided construction
was a container. Despite all precar- shows to be useful and fruitful,
iousness, many Brazilian research- maybe a second step could be to
ers are resilient and creative, and in develop the non-PhD side of the
areas like slavery studies, the coun- BCDSS to a world-leading research
try has an important role to play. center, with invited fellows and
affiliated Bonn academics with
focused research groups and fre-
quent internal workshops.18 | I NTE RVIE W
This project I work on while at the Furthermore, the research is also
“
BCDSS contributes to decoding related to the Research Group “Law
The BCDSS has found asymmetrical dependencies by and the Creation of Dependency in
an unoccupied niche studying the legal status and legal the Ibero-Atlantic”. This research
of extending slavery capacity of secular women in late group devotes special attention to a
studies, not only beyond medieval England, Normandy, Flan- crucial point of my research, which
the transatlantic slavery ders and Saxony. The lack of legal is the process of reforms that nor-
trade phenomenon but capacity was the quintessential mative orders underwent during
also to include other expression of their inferior position the long nineteenth century, and
forms of dependencies, of dependency in society and in the how these reforms impacted on the
which highlight that eyes of the law. This is particularly construction of asymmetrical struc-
slavery is a continuum poignant in relation to the capacity tures of group dependencies.
that cannot necessarily to hold land, to dispose of property,
be stowed away in a to run a business, appear in a court of My work analyzes how legislation,
”
particular box. law etc., even if only on a temporary punishment and anti-vagrancy pol-
basis while their menfolk were away icies entangled with multiple labor
on crusades, tied up with feudal relations during the process of the
duties or fighting wars. In fact, mar- abolition of slavery. It centers on the
Paulo Cruz Terra: ried women frequently represented period 1850–1910 and addresses the
The current tendency of not only the family unit and were engaged in Lusophone world, with particular
privileging wage labor is essential to public business, either on their own foci in Brazil – which was part of the
emphasize the presence and inter- behalf and in their own name or on Portuguese Empire until 1822 – and
action of multiple labor relations in behalf of absent spouses. two of the most important colonies
contemporary societies. Contempo- of the Portuguese Empire in Africa
rary slavery, for example, is a reality The research aims to reveal the during this time frame: Mozambique
in many countries, including Brazil. extent of that legal dependency in and Angola. Consulting the legisla-
At the same time, by avoiding the real, rhetorical and linguistic terms. tion, and the debates connected to it,
dichotomy “slavery” and “freedom”, It involves examining the textual and I intend to investigate how the idea
it is possible to analyze the various semantic representation of women of vagrancy, and the punishment
degrees of coercion present in cur- in legal, quasi-legal and customary for it, shaped the implementation of
rent labor relations, including wage law texts, as well as in reports of new labor relations, and their reg-
labor. All this is crucial to under- (legal) disputes and private docu- ulations, after the abolition, which
standing the precariousness pres- ments such as wills, by using dia- were permeated by definitions of
ent in the worlds of labor today, and chronic linguistics and terminolog- class, gender, race and age.
has political importance in helping ical methodologies. This allows us
to denounce and fight against it. to go beyond content analysis and Stefan Brink:
get a better understanding of the I am studying the kind of slavery,
actual social experience of wom- dependencies and type of patronage
What are your main areas of re- en’s legal capacity by compounding found in early Scandinavian society
search, and how do your projects fit information and data from analysis (pre c. 1300). The period in question
into the BCDSS research agenda? of content, meanings, terminology is one of the most expansive and
and discourse and, hence, providing turbulent in Scandinavian history,
Caroline Laske: a contextualized understanding of with state formations, the Viking
My research lies at the intersection the dependencies in which women phenomenon, the emerging towns
of law, history and language, apply- existed in their daily lives. and a proto-urbanization, the mon-
ing linguistic analysis to the study etarization, the change of religion,
of legal history and legal concepts, Paulo Cruz Terra: the establishment of the Church,
comparative law and translation. I My research closely connects to the the introduction of a “feudal” sys-
research the linguistic expression of Research Group “Punishment, Labor, tem and so on. The question is, how
normative concepts and the contin- Dependency” as it addresses one of did slavery function, what did the
uous interaction between the way its issues, i.e. on the one hand where social fabric look like, what kind of
(customary) laws create meaning exactly to pinpoint punishment and dependencies are we aware of and
in language and how the normative labor at the intersection of gender, how repressive were they, how did
power of language creates realities class, ethnicity, race and age, and society change with the introduc-
in (customary) laws. on the other to determine how pun- tion of Christianity and the church
ishment and labor contribute to the organization, how did legal stat-
making of those categories. utes change with changing societalI N TE RV IE W | 19
roles? My research, as I see it, is at After almost six months: How What in particular have you been
the core of the proclaimed research do you assess the opportunities using your time in Bonn for?
objectives of BCDSS, analyzing offered to you in Bonn and at the
asymmetrical dependencies, such BCDSS? Paulo Cruz Terra:
as patronage, slavery, gender roles, For my research, I use the time to
even kingship. Stefan Brink: analyze the sources that I collected
I am most grateful for the oppor- about the legislation and debates
tunity to join BCDSS, and the time about abolition and labor regula-
How will you prepare and make spent in Bonn has been very reward- tion in Brazil and Portuguese Africa,
your research accessible after your ing and fruitful. I am of the opinion and to access the vast collection of
time at the BCDSS? that the BCDSS has the potential to Bonn’s University Library. It is also
be a leading research institution in beneficial to participate in BCDSS
Paulo Cruz Terra: the field. I must also add how much events, like lectures and workshops.
This specific research project I appreciate the help I have got from
started last year, and it will finish in the admin staff, Jan and Astrid. They Stefan Brink:
February 2022. My plan is to publi- have been absolutely brilliant. In principle during “office hours” I
cize the results in academic jour- have been reading and writing, and
nals, events and a final book by that Paulo Cruz Terra: also have had many fruitful infor-
date. But it is also of crucial impor- One of the greatest opportunities mal discussions with colleagues
tance to me to make the research offered by the BCDSS is the inten- and affiliated Bonn researchers. I
accessible to a wider audience. My sive exchange in multiple aspects. have also tried to engage in Uni-
intention is to organize a specific Exchange in terms of making it versity life, by attending seminars
webpage to publicize part of the possible to discuss my research at the university. During weekends,
data and results of the research. with people from different aca- I have tried to have a look around
Another essential objective is to demic backgrounds and diverse in the Bonn-Cologne region, and
produce a short movie with the out- parts of the world. Exchange also also to explore especially the Alt-
come. in the chance of debating academic stadt, and I have become very fond
works that address various tem- of both, and miss both now being in
Caroline Laske: poralities and spaces, which gave quarantine in Sweden.
During my six months at the BCDSS, me a chance enhance my work. The
I have studied the textual and BCDSS also enables professional
semantic representation of women exchange. I could make new con- In times of corona – are you cur-
in the thirteenth-century manu- tacts and be involved in the organi- rently able to advance your
script Le Très Ancien Coutumier de zation of academic events, like the research well? What is lacking and
Normandie. The write-up of that one about slavery in Brazil, another what could possibly work better
study is ready and I hope it will be one concerned with punishment than in normal university life?
published in the BCDSS publication and labor, and finally a movie festi-
series before the end of this year. I val. It also provides contacts that go Stefan Brink:
am also planning a second paper beyond the BCDSS, which generates I am able to continue to work, since
studying other sources before the partnerships for events and pub- I live in the Swedish university town
end of my fellowship. lications. It is clear to me that the Uppsala with a very good library,
time at the BCDSS is already a turn- which I am able to use, since Swe-
Stefan Brink: ing point in my career, and I wish to den has taken this rather unique
The research I have done during the keep the collaboration and contact path of keeping society more or less
autumn, winter and early spring, in the future. open. However, it is difficult to find
namely to finalize a book Thraldom. the necessary discipline, which I had
A History of Slavery in the Viking Age while working in Heussallee, but
“
has been in production with Oxford now in quarantine I am surrounded
University Press since early April, It is clear to me that the by family and all the everyday mat-
for publication in late autumn. I am time at the BCDSS is ters which distract you. But most
at the moment working with the already a turning point of all I miss the informal talks and
earliest Scandinavian laws, analyz- in my career, and I wish discussions with colleagues, and
ing social dependencies, and will to keep the collaboration the possibility of total, undisturbed
disseminate this research in one or and contact in the focus on my work.
”
a couple of articles. future.You can also read
