Contemporary African Political Economy Series Editor Eunice N. Sahle University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Contemporary African Political Economy

                Series Editor
               Eunice N. Sahle
  University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
           Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Series Editor Eunice N. Sahle is Associate Professor with a joint appointment
in the Department of African, African American and Diaspora Studies and
the Curriculum in Global Studies at the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, USA.
Advisory Board: Bertha O. Koda, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania;
Brij Maharaj, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa; Thandika
Mkandawire, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK;
Cassandra Veney, United States International University-Africa, Kenya;
John Pickles, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA; and
Wisdom J. Tettey, University of British Columbia, Canada. Contemporary
African Political Economy (CAPE) publishes social science research that
examines the intersection of political, social, and economic processes in
contemporary Africa. The series is distinguished especially by its focus on
the spatial, gendered, and cultural dimensions of these processes, as well as
its emphasis on promoting empirically situated research. As consultancy-­
driven work has emerged in the last two decades as the dominant model of
knowledge production about African politics and economy, CAPE offers
an alternate intellectual space for scholarship that challenges theoretical and
empirical orthodoxies and locates political and economic processes within
their structural, historical, global, and local contexts. As an interdisciplinary
series, CAPE broadens the field of traditional political economy by
welcoming contributions from the fields of Anthropology, Development
Studies, Geography, Health, Law, Political Science, Sociology and Women’s
and Gender Studies. The Series Editor and Advisory Board particularly
invite submissions focusing on the following thematic areas: urban
processes; democracy and citizenship; agrarian structures, food security,
and global commodity chains; health, education, and development;
environment and climate change; social movements; immigration and
African diaspora formations; natural resources, extractive industries, and
global economy; media and socio-political processes; development and
globalization; and conflict, displacement, and refugees.

More information about this series at
http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14915

Catherine Lena Kelly

 Party Proliferation
    and Political
Contestation in Africa
   Senegal in Comparative Perspective

Catherine Lena Kelly
American Bar Association Rule of Law Initiative
Washington, DC, USA

Contemporary African Political Economy
ISBN 978-3-030-19616-5    ISBN 978-3-030-19617-2                            (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19617-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © J. Ruscello / Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To my families in Dakar and Lawrence, with special thanks to Baaba
              Diallo and my mother Mary Byrd Kelly.

Foreword

What are the roles and functions of political parties in the complex democ-
racies of Africa? For those immersed in the political practices of Western
democracies, the temptation may be to apply Western models and assump-
tions to answer the question. Granted, to a limited degree this approach
would be correct: in Africa as elsewhere the political party serves as the
basic building block of civic engagement and political activity. So, too, the
active presence of several parties is one of the identifying characteristics of
a functioning democracy (so much so that the term “multi-party democ-
racy” is, when examined, somewhat a redundancy). But to assume that
political party behavior in Africa models that of parties in the West would
be a profound mistake. As Catherine Kelly demonstrates in Party
Proliferation and Political Contestation in Africa: Senegal in Comparative
Perspective, the reality is much more complex.
   Dr. Kelly’s successful effort to unpack that complexity begins by tracing
the phenomenon of political party proliferation in Senegal. After indepen-
dence in 1960, Senegal was a single-party authoritarian state ruled by the
Socialist Party. In the mid-1970s, the president permitted the first “party
of contribution” to the ruling Socialist Party (1974) and allowed for the
establishment of three ideologically distinct parties (1976). When unlim-
ited party formation became legal in 1981, 14 parties registered to com-
pete in the newfound political space. Today, party formation has accelerated
and there are nearly 300 registered parties in Senegal.
   As these elevated numbers suggest, the research challenge confronting
the effort to understand Senegalese party dynamics was inherently daunt-
ing. The challenge was nonetheless met: Party Proliferation is the deeply

                                                                            vii

viii   FOREWORD

and meticulously researched product of 18 months of intensive fieldwork
in Senegal and almost 175 interviews of political elites (party leaders, min-
isters, Members of Parliament, human rights activists, journalists, trade
union members, and local elected officials) along with various forms of
archival research and data-gathering. Among those interviewed were 46
individuals who had registered new political parties in Senegal from 1998
to 2003, critical primary sources who were difficult to identify and locate.
    The important core findings of Party Proliferation are key to an under-
standing of Senegalese politics and help illuminate party politics elsewhere
in Africa. Dr. Kelly writes that “while the logics of party creation are mul-
tiple and various opposition parties in Senegal are created to contest elec-
tions, many other party leaders run organizations that function primarily
to obtain patronage that does not depend on regularized vote-seeking.”
And, she further notes: “Political parties formed primarily for negotiating
patronage rarely become the consistent opposition organizations that are
purported to bolster democracy and accountability.”
    These findings have clear implications for the rule of law. The extreme
proliferation of political parties weakens the party system. As is the case in
Senegal, the proliferation of patronage-seeking political parties has con-
tributed in many cases to the prolongation of the rule of all-too-powerful
presidents by reducing and diffusing the ability of the political party sys-
tem to mount an effective opposition to such rule. This imbalance and
unchecked power has led to numerous setbacks in the rule of law and, at
times, the promotion of human rights.
    Party Proliferation is a well-written and interesting book that advances
the understanding of the role of political parties beyond those that have
successfully placed candidates in elected office. While focused on Senegal,
the book has direct relevance to political and rule of law development in
many other countries. With this publication, Dr. Kelly has performed a
public service and notched a significant achievement.

American Bar Association
Alberto                 Mora
Chicago, IL, USA
Carr Center for Human Rights Policy
Harvard Kennedy School
Cambridge, MA, USA

Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the support of several
organizations and many people from Lawrence, Kansas, to the Cité Cap
Verdienne in Dakar. Parts of the book began as my doctoral dissertation
project in the Harvard University Department of Government, where I
had the pleasure to learn from many friends, advisors, and colleagues. I
was so lucky to have Steve Levitsky as my dissertation committee chair and
intellectual mentor during my years on campus and in the field. Steve saw
potential and merit in the project from its early stages, challenged me to
think about it cleverly and creatively, and made my time at Harvard the
most rigorous and worthwhile learning experience that it could be. I truly
could not have done it without him! Nahomi Ichino, Jorge Dominguez,
and Leonardo Villalón offered very valuable insights and critiques as
members of my dissertation committee, as well as some formative oppor-
tunities to conduct research and contribute to workshops in West Africa.
   Many colleagues deserve thanks for enriching conversations and advice
along the way: Leonardo Arriola, Kojo Asante, Zachary Barter, Mindie
Bernard, Jaimie Bleck, Jeff Borns, Colin Brown, Edouard Bustin, Carlos
Costa, El Hadji Samba Amadou Diallo, Claire Duguid, Katie Levine
Einstein, Gerald Early, Dan Eizenga, Alex Fattal, Sheena Chestnut
Greitens, Shelby Grossman, Omar Guèye, Andy Harris, Mai Hassan,
Martha Johnson, Shashank Joshi, Eddy Lazzarin, Adrienne LeBas, Jamie
Loxton, Jordan Long, Timothy Meyer, Lisa Muller, Fallou Ngom, George
Ofosu, Chika Ogawa, Jeffrey Paller, Matthew Page, Tim Parsons, Amanda
Pinkston, Rachel Riedl, Viri Rios, Andy Sobel, Alex Thurston, Rebecca
Vernon, Jason Warner, Martha Wilfahrt, Susanna Wing, and Fadzilah

                                                                        ix

x   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Yahaya. Two very special people, Itai Sened and the late Victor LeVine,
got me started on political science and African studies in the first place. I
also appreciate the collegiality extended to me by academics and practitio-
ners in Dakar and Saint Louis, especially Mamadou Ciss, El Hadji Omar
Diop, Ismaïla Madior Fall, Babaly Sall, El Hadj Mbodj, Issa Sall, and
Abdoulaye Thiam.
    I am grateful for financial support from Harvard University’s
Weatherhead Center for International Affairs and the US Department of
Education’s Title VI Foreign Language and Area Studies Fellowship,
which together facilitated 15 months of field research in Senegal. Thanks
are also due to the Harvard Committee on General Scholarships, which
facilitated a subsequent research year at Sciences-Po in Paris, France; to
Professor Robert Mattes, who recruited me onto the Senegal research
team for the African Legislatures Project during my fieldwork; and to the
American Political Science Association Africa Workshop on religion and
politics, which provided a venue to explore portions of the arguments in
this book with American and African mentors and peers in Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso, in summer 2013. A research grant from the West Africa
Research Association in summer 2015 provided the much-needed oppor-
tunity to return to Senegal for three additional months to collect data on
the Senegalese Democratic Party and political developments under Macky
Sall. Led by Professor Ousmane Sène, the Center was an enriching institu-
tion of affiliation both during this fellowship and on earlier legs of
the research.
    Wolof language training from the Baobab Center, the Dakar Language
Center, and the Harvard University African Languages Program, from my
beloved instructors Lamine Diallo, Mbouillé Diallo, Assane Diallo, and
Ismaila Massaly, were instrumental in improving the quality of my work
and making my time in Senegal enjoyable. The Diallos, along with
Ibrahima Fall and Mbouillé, became my second family while I lived and
worked in Dakar over the years. Baaba’s tremendous generosity to wel-
come me into the family home every day, including for many a plate of
thiebu jen “Penda Mbaye,” showed me what Senegalese teranga really is.
Profound logistical and substantive pointers from Oumar and Fall, sisterly
guidance from Tabara, and years of Wolof training from Lamine were
transformative, too. I am also grateful for my friendships with others in the
community, including the Ndieguène family, Abdou Karim, and my many
friendly and generous neighbors (among them, Abdoulaye, Mor,
Ousmane, Paa Sy, René, and the Wades), and the mechanics near the

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS        xi

National Assembly who became cherished unforeseen friends and Wolof
conversation partners.
   My family and friends from the United States have also contributed in
immeasurable ways to my pursuit of a research career and the book writing
process. My parents, Mary Byrd Kelly and Van Kelly, have provided too
many kinds of inspiration and support to enumerate here. My sister, Laura,
gave encouragement and insights that were indispensable at a few critical
moments. And what would I have done without many delightful friends
along the way, especially those who knew me long before we’d have ever
guessed I’d write this.
   In the pages that follow, portions of Chaps. 1 and 5 draw from my
article, “Senegal: What Will Turnover Bring?” which appeared in the July
2012 issue of the Journal of Democracy. Parts of Chap. 4, as well as small
elements of Chaps. 1, 2, and 3, were originally published in “Party
Proliferation and Trajectories of Opposition: Comparative Evidence from
Senegal” in the January 2018 issue of Comparative Politics and are
reprinted with the journal’s permission.
   Last but certainly not least, I am extremely thankful to the Senegalese
politicians, civil society leaders, journalists, and academics who were will-
ing to be interviewed and consulted for the project. The translations of
French-language quotes into English are my own. All remaining errors in
the manuscript are my own.
   Furthermore, the statements and analysis expressed are solely mine in
my individual capacity, not those of any institutions with which I am affili-
ated. They have not been approved by the House of Delegates or the
Board of Governors of the American Bar Association and do not represent
the position or policy of the American Bar Association.

Praise for Party Proliferation and Political
                   Contestation in Africa

“Having twice experienced a turnover in power following the defeat of incum-
bents in presidential elections, Senegal has been widely hailed as a model of
democracy in Africa. Yet the country continues to intrigue and puzzle analysts for
its unexpected political dynamics. Prime among these are the striking proliferation
of parties that do not conform to expected logics of party politics, and the failure
to institutionalize the party system. In the consequent debate on the nature of
Senegalese democracy, Kelly offers an explanation for this phenomenon within the
theoretical framework of ‘competitive authoritarianism.’ Building on a wealth of
data gathered from interviews over a year and a half of fieldwork, she offers a fine-­
grained and nuanced empirical examination of the logic of party creation and the
dynamics of party trajectories over a quarter century of democratic experimenta-
tion. This book will be of high interest not only for those attempting to make
sense of the intriguing Senegalese case, but more broadly for those interested in
the surprising patterns of party politics in African democratization.”
           —Leonardo A. Villalón, Professor and Dean, University of Florida, USA

“An analytical treasure trove, this book takes our understanding of Senegal’s idio-
syncratic democracy to a whole new level. In it, Kelly skillfully explains the intrica-
cies and inner workings of Senegal’s ever-evolving democratic system, sharing her
expert knowledge with us, the readers. A must-read for political scientists and
Africanists alike, this book shows us why Senegal stands out as an especially useful
and salient case study of political party formation and proliferation.”
    —Matthew T. Page, Associate Fellow, Africa Programme, Chatham House, UK

“This important book tells us why and how party proliferation occurs, as politi-
cians create new parties, rather than remaining loyal or collaborating with existing
options. Kelly makes the case that this is costly for democracy and accountability.
When parties function primarily as vehicles for negotiating patronage rather than
long-term electoral mobilization, there are adverse consequences for oppositional
strategies, candidate selection, and elite defection. A critical book for scholarship
and policy on political parties, democracy, and governance in the region.”
      —Rachel Beatty Riedl, Director of Program on African Studies and Associate
                         Professor of Political Science, Northwestern University, USA

                                                                                   xiii

xiv   PRAISE FOR PARTY PROLIFERATION AND POLITICAL CONTESTATION IN AFRICA

“In this deeply researched and highly accessible book, Kelly takes up a vital ques-
tion in the study of contemporary Africa – why are there so many political parties?
In the course of her masterful examination of Senegal, a prominent African democ-
racy, Kelly challenges conventional assumptions about how political parties work
and what they want. By showing the patterns underlying Senegal’s hundreds of
parties and its long history of defections and realignments, she sheds crucial light
on broader issues related to how democratic experiments unfold. This excellent
study will have wide relevance for researchers, students, and policymakers working
on Africa – as well as for anyone interested in understanding emerging democra-
cies around the world.”
         —Alexander Thurston, Visiting Assistant Professor of Political Science and
                             Comparative Religion, Miami University of Ohio, USA

Contents

1	Introduction: Party Proliferation and Its Consequences in
    Senegal and Beyond  1

2	Theories of Party-Building: Africa, Competitive
    Authoritarianism, and Democracy 29

3	Party Formation and Proliferation on Senegal’s Uneven
    Playing Field 59

4	Negotiators or Adversaries? Tracing the Sources of Party
    Trajectories 97

5	Defeating Presidents from Within: Regime Insiders and
    Turnover in Senegal137

6	Party Loyalty and Defection from the Ruling Party Under
    Proliferation173

7	Conclusion and Notes on Comparative and Policy
    Perspectives on Party Proliferation in Africa211

Index231

                                                           xv

Abbreviations

AFP                  Alliance of Forces for Progress / Alliance des Forces du
                     Progrès
AJ/PADS              And-Jëf/African Party for Democracy and Socialism /
                     And-Jëf/Parti Africain pour la Démocratie et
                     Socialisme
AND                  National Alliance for Democracy / Alliance Nationale
                     pour la Démocratie
ANOCI                National Agency for the Organization of the Islamic
                     Conference / Agence Nationale de l’Organisation de
                     la Conférence Islamique
APL/Dog bumu gacce   Patriotic Action for Liberation / Action Patriotique
                     pour la Libération
APR                  Alliance for the Republic / Alliance pour la
                     République
ASECNA               Agency for Aerial Navigation Safety in Africa and
                     Madagascar / Agence pour la Sécurité de la Navigation
                     Aérienne en Afrique et à Madagascar
BBY                  United in Hope / Bennoo Bokk Yakaar
BCEAO                Central Bank of the West African States / Banque
                     Centrale des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest
BCG                  Centrist Bloc Lions / Bloc Centristes Gaïndé
BDS                  Senegalese Democratic Bloc / Bloc Démocratique
                     Sénégalais
BGG                  Common Vision / Bokk Gis Gis
BP                   Political Bureau / Bureau Politique
BPS                  Senegalese Popular Bloc / Bloc Populaire Sénégalais

                                                                         xvii

xviii   ABBREVIATIONS

Cap 21                  Coalition Around the President for the 21st Century /
                        Coalition autour du président pour la 21ème siècle
CD                      Directing Committee / Comité Directeur
CD-BGG                  Democratic Convergence/Common Vision /
                        Convergence Démocratique-Bokk Gis Gis
CDP/Garab gi            Convention of Democrats and Patriots/The Remedy /
                        Convention des Démocrates et Patriotes
CDS                     Social and Democratic Convention / Convention
                        Démocratique et Sociale
CEJECAS                 Circle of Young Socialist Professionals / Cercle des
                        Jeunes Cadres Socialistes
CNCAS                   National Agricultural Credit Accounts of Senegal /
                        Caisse Nationale de Crédit Agricole du Sénégal
CRAES                   Council for Economic and Social Affairs / Conseil de
                        la République pour les Affaires Economiques et Sociales
CREI                    Court of the Repression of Illicit Enrichment / Cour
                        de la Répression d’Enrichissement Illicite
CSM                     Senegalese Council of Magistrates / Conseil Supérieur
                        de la Magistrature
DC                      Citizens’ Democracy / Démocratie Citoyenne
DIC                     Division of Criminal Investigation / Division des
                        Investigations Criminelles
ECOWAS                  Economic Community of West African States
ENA                     National Administration School / Ecole Nationale
                        d’Administration
ENP                     Effective Number of Parties
FAL                     Front for Change / Front pour l’Alternance
FDP                     Front for Democracy and Progress / Front pour la
                        Démocratie et le Progrès
FP                      Popular Front / Front Populaire
FSD/BJ                  Democratic and Social Front / Front Démocratique et
                        Sociale/Benno Jubel
FSR/Laabal              Social Front for Restoration / Front Social pour la
                        Restauration/Laabal
GC                      Generation of the Concrete / Génération du Concret
GP                      The Great Party / Le Grand Parti
HCCT                    High Council of Local Authorities / Haut Conseil de
                        Collectivités Territoriales
JPA                     Youth for Turnover / Jeunesse pour l’Alternance
LD/MPT                  Democratic League-Movement for the Workers’ Party /
                        Ligue Démocratique/ Mouvement pour le Parti du
                        Travail

ABBREVIATIONS     xix

LDR          Republican Liberal Democrats / Libéraux Démocrates
             Républicains/Yessal
M23          June 23 Movement / Mouvement du 23 juin
MCR          Movement for Citizenship and the Republic /
             Mouvement pour la Citoyenneté et la République
MDS/NJ       Movement for Democracy and Socialism / Mouvement
             pour la Démocratie et le Socialisme/Naxx Jarinu
MLPS         Liberal Movement for the Senegalese People /
             Mouvement Libéral du Peuple Sénégalais
MMD          Movement for Multiparty Democracy
MNSM         Movement of Servants of the Masses / Mouvement
             National de Serviteurs des Masses
MPD/Liggey   Movement for Democracy and Work / Mouvement
             pour la Démocratie/Liggeey
MPS          People’s Movement for Socialism / Mouvement
             Populaire Socialiste
MRDS         Movement for Social and Democratic Reform /
             Mouvement pour la Réforme Démocratique et Sociale
MRS          Senegalese Republican Movement / Mouvement
             Républicain Sénégalais
MSU          Movement for Socialism and Unity / Mouvement pour
             le Socialisme et l’Unité
OIF          International Organization of Francophonie /
             Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
PAI          African Independence Party / Parti Africain de
             l’Indépendance
Parena       African Renaissance Party / Parti de la Rénaissance
             Africaine
PCA          Chairman of the Board / Président du Conseil
             d’Administration
PCRs         Presidents of rural communities / Présidents des
             Communuautés Rurales
PDS          Senegalese Democratic Party / Parti Démocratique
             Sénégalais
PDS/R        Senegalese Democratic Party/Renewal / Parti
             Démocratique Sénégalais/Rénovation
PEP          Party for Hope and Progress / Parti de l’Espoir et du
             Progrès
PETROSEN     Senegalese Petroleum Company / Société des Pétroles
             du Sénégal
PF           Patriotic Front
PH           Humanist Party / Parti Humaniste

xx    ABBREVIATIONS

PIT                   Party of Independence and Workers / Parti de
                      l’Indépendance et du Travail
PLP                   Party of People’s Liberation / Parti pour la Libération
                      du Peuple
PLS                   Senegalese Liberal Party / Parti Libéral Sénégalais
PPC                   Party for Progress and Citizenship / Parti pour le
                      Progrès et la Citoyenneté
PPS                   Senegalese Popular Party / Parti Populaire Sénégalais
PR                    Reform Party / Parti de la Réforme
PRC                   Party of Renaissance and Citizenship / Parti de la
                      Renaissance et de la Citoyenneté
PS                    Socialist Party / Parti Socialiste
PSD/Jant bi           Social Democratic Party / Parti Social Démocrate/
                      Jant bi
PSP                   Senegalese Party of Progress / Parti Sénégalais du
                      Progrès
RADDHO                African Assembly of Human Rights / Rencontre
                      Africaine pour la Défense des Droits de l’Homme
RDS                   Assembly of Senegalese Democrats / Rassemblement
                      Démocratique Sénégalais
RES-Les Verts         Senegalese Ecological Assembly- The Greens /
                      Rassemblement Ecologique du Sénégal-Les Verts
RND                   National Democratic Assembly / Rassemblement
                      Nationale Démocratique
RPM                   Rally for Mali / Rassemblement pour le Mali
RPS/Jammi Rewmi       Senegalese Patriotic Assembly / Union Patriotique
                      Sénégalais/Jammi Rewmi
RTA/S                 Assembly of African Workers – Senegal /
                      Rassemblement des Travailleurs Africains – Sénégal
RUP                   Assembly for Unity and Peace / Rassemblement pour
                      l’Unité et la Paix
SDE                   Senegalese Water Company / Sénégalaise des Eaux
SOMICOA               Maritime Industrial Society of the West Coast of Africa /
                      Société Maritime et Industrielle de la Côte Occidentale de
                      l’Afrique
SUTELEC               Single Union of Electrical Workers / Syndicat Unique
                      des Travailleurs de l’Electricité
UDF/Mboolo mi         Union for Democracy and Federalism / Union pour la
                      Démocratie et le Fédéralisme/Mboolo mi
UDFPP                 Democratic Union of Progressive and Patriotic Forces /
                      Union Démocratique des Forces Progressistes Patriotiques

Abbreviations    xxi

UFPE      Union of Emerging Patriotic Forces / Union des
          Forces Patriotiques Emergentes
UJT       Union of Young Laborers / Union des Jeunesses
          Travaillistes
UNDP      National Union for Democracy and Progress
UNESCO    United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
          Organization
UNP       National Union for the People/Success / Union
          Nationale pour le Peuple/Tekki
UPC       United People’s Congress
UPR       Union for the Republic / Union pour la République
UPS       Senegalese Progressive Union / Union Progressiste
          Sénégalais
URD       Union for Democratic Renewal / Union pour le
          Rénouveau Démocratique
URD/FAL   Union for Democratic Renewal/Front for Turnover /
          Union pour le Rénouveau Démocratique /Front de
          l’Alternance
YAW       Path of the People / Yoonu Askan wi

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1   Patterns of party proliferation by country                    2
Fig. 4.1   Factors shaping party trajectories over time                102
Fig. 5.1   Economic conditions at successful and failed alternations   152
Fig. 6.1   Party label changes over time                               187

                                                                        xxiii

List of Tables

Table 3.1   Parties running on their label in national races, by degree of
            contestation65
Table 3.2   Presidential co-optation of new parties, 1998–2003             74
Table 4.1   Frequencies of party trajectories by endowment combinations 114
Table 4.2   Frequencies of trajectories of parties with vote-mobilizing
            potential117
Table 4.3   List of parties by levels of each endowment                   118
Table 4.4   Case studies                                                  119
Table 5.1   Insiders and outsiders with over 5% of the vote, 1993–2012    142
Table 5.2   Features of incumbent re-election and turnover in Senegal     154
Table 6.1   Trajectories of former PDS ministers in mid-2015              184

                                                                          xxv