Chemistry, party pills and clandestine laboratories or "Whose responsibility is it to make the world idiot-proof?"
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Chemistry Eduction in New Zealand August 2010
Chemistry, party pills and clandestine laboratories or “Whose
responsibility is it to make the world idiot-proof?”
Keith R. Bedford and Robyn F. Somerville
Institute of Environmental Science and Research (ESR) Limited, Private Bag 92 021, Auckland
(email: keith.bedford@esr.cri.nz; robyn.somerville@esr.cri.nz)
Improvising solutions to problems, sometimes re-
ferred to as the “number 8 wire” approach, is often
portrayed as a New Zealand national characteristic.
In the illicit drug field there is some evidence to sup-
port this perception. The original “homebake” her-
oin phenomenon was one distinctive feature of the
New Zealand drug scene. Homebake “cooks” were
able to develop a viable method of converting co-
deine extracted from over-the-counter pharmaceuti-
cal products to morphine, and from there to heroin. Fig. 1: Pie-chart showing methamphetamine purity
The method utilised very simple equipment and ba-
sic chemical reagents (Bedford et al., 1987). This
yl maltol, a common confectionary flavouring agent
method, now little-encountered, remains unique to
which imparts a sweet caramel-like smell, has also
New Zealand, although expatriate New Zealanders
been identified in some samples.
carried it overseas to a limited extent, for example to
parts of Australia. Publicity is sometimes given to law enforcement
agency interceptions of “ice” or “crystal meth”,
Further examples of “kiwi ingenuity” in the drug
with dire warnings about the danger of this form of
scene appeared with the emergence of methamphet-
methamphetamine. “Ice” or “crystal meth” is meth-
amine clandestine laboratories in NZ. The first such
amphetamine HCl that has been recrystallised in the
laboratory in NZ was encountered in 1996. These
form of large crystals. Any difference in purity be-
types of laboratories are usually referred to as “meth
tween “ice” and most samples of “P” analysed at
labs” or more generally “clan labs”. Prior to 1996 the
ESR is insignificant and would have no material im-
limited amount of “street” methamphetamine avail-
pact on potential adverse effects.
able in NZ was of low purity (commonly less than
5%), and was likely to have been imported and then Methamphetamine is often distributed in small plas-
“cut” (diluted) before being sold on the street. Local tic self sealing bags commonly called: “point bags”.
manufacture of methamphetamine led to a dramatic These are reputed to contain 100 milligrams or point
increase in its purity and the product acquired the one (0.1) of a gram, hence the slang term (Fig. 2).
street name “P”, derived from “pure”. The majority Methamphetamine is most commonly smoked (the
of the local product was not adulterated or diluted, HCl salt is relatively volatile) although may be tak-
and contained greater than 75% of the drug, calcu- en orally or injected. Smokers of methamphetamine
lated as the equivalent in the free base form (Fig. 1). typically use a glass pipe. These “meth pipes” often
Since almost all methamphetamine is distributed in appear to be homemade or improvised, perhaps an-
the form of the hydrochloride salt, which has a puri- other example of the No. 8 wire approach! (Fig. 3).
ty of approximately 80% when expressed in terms of
the equivalent free base content, “greater that 75%”
represents near-pure product. Some drug abuse spe-
cialists have argued that “P” should be treated as a
different drug from the much more dilute form of the
drug commonly used until the late 1990s, because of
its more severe adverse effects.
That said, recently increasing numbers of meth-
amphetamine samples analysed by ESR have been
found to have been diluted with the “health food”
product methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), also known
as methylsulfone or dimethylsulfone (DMSO2). Eth- Fig. 2: Point bags of methamphetamine
2Chemistry Education in New Zealand August 2010
evidence of a reduction in the availability of meth-
amphetamine at street level. The causes for the ob-
served fall in clan labs may include a combination of
laboratories being harder to find and/or of increased
direct imports of the final product.
More recently small-scale reaction vessels have
been encountered in NZ. These are improvised
versions of a “Parr bomb” into which the reaction
mixture is poured, the vessel sealed and then heated
strongly (Fig. 5). [Professor S. W. Parr (1857-1931)
was one of the first University of Illinois chemists to
specialise in industrial chemistry. He was involved
Fig. 3: Glass smoking pipes for methamphetamine in coal research and developed bomb calorimetry
leading to use of the name “Parr bomb”. See histori-
There are many synthetic routes used to manufacture cal note available online at: http://www.chemistry.il-
methamphetamine. One relatively simple method linois.edu/about/history/parr.html (accessed 14 July
used is the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephed- 2010).]
rine with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, which
is commonly referred to as the HI/red P method. Given the improvised nature of many of these ves-
In NZ the most commonly encountered method is sels, the description of “bomb” may not be far from
a variant of the method, involving the reduction of the truth! A variation that has been encountered
pseudoephedrine with hypophosporous acid and io- overseas is a version of the ephedrine/lithium in liq-
dine, or with red phosphorus, iodine and water (Fig. uid ammonia reaction that is carried out in plastic
4). Internationally other synthetic routes use a va- drink bottles.
riety of starting materials (or precursors) such as
ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, phenyl-2-propanone
(P2P) or benzyl chloride, with an appropriate reac-
tion chemistry based on reactions involving:
• Lithium in liquid ammonia, or
• Thionyl chloride followed by catalytic hydroge- Fig. 5: “Parr bomb”
nation, or
Illicit drug laboratories are typically concealed, fre-
• Methylamine with a wide variety of other pos- quently in confined spaces and often use improvised
sible reagents. equipment. Power and water supplies may be unsafe
and/or unreliable. The frequent lack of chemical
knowledge of typical “cooks”, who may simply be
following a recipe, means that investigating a sus-
pected clan lab scene is potentially hazardous. ESR
Fig. 4: Reaction scheme: pseudoephedrine to metham- “clan lab investigating chemists” are part of a com-
phetamine bined, multi-agency team including Police and Fire
Services, in which the investigating personnel wear
These manufacturing methods or synthesis path-
protective clothing (offering fire and chemical resis-
ways are in general very different to the HI/red P
tance) and use breathing apparatus while assessing
route. Some require a higher level of chemistry skill.
and dismantling the scene.
Some of these syntheses are suitable for “industrial
scale” clandestine laboratories and a worrying trend Pseudoephedrine is the main precursor for the il-
internationally is the emergence of so-called “super licit manufacture of methamphetamine in NZ. In the
labs” capable of producing tonnes of methamphet- past it has been relatively readily available in many
amine. Some of these methods are not easily carried over-the-counter pharmaceutical preparations that
out in a home environment, which is typical of the are intended for the treatment of symptoms of colds
current NZ clan lab scene. and influenza. The diversion of these preparations
containing pseudoephedrine for the illicit manufac-
The number of clandestine methamphetamine lab-
ture of methamphetamine has been a problem. These
oratories encountered annually in New Zealand
preparations have often been purchased by “pill
peaked in 2005/6 at approximately 250. It has been
shoppers” who visit many pharmacies. More recent-
trending down since, although there is no definitive
3Chemistry Eduction in New Zealand August 2010
ly, the smuggling of bulk pseudoephedrine precur- of pseudoephedrine-containing medications with a
sor product from overseas has been a major issue. prescription. It was noted that an alternative nasal
New Zealand Customs has intercepted hundreds of decongestant, phenylephrine, already had an esti-
kilograms of pseudoephedrine, mainly in the form mated 70% or more of the over-the-counter market
of a preparation readily available over the counter for cold and flu type treatments, effectively reducing
in China known as ContacNT. Both the ContacNT the need for cold-sufferers’ access to pseudoephed-
capsules and the loose granules from within the cap- rine. The recommendations of this report are in the
sules are frequently seen (Fig. 6). process of being implemented.
At the same time that this report was being prepared,
the Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD)
provided advice to the Minister of Health that was
broadly consistent with the Gluckman report. EACD
advises the Minister of Health about scheduling
drugs and/or substances. In NZ the framework to
control and regulate the availability of medicines,
drugs and substances that may be misused is pro-
vided by the:
• Medicines Act and Regulations: Substances not
listed in the appropriate schedules cannot be mar-
keted as medicines;
• Misuse of Drugs Act and Regulations: Cover
medicines for which an increased level of control
is considered necessary and substances that are
prohibited because of risk or history of misuse.
Substances not listed are not controlled, although
there is a special provision covering “controlled
drug analogues”, which is explained later in this
paper.
The New Zealand Misuse of Drugs Act (MoDA)
contains a number of schedules to provide varying
levels of control and penalties under the Act. The
matters to be considered by the EACD in providing
advice are:
• The likelihood or evidence of drug abuse;
• Specific effects of the drug, including pharmaco-
logical, psychoactive and toxicological effects;
• The risks, if any, to public health;
• The therapeutic value of the drug, if any;
Fig. 6: Bulk ContacNT seizures • The potential for the drug to cause death;
• The ability of the drug to create physical or psy-
In 2009 Professor Sir Peter Gluckman, the Prime
chological dependence;
Minister’s Chief Science Advisor, was asked to re-
port on various issues relating to the “methamphet- • The international classification and experience of
amine problem”, including restricting the availabili- the drug in other jurisdictions;
ty of pseudoephedrine in New Zealand. He estimated • Any other matters that the Minister considers rel-
that 10-30% of the precursor supply is of domestic evant.
origin. As a consequence his report recommended
rescheduling of pseudoephedrine under the NZ Mis- Drugs and other substances are assessed and then
use of Drugs Act (MoDA) from Class C3, over-the- recommendations may be made on the basis that
counter and prescription supply status, to a Class B2 substances considered as posing a:
classification under the Act (Gluckman, 2009). This • Very high risk of harm should be scheduled as
scheduling could, in principle, still allow purchase Class A;
4Chemistry Education in New Zealand August 2010
• High risk of harm should be scheduled as Class dexamphetamine. BZP was often combined with
B; TFMPP. Taken together the two substances were
said to produce effects resembling MDMA (“ecsta-
• Moderate risk of harm should be scheduled as
sy”) (Fig. 7). At overdose levels reported effects in-
Class C.
cluded palpitations, agitation, nausea, vomiting and
This framework for scheduling drugs and substances seizures. Initially the EACD indicated to the Minis-
creates several challenges, including: ter that there was insufficient scientific evidence of
at least a moderate risk of harm to schedule BZP as a
• The scheduling criteria are intended to be evi-
controlled or restricted drug. This led in due course
dence-based; therefore, the appearance of a nov-
to the creation of a new Fourth Class under the Mis-
el drug or substance on the New Zealand drug
use of Drugs Act, called: “Restricted Substances”.
scene, that may be used “recreationally” leads to
Relatively limited restrictions on supply were pro-
scheduling issues until information or evidence
vided for, including an age limit and limits on adver-
of harm (or lack of potential for harm) can be
tising similar to those that are contained in alcohol
gathered;
legislation. Later, following further local studies, the
• A substance that is not a medicine but does not EACD recommended rescheduling BZP and related
present at least a moderate risk of harm exists in piperazines as Class C controlled drugs, although
a legal “no man’s land”. there was vigorous debate on whether the adverse
The MoDA, however, does contain provisions effects reported reached the threshold of moderate
around “controlled drug analogues”, sometimes re- risk of harm (EACD, 2004). It is worth noting that
ferred to in news media as “designer drugs”. This although one local medical report included data on
provision was added a number of years ago as a toxic effects experienced by sixty one patients who
means to counter a growing trend for the appearance presented to the Emergency Department of Christ-
of derivatives of known, sought-after drugs, which church Hospital, many of the patients had taken
had a slightly modified chemical structure. Drugs other substances as well, particularly alcohol. One
are normally listed in legislation by specific chemi- patient had apparently also consumed ecstasy, LSD,
cal structure or name, e.g., “STP, DOM (2-amino- nitrous oxide (NOS), and “magic mushrooms” (Gee
1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl) phenylpropane)”. This et al., 2005).
means that if a new drug or substance of concern
appears, it cannot be controlled until it is added to
the current legislation, a process that can often take a
year or more. In NZ the “controlled drug analogue”
definition covers any substance that “has a structure
substantially similar” to that of any already-listed
controlled drug. Such wording in legislation can lead
to potential lack of certainty around how broadly the
Fig. 7: Structures of BZP (left) and TFMPP (right)
phrase “substantially similar” structure should be in-
terpreted. The definition has the potential to capture The creation in the NZ MoDA of this new “Re-
a range of substances that either have not yet been stricted Substance” regulatory framework repre-
used for human consumption or currently have not sented a radical break with the historical response
been synthesised. to drug misuse based on a “prohibition model” to a
framework for regulating supply of recreational sub-
Against this background BZP (benzylpiperazine)
stances. Other countries have also been grappling
and TFMPP (trifluorophenylpiperazine) and some
with similar issues. In the United Kingdom a major
piperazine analogues became very widely available
review appeared entitled: “Drug classification: Mak-
in NZ and were very quickly referred to as “party
ing a hash of it?” (House of Commons Science and
drugs”. These compounds were usually sold in the
Technology Committee, 2006). An article in the New
form of tablets with an impressed logo and generally
Scientist magazine in 2006, in which the approach
resembled tablets that had previously been marketed
taken by NZ was noted, included the comment:
as “ecstasy” (MDMA) tablets. BZP was originally
synthesised as a potential anthelmintic agent and “New Zealand, however, has taken a different and
was later investigated for possible antidepressant ac- arguably more enlightened approach…..in response
tivity. Although BZP was promoted initially in some the government introduced a new Class of drug
quarters as an “herbal high”, it is a purely synthetic called ‘non-traditional designer substances’, also
substance. BZP alone is a relatively mild stimu- known as Class D”. (Vince, 2006)
lant, estimated to have about a tenth the potency of
5Chemistry Eduction in New Zealand August 2010
Since being made a controlled drug BZP, along with
TFMPP, has continued to circulate in the “party
drug” scene in NZ, sometimes mixed with other
controlled drugs in tablets that may be represented
as “ecstasy”. The presence of BZP and TFMPP in
such tablets is currently decreasing, possibly as a re-
sult of their controlled status, and a number of new
substances are appearing in the market.
The development of a ready market for legal party
drugs in NZ has seen a significant number of novel
drugs and substances appear as suppliers and “entre-
preneurs” have attempted to meet the demand. Some
but not all of these have been found to infringe the
“controlled drug analogue” provisions of the MoDA.
One example was the substance promoted as “Ease”,
which was shown to contain 2-methylamino-1-(3,4
methylenedioxyphenyl)propan-1-one, also known as
methylone. Methylone has the same relationship to
methcathinone (which is a Class B controlled drug) Fig. 8: Structures of methamphetamine (top left),
as MDMA (methylenedioxymethamphetamine) has Methcathinone (top right), MDMA (bottom left) and
to methamphetamine (Fig. 8). After identification methylone (bottom right)
by ESR and an opinion that it was a controlled drug
analogue, “Ease” was withdrawn from the market. humans is clearly very difficult to answer if the only
Nevertheless, methylone is still being encountered scientific data available are from limited, short-term
in party pills in NZ. animal studies.
The current drug scene in New Zealand has many An interesting recent development has been the in-
more examples of new drugs either being intercept- troduction of herbal smoking mixes, which were
ed by NZ Customs at the border, or appearing in the initially branded as “Spice”, although now up to an
illicit market. An example is the brief appearance on estimated twenty brands are available. These herbal
the NZ drug scene of diphenylprolinol (a mild stim- blends may contain additional active ingredients and
ulant). It was considered by ESR to be an analogue may be sold as “incense mix”. They have been found
of pipradrol (a Class C5 controlled Drug) and hence to contain a variety of substances called synthetic
controlled as an analogue and importations ceased. cannabinoids, which have similar properties to tet-
DMAA (dimethylamylamine or 1,3-dimethylpentyl- rahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in
amine), also described as “geranamine” or “extract cannabis plants. Some of these active ingredients are
of geranium oil”, is another mild stimulant that is similar enough in chemical structure to be regarded
being seen in New Zealand. The government has re- as analogues of THC, and as a result are controlled.
cently announced its intention to schedule DMAA as Others, however, are structurally sufficiently differ-
a “Restricted Substance”, with a more comprehen- ent from THC or any other controlled drugs listed
sive framework of regulations around availability to in the MoDA that they are not currently controlled
be introduced. in NZ. There is little literature available about the
risks of use of these substances, which for the most
The appearance of new substances creates analytical part have been synthesised as model substances for
challenges for the drug chemist. medicinal chemistry studies investigating the effects
of cannabinoids.
For reasons that are not entirely clear, NZ seems to
receive a disproportionately high number of novel The emergence of “party pills”, the appearance of
substances compared to other jurisdictions. It can new designer analogues and development of herbal
be difficult to prove the identity of such compounds blends containing pharmacologically active addi-
to court standard (which normally requires a direct tives have challenged the New Zealand regulatory
comparison against an authenticated reference stan- framework for drug control and raised fundamental
dard) even if analytical data are available in the sci- issues, including the effectiveness of prohibition
entific literature, which may not be the case. In the compared to restriction as a harm reduction strategy.
absence of controlled clinical studies, assessment of The Law Commission is currently undertaking a ma-
potential harm is similarly highly problematic. The jor review of the framework for drug control in New
question of potential for harm after long-term use by Zealand (Law Commission, 2010).
6Chemistry Education in New Zealand August 2010
The process of assessing drug harms or potential pills in humans: a prospective study in Christchurch,
harms in order to provide a rational basis for drug New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal
scheduling is a challenging business (Nutt, 2009). 118 (1227):1-10. http://www.nzma.org.nz/jour-
It is worth noting that Professor Nutt lost his po- nal/118-1227/1784
sition as chair of the UK Advisory Council on the Gluckman, P (2009). Consideration of reduction of access
Misuse of Drugs (ACMD), the equivalent of the NZ to, or elimination of, pseudoephedrine in ‘cold and
EACD, for advocating changes in the scheduling of flu’ preparations. Report to the Prime Minister (Refer-
certain substances based on a reassessment of rela- ence CSA 2009-01). Available online at: http://www.
tive harms and risk, as proposed in his article. This pmcsa.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Report-to-
the-PM-Pseudoephedrine.pdf (accessed 5 July 2010)
raises interesting issues of chemistry, drug policy,
risk, harm and individual responsibility. It is timely House of Commons Science and Technology Committee
to consider “Whose responsibility is it to make the [UK] (2006). Drug classification: making a hash of
world idiot-proof?” it? Fifth report of Session 2005-06 (HC 1031). Avail-
able online at: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/
pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmsctech/1031/1031.pdf (ac-
References cessed 14 July 2010)
Bedford, K. R., Nolan, S.L., Onrust, R. & Siegers, J. D. Law Commission. (2010). Controlling and Regulating
(1987). The illicit preparation of morphine and heroin Drugs (Issues paper 16). Available online at: http://
from pharmaceutical products containing codeine: www.lawcom.govt.nz/UploadFiles/Publications/Pub-
‘Homebake’ laboratories in New Zealand. Forensic lication_143_455_IP16%20-%20Controlling%20
Science International, 34, 197-204. and%20Regulating%20Drugs.pdf (accessed 5 July
Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD). (2004). 2010)
The Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs (EACD) Nutt, D. (2009). Estimating Drug Harms: A risky busi-
Advice to the Minister on: Benzylpiperazine (BZP) ness? Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, Briefing
(Reference No: 20045663). Available online at: http:// 10, October 2009. Available online at: http://www.
www.ndp.govt.nz/moh.nsf/pagescm/569/$File/eacd- crimeandjustice.org.uk/opus1714/Estimating_drug_
bzp.pdf (accessed 5 July 2010) harms.pdf (accessed 5 July 2010)
Gee, P., Richardson, S., Woltersdorf, W. & Moore, G. Vince, G. (2006). Legally high. New Scientist, 2571 (30
(2005). Toxic effects of BZP-based herbal party September 2006), 40-45.
ChemScrapes
Everything was fine…then it suddenly went all
pear-shaped.
Brendan Burkett
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