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VOL. 97 • NO. 13 • 1 JUL 2016
Career Paths
for African-American Students
Did Solar Flares
Cook Up Life?
High Energy Growth
Forecast Through 2040
VOLCANIC
ERUPTIONS
AT PLATE
BOUNDARIES
Give Your Research the Visibility it Deserves
Abstract Submission Deadline: 3 August
Submit by 27 July and Win Big
Submit your abstract by 27 July for the chance to win
Fall Meeting VIP status, including front row seats for two
at all keynote lectures, and more
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Earth & Space Science News Contents
1 JULY 2016
PROJECT UPDATE
VOLUME 97, ISSUE 13
9
Creating Career Paths
for African-American Students
in Geosciences
A new initiative at Stony Brook University
teaches marketable skills, engages
students in research projects, and
fosters professional career tracks of
underrepresented minorities.
NEWS
6
Advisory Panel Calls for Large
Increase for Ocean Exploration
The recently established Ocean Exploration
Advisory Board also urged the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
12 to increase its role in federal coordination
of exploration.
COVER
RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT
Understanding Volcanic Eruptions
Where Plates Meet 31 Researchers Attribute
Human Influence
on Climate Back to 1930s
A new project clarifies the relationships between tectonics and A new study finds that humans likely have
volcanic systems and how they influence hazards on Italy’s Mount triggered the past 16 record-breaking hot
Etna and Vulcano and Lipari islands. years on Earth, up to 2014.
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 1
Contents
DEPARTMENTS
Editor in Chief
Barbara T. Richman: AGU, Washington, D. C., USA; eos_ brichman@agu.org
Editors
Christina M. S. Cohen Wendy S. Gordon Carol A. Stein
California Institute Ecologia Consulting, Department of Earth and
of Technology, Pasadena, Austin, Texas, USA; Environmental Sciences,
Calif., USA; wendy@ecologiaconsulting University of Illinois at
cohen@srl.caltech.edu .com Chicago, Chicago, Ill.,
USA; cstein@uic.edu
José D. Fuentes David Halpern
Department of Meteorology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pennsylvania State Pasadena, Calif., USA;
University, University davidhalpern29@gmail
Park, Pa., USA; .com
juf15@meteo.psu.edu
Editorial Advisory Board
M. Lee Allison, Earth and Space John W. Lane, Near-Surface Geophysics
Science Informatics Jian Lin, Tectonophysics
Mark G. Flanner, Atmospheric Figen Mekik, Paleoceanography
Sciences and Paleoclimatology
Nicola J. Fox, Space Physics Jerry L. Miller, Ocean Sciences
and Aeronomy Michael A. Mischna, Planetary Sciences
Steve Frolking, Biogeosciences Thomas H. Painter, Cryosphere Sciences
Edward J. Garnero, Study of the Philip J. Rasch, Global Environmental
30 Earth’s Deep Interior
Michael N. Gooseff, Hydrology
Change
Eric M. Riggs, Education
Brian C. Gunter, Geodesy Adrian Tuck, Nonlinear Geophysics
Kristine C. Harper, History Sergio Vinciguerra, Mineral
18–28 AGU News of Geophysics and Rock Physics
Susan E. Hough, Natural Hazards Andrew C. Wilcox, Earth and Planetary
How on Earth to Decide Where on Emily R. Johnson, Volcanology, Surface Processes
Mars to Land?; Recognizing 2015 Geochemistry, and Petrology Earle Williams, Atmospheric
Keith D. Koper, Seismology and Space Electricity
Reviewers for AGU. Robert E. Kopp, Geomagnetism Mary Lou Zoback, Societal Impacts
and Paleomagnetism and Policy Sciences
30–32 Research Spotlight Staff
Streamlining Rapid Tsunami Production and Design: Faith A. Ishii, Production Manager; Melissa A. Tribur, Senior
Production Specialist; Liz Castenson, Editorial and Production Coordinator; Elizabeth
Forecasting; Researchers Attribute Jacobsen, Production Intern; Yael Fitzpatrick, Manager, Design and Branding; Valerie
Human Influence on Climate Bassett and Travis Frazier, Electronic Graphics Specialists
Back to 1930s; The Role of Water Editorial: Peter L. Weiss, Manager/Senior News Editor; Mohi Kumar, Scientific
Content Editor; Randy Showstack, Senior News Writer; JoAnna Wendel, News Writer;
in Earth’s Tectonic Plumbing Amy Coombs and Elizabeth Deatrick, Editorial Interns
Systems; Martian Carbonates Marketing: Angelo Bouselli, Marketing Program Manager; Jamie R. Liu, Manager,
7 Spotted by the Orbiter; Improving Marketing
Advertising: Christy Hanson, Manager; Tel: +1-202-777-7536; Email: advertising@
the Identification of Extreme U.S.
agu.org
Precipitation Trends.
3–6 News ©2016. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. Material in this issue may be
photocopied by individual scientists for research or classroom use. Permission is also
High Energy Growth, Fossil Fuel 33–35 Positions Available granted to use short quotes, figures, and tables for publication in scientific books and
Dependence Forecast Through Current job openings in the Earth journals. For permission for any other uses, contact the AGU Publications Office.
2040; Did Solar Flares Cook Up Life and space sciences. Eos (ISSN 0096-3941) is published semi-monthly, on the 1st and 15th of the month by
the American Geophysical Union, 2000 Florida Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009,
on Earth?; Storms Cause Infrequent USA. Periodical Class postage paid at Washington, D. C., and at additional mailing
offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Member Service Center, 2000
Turbulence for Aircraft, New Study 36 Postcards from the Field Florida Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA.
Finds; Advisory Panel Calls for A view of Edinburg of the Seven Member Service Center: 8:00 a.m.–6:00 p.m. Eastern time; Tel: +1-202-462-6900;
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Exploration. Tristan da Cunha, an island in the Use AGU’s Geophysical Electronic Manuscript Submissions system
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7–8 Meeting Reports Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect official
positions of the American Geophysical Union unless expressly stated.
Extending Recent Seismic Imaging On the Cover Christine W. McEntee, Executive Director/CEO
Successes to South America; Lava flows from Italy’s Mount Etna
Norway and Cuba Evaluate Bilateral on the island of Sicily.Credit: Getty
Climate Research Results. Images/DEA/F. Barbagallo
facebook.com/AmericanGeophysicalUnion @AGU_Eos linkedin.com/company/american-geophysical-union youtube.com/user/AGUvideos
2 // Eos 1 July 2016
NEWS
High Energy Growth, Fossil Fuel
Dependence Forecast Through 2040
T
he world’s energy consumption will The EIA report includes some details from through 2040 coming from China, India, Indo-
increase by 48% between 2012 and 2040, the Paris agreement but notes uncertainty nesia, and other developing countries in Asia.
with fossil fuels accounting for more about whether countries will meet their cli- EIA’s Sieminski said at the briefing that
than 75% of world energy use in 2040, accord- mate targets. EIA head Adam Sieminski said at some global issues increase the uncertainty of
ing to the U.S. Energy Information Adminis- the briefing that incorporating country cli- the forecast, including economic growth rates
tration (EIA). Fossil fuels supplied 83% of mate pledges into the forecast “is compli- in China and elsewhere, technological innova-
global energy demand in 2015. cated” but that the next IEO in 2017 “will tions, the future of nuclear generating capac-
Energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emis- probably have more to say” about those com- ity, the implementation and strength of cli-
sions will increase 34% during that time span, mitments. mate policies, and unrest in oil-producing
with annual emissions rising from 32 billion countries.
metric tons in 2012 to 43 billion metric tons in Renewables on a Fast Track
2040, the agency projects. Coal will continue According to the EIA, renewable energy will be
to generate the most energy-related CO2 the fastest growing energy source, climbing by By Randy Showstack, Staff Writer
emissions worldwide, although its share will 2.6% per year, and
decline from 43% in 2012 to 38% in 2040, nuclear energy will
according to International Energy Outlook 2016 increase from 4% to
(IEO), an EIA report released in May at a brief- 6% of the energy pie.
ing in Washington, D. C. (see http://bit.ly/ Coal, which the
EIAreport-2016). report deemed “the
U.S. Energy Information Administration
world’s slowest
Meeting Climate Targets growing energy
The numbers in the 11 May report “indicated source,” will rise by
the challenge for the world to reduce global about 0.6% per year.
CO2 emissions substantially by 2040 and In 2040, coal, natural
beyond,” Jan Mares, senior policy adviser gas, and renewables
with Resources for the Future, told Eos. The each will contribute
organization is a Washington, D. C.–based just under 30% of the
think tank that focuses on natural resources world’s net electricity Fossil fuels continue to play a key role in meeting energy demands through 2040,
and environment issues. Other energy and generation, the according to EIA’s energy outlook. Btu = British thermal unit (~1055 joules).
climate analysts said the new projections report states.
indicate that the means of energy production Cleetus told Eos
need to shift soon if the world is to achieve that the EIA forecast
climate targets. likely underestimates
“The low hanging fruit, which is substitut- contributions from
ing [natural] gas for coal, seems to be on track renewables and
and looks pretty robust,” David Goldwyn, energy efficiency and
president of Goldwyn Global Strategies, an does not address the
international energy advisory consultancy, implications of rising
told Eos. “But it’s also clear that we need a big methane emissions
technological step change to get to 2 degrees associated with natu-
[Celsius] or even frankly to stabilize emissions ral gas use. The fore-
at the level we have right now. We’re not there cast “illustrates the
U.S. Energy Information Administration
yet, and the growth in renewables, which is pitfalls of an over
mostly hydro, is not going to get us there.” reliance on natural
“A business-as-usual scenario, with no new gas as we shift away
policies beyond those that exist right now, from coal,” she also
would be disastrous from a climate perspec- said.
tive,” Rachel Cleetus, lead economist and cli-
mate policy manager for the Union of Con- Asian Energy
cerned Scientists, told Eos. “The good news is Consumption
we are not in a business-as-usual world,” she Continues Rapid
said, citing the recent Paris climate agreement Growth The energy outlook forecasts that energy-related carbon dioxide emissions will increase
(see http://bit.ly/COP21-signed) and commit- The outlook forecasts 34% between 2012 and 2040. This chart shows historical and projected world energy-
ments by major emitters to cut carbon and more than half of the related carbon dioxide emissions by fuel type, from 1990 through 2040, in billions of
increase renewables and efficiency. energy growth metric tons.
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 3
NEWS
Did Solar Flares Cook Up an atmospheric model using scientists’ best
estimates of concentrations of different gases
Life on Earth? in the atmosphere 4 billion years ago; at that
time, molecular nitrogen (N2) was a main
component of the atmosphere, along with
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and water
vapor. They then subjected their model atmo-
S
pace weather today threatens our satel- they released huge bursts of radiation and sphere to simulated super solar flares that
lites, our space station, and our tele- magnetic energy, Airapetian said. These they suspect the young Sun produced—some-
communications, but 4 billion years bursts, called super flares, can be quite fre- times multiple times per day—and studied
ago, large solar flares and their associated quent—observers see some of these stars what happened to the model atmosphere.
energetic particles could have provided the belching out 10 of these super flares in a day. The researchers found that energetic parti-
planet its first ingredients for life. Using these observations, Airapetian and cles associated with super solar flares com-
Researchers at NASA have found that when his team extrapolated that when our Sun was pressed Earth’s magnetic field and created
the Sun was about half a billion huge gaps at the poles, which
years old, large solar flares— allowed highly energetic solar
larger than any recorded by protons to pierce the atmosphere.
humans—could have changed the Those protons knocked electrons
very chemistry of Earth’s atmo- around like bowling pins, which
sphere. What’s more, bombard- knocked into more electrons in an
ment of the planet by high- “avalanche of electrons,” Airape-
energy particles from those jets of tian said. This “avalanche” ion-
superhot solar plasma might have ized atoms and tore apart existing
prompted organic molecules con- carbon dioxide, methane, and
sidered precursors to life to form water vapor molecules, as well as
from simpler inorganic molecules molecular nitrogen—an
then abundant on primordial extremely unreactive and strongly
Earth. bonded molecule, Airapetian said.
One of the types of molecules The resulting highly reactive sub-
that could have newly formed stances acted as building blocks
back then is a potent greenhouse for new substances.
gas. Thus the findings may illu- “Once you have those building
minate a long-standing mystery blocks, you have a fertile environ-
about how Earth could have been ment to start reactive chemistry,”
so warm and hospitable to life at a Airapetian said.
time when, despite the solar One molecule that may have
NASA/Goddard/SDO
flares, the Sun was significantly formed in Earth’s infant atmo-
less bright than it is today. sphere was hydrogen cyanide
“To make organic stuff out of (HCN)—a molecule considered
inorganic stuff, you need a lot of vital to life’s origins (see http://
energy,” said Vladimir Airapetian, bit.ly/origins-solution). The
an astrophysicist at NASA’s God- Solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system, took place much more frequently newly formed HCN in a turbulent
dard Space Flight Center in 4 billion years ago than today, bombarding Earth with energetic protons and radiation. atmosphere would have dissolved
Greenbelt, Md. Airapetian, the into clouds and rained out, Aira-
lead author on a paper about the petian said, likely interacting with
research published recently in Nature Geosci- about half a billion years old, it likely bom- water to form other molecules necessary for
ence, explained that perhaps that energy came barded Earth with a constant stream of super life, like formaldehyde, amino acids, and com-
from solar flares (see http://bit.ly/super-flares solar flares—up to 5 times larger than the plex sugars.
-life). infamous Carrington event in 1859 (see http:// This barrage of solar flares could have been
The new findings may also affect how bit.ly/Carrington-Superstorm). That magnetic like a worldwide version of the Miller-Urey
researchers assess the prospects for life on storm, the largest ever recorded by humans, experiments, Airapetian said, when scientists
worlds orbiting other stars by putting a new knocked out telegraph operations around the sparked artificial “atmospheres,” full of gases
emphasis on young, active stars. world and sent the aurora borealis streaming like carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and
as far south as Miami, Fla. A similar event water vapor, with electrical charges and found
Solar Flares from Young Suns today would cause trillions of dollars in dam- that this gave rise to amino acids, one of the
For almost 10 years, NASA’s Kepler telescope age to telecommunications, Airapetian said, building blocks of life (see http://bit.ly/M
has been closely observing stars across the and throw cities around the world into cata- -Uexperiment-video).
galaxy and the exoplanets that orbit them. strophic power outages.
Previous observations by the telescope have Faint Young Sun
revealed that stars similar to our Sun and All About Energy Another molecule that may have formed in
younger than a billion years old temporarily To find out how these super flares may have this energized atmosphere was nitrous oxide
brightened from time to time, indicating that affected infant Earth, the researchers created (N2O). You’ve probably heard this gas called
4 // Eos 1 July 2016
NEWS
laughing gas for its ability to calm even the
most anxious dental patients. Storms Cause Infrequent Turbulence
However, “laughing gas is not a laughing
matter for early Earth,” Airapetian said. This for Aircraft, New Study Finds
nitrous oxide was important for young Earth,
he said.
Although the Sun persistently showered
Earth in solar flares 4 billion years ago, it was
30% dimmer than it is now. Earth should have
been a ball of ice, Airapetian said, but evidence
shows there was liquid water (life cannot form
without it). So how did Earth heat up enough
to sustain this water? Scientists call this the
iStock.com/RayOneMedia
faint young Sun paradox (see http://bit.ly/
Reviews-Geophys-FaintSun).
Today carbon dioxide drives warming of
Earth’s atmosphere in a big way, but 4 billion
years ago, if there had been enough CO2 in the
atmosphere to heat the planet, Earth’s oceans
would have been too acidic for life to evolve, Turbulence affecting air travel results from storms only about a sixth as often as other studies have estimated, new
Airapetian said. Nitrous oxide, however, data suggest.
warms the atmosphere 300 times more effec-
tively than CO2. Even though N2O was—and
P
remains today—a small portion of the atmo- ast studies have found that convective sensors can triangulate the location of light-
sphere, perhaps it played the major role in storms, like thunderstorms, cause a ning strikes. The areas with the most light-
heating the planet, Airapetian and his col- large portion of turbulence that plagues ning strikes represented the centers of con-
leagues propose in their 23 May paper. commercial airliners. Using those findings, a vective storms, the researchers said.
The new study “is a viable additional piece research team in the United Kingdom recently Comparing these data with more commonly
in the long-scattered puzzle of how adequate set out to create an automated system for tur- used indicators of turbulence sources, includ-
supplies of biologically available nitrogen and bulence detection that relies on lightning sen- ing satellite imagery of clouds and velocity
a warm atmosphere were maintained during sors to alert airlines of dangerous winds. data from aboard airplanes, allowed the
Earth’s earliest history,” said Timothy Lyons, Now, following the first tests of this new researchers to study the effects of turbulence
a biogeochemist at the University of Califor- system, the researchers from the Met Office in from those storms on airplanes flying near
nia, Riverside, who was not involved in the Exeter have found that airplanes flying near them.
research. “This is an exciting idea that could convective storms experience much less tur- Sharman said he holds some doubts about
kill two birds with one stone.” bulence than they expected: Just 14% of turbu- the accuracy of lightning as a storm detection
lence events were associated with convective method, saying that lightning may not always
Implications for Extraterrestrial Life storms. be concentrated in the center of a storm.
Beyond offering new insight into how early This finding sharply contrasts with results Moreover, he said, it’s not clear “just because
Earth might have become a crucible for life, of some previous studies that estimated that there’s lightning that there’s turbulence.”
the new work has broader implications, Aira- between 82% and 86% of turbulence encoun- The new study’s disagreement with pre-
petian said. “Our model expands the tradi- ters were associated with convective storms. vailing wisdom “may also indicate that con-
tional definition of habitable zones of habit- The authors of the new study (see http://bit.ly/ vection is relatively less important as a source
able exoplanets,” he noted. Now scientists can JAMC-turbulence) suggest that other sources of turbulence over Europe and the northeast-
also consider exoplanets that may be orbiting of turbulence, such as winds forced up over ern Atlantic than over other regions (such as
young, energetic, Sun-like stars, where suffi- mountain ranges, should receive a greater North America and the tropics),” the team
cient energy could become available to make share of researchers’ attention in the future. noted in the paper’s conclusions. Many prior
organic molecules out of inorganic molecules. The Met Office team published its results in turbulence studies took place over North
In the habitable zone around a star, liquid the May issue of the Journal of Applied Meteo- America.
water can persist on a planet’s surface, but a rology and Climatology. However, Sharman said that it’s unlikely
new type of habitable zone could be termed Some turbulence researchers found the that significantly less turbulence occurs over
the “biogenic zone,” Airapetian said. There numbers surprising. The frequency of turbu- Europe compared with North America.
not only does water stay liquid, “but also the lence from convective storms “seems a little The Met Office team ran its tests for two
planetary atmosphere receives enough energy low, at least compared to over the continental 6-month periods (May through October) in
to make biomolecules of life, setting a path- U.S.,” said Robert Sharman, an atmospheric 2013 and 2014. The researchers noted that a
way to [forming] RNA and DNA.” scientist with the National Center for Atmo- future study “over a significantly longer time
He and his colleagues are also currently spheric Research in Boulder, Colo., who was period” would help test the validity of the
studying how super solar flares could have not involved with the new study. patterns they found.
affected Mars. The Met Office researchers used an uncon-
ventional tool to pinpoint turbulent loca-
tions: a network of lightning sensors scat- By Elizabeth Deatrick, Writer Intern; email:
By JoAnna Wendel, Staff Writer tered across Europe and North Africa. These edeatrick@agu.org
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 5
NEWS
Advisory Panel Calls for Large coordinating ocean exploration among federal
agencies. The board’s letter calls upon NOAA
Increase for Ocean Exploration also to work more vigorously to draw in federal
and private funding for ocean exploration and
to provide some specific ocean observations
that are needed in certain regions, including
the Arctic, among other measures. NOAA,
through its Office of Ocean Exploration and
Research (OER), coordinates the only federal
program to systematically explore the oceans.
Board Chair Sets a Higher Funding Goal
“America’s future depends on understanding
the oceans,” the OEAB mentioned in a state-
ment that the group approved at its recent
meeting about why more exploration is
needed. “We explore the oceans because their
NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research
health and resilience are vital to our economy
and to our lives: climate, food, shipping,
national security, medicine, and natural
resources,” the summary also said.
The U.S. national ocean exploration pro-
gram “probably should be at least $200 mil-
lion,” Vice Admiral Paul G. Gaffney II, U.S.
Navy (Ret.), chair of the OEAB, told Eos in an
interview. “I just think it hasn’t earned all the
respect that it’s due yet.”
The White House requested $19 million for
The Okeanos Explorer carries out scientific research of the ocean for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. FY 2017, the same amount it requested for
FY 2016, whereas the FY 2018 budget request,
already in early formulation, shows hints of
I
n the United States, federal funding for lished OEAB, an independent U.S. federal some improvement, according to OEAB (see
exploration of the nation’s offshore exclu- advisory committee, in 2014 to provide advice http://bit.ly/OEABchair-slides).
sive economic zone and of the global ocean on ocean exploration to NOAA and the nation
should be much higher than currently bud-
geted, according to a recent letter that the
(see http://bit.ly/OEABsite).
The ocean exploration program within
“Given the budget
Ocean Exploration Advisory Board (OEAB) sent NOAA received approximately $32 million for resources that we have,
to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric fiscal year (FY) 2016. However, in a 27 April
Administration (NOAA). The agency estab- letter to NOAA’s chief scientist and other can we accomplish
agency officials, the
board wrote that pre-
everything?”
Call for Ocean Discovery Lecturers vious national stud-
ies “envision annual
funding of $75 mil- Gaffney said that NOAA, an agency within
The U.S. Science Support Program (USSSP) is seeking dynamic speakers to lion to execute ocean the Department of Commerce, doesn’t have
convey the excitement of the International Ocean Discovery Program exploration activi- the same budgeting flexibility as the Depart-
(IODP) to geoscience communities and the United States public. ties.” A report of the ment of Defense or even NASA and that it
Since 1991, more than 750 presentations have been made to audiences at President’s Panel for might be difficult to move funding around.
U.S. colleges, universities, and informal learning centers. Your help is Ocean Exploration Alan Leonardi, NOAA’s OER director, called
requested to identify scientists interested in participating in the Ocean issued in 2000 rec- the advice to the agency “positive.” He did not
Discovery Lecture Series Program during the 2017-2018 academic year.
Lectures focus on the discoveries and results of scienti�ic ocean drilling ommended that comment specifically on budget levels but told
and are primarily aimed at undergraduate and graduate students, amount (see http:// Eos that “there are a lot of competing
museums, science departments, and the scienti�ically literate public. bit.ly/ocean-panel demands for federal resources.”
If you or someone you know is interested in becoming an Ocean Discovery -report). Leonardi said he agrees with much of the
Lecturer, email their name, institution, and potential lecture topic to the The board’s letter board’s advice to NOAA. “My reservations are
USSSP Of�ice (usssp@LDEO.columbia.edu) by the nomination deadline of and a related one that given the budget resources that we have,
July 22, 2016.
sent to NOAA admin- can we accomplish everything?” he said. He
istrator Kathryn Sul- added that NOAA officials will respond to the
Deadline: livan the same day
also recommend that
board after reviewing the letters.
July 22, 2016 NOAA play a more
proactive role in By Randy Showstack, Staff Writer
6 // Eos 1 July 2016
MEETING REPORT
Extending Recent Seismic Imaging vices and potential collaborations available
from the IRIS community.
Successes to South America The workshop concluded with all partici-
pants having a fundamental understanding of
the ANT method and the ability to continue
Ambient Noise Tomography Workshop (MIMOSA) applying this method at their home institu-
Tucson, Arizona, 17–23 January 2016 tions. To extend the ANT method across the
South American continent, participants were
encouraged to seek out additional collabora-
tions with neighboring countries.
In view of the recent increase in broadband
seismic networks in South America and grow-
ing interest among their operators, attendees
agreed that more of these kinds of workshops
are needed. A unique opportunity exists for
researchers to cultivate this growing scientific
interest through mutually beneficial interna-
tional collaborations, leading to a better
understanding of the geodynamic and tectonic
Klaus Balzano, CC BY-NC 2.0 (http://bit.ly/ccbync2-0)
history of the South American continent.
For more on this meeting, see http://bit.ly/
1sKuDvC.
By Kevin M. Ward, Jonathan R. Delph, and
Susan L. Beck, Geosciences Department, Uni-
versity of Arizona, Tucson; email: wardk@email
.arizona.edu
Torres del Paine, Chile. What structures underlie these mountains and other features in South America?
O
ne of the main scientific goals of the As part of the MIMOSA project, research-
EarthScope transportable array (see ers from five South American countries
http://www.earthscope.org/) is to along with other visiting researchers from
investigate the structure, dynamics, and tec- around the world gathered at the University
tonic history of the North American continent. of Arizona in January for a weeklong work-
But what about South America? shop on ambient noise tomography (ANT). A
Although South America does not have the seismic imaging technique refined by scien-
seismic station distribution and near-real- tists working on EarthScope, ANT methods
time data access associated with a transport- allow scientists to use low-amplitude back-
able array, a developing collection of national ground seismic noise to create images of the
broadband seismic networks is beginning to crust and uppermost mantle at depth.
populate the South American continent. In Because no earthquake source is needed, the
addition, there have been a large number of technique can produce accurate cross sec-
portable broadband deployments producing tions from local to unprecedented continen-
seismic data across South America. tal scales.
The recent increase in instrumentation Workshop participants included a wide
paired with growing interest from individual range of scientists at different career stages,
network operators to expand the scope of their including seismic network operators, gradu-
Kevin Ward
seismic research capabilities has opened up ate students, postdoctoral researchers, and
the possibility of new collaborations with U.S. professors. Time spent during the workshop
research institutions. With the ambitious goal was split between presentations focusing on
of extending the recent seismic imaging suc- developing an understanding of the ANT Map of the South American continent showing known
cesses of EarthScope to the South American methodology and work time for the partici- seismic stations appropriate for an ambient noise tomog-
continent, the Multiscale Imaging of Modern pants to apply what they learned to their raphy (ANT) study. Portable station deployments are
Orogenic South America (MIMOSA) project, own data sets. In addition, the International shown as red circles, and permanent stations are shown
funded by the U.S. National Science Founda- Development Seismology section of the as yellow circles. Although significant spatial and tempo-
tion, aims to develop these mutually beneficial Incorporated Research Institutions for Seis- ral gaps still exist with the current station geometry, the
international collaborations (see http://bit.ly/ mology (IRIS) included a presentation that potential for extending a continental-scale ANT study
1TWPaYp). helped make all participants aware of the ser- across South America is rapidly becoming a possibility.
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 7
MEETING REPORT
Norway and Cuba Evaluate
Bilateral Climate Research Results
XCUBE Workshop
Camagüey, Cuba, 16–18 November 2015
gian Embassy in Cuba
sees the contribution
of researchers from
Camagüey as an
important part of the
XCUBE project; the
workshop and field
visits were key to the
collaboration. In
addition, the World
Food Program repre-
sentatives in Cuba
have expressed inter-
est in the results of
the ongoing (and
upcoming) research,
which are relevant
for their food security
assessment in Cuba.
Juan Carlos Antuña-Sánchez
The lessons
learned from the
XCUBE project and
the workshop discus-
sions have provided
the framework for a
The Grupo de Óptica Atmosférica de Camagüey instruments at Camagüey Meteorological Centre in Camagüey, Cuba. From left to right, the C imel- new proposal for the
318 Sun photometer and the suction nose for the low-volume particle impactor are on the red roof of the instrument control room (small white struc- continuation of
ture). The GPS automatic meteorological station is the white cylindrical instrument behind and slightly to the right of the control room. The white XCUBE cooperation,
sphere in the center rear is the RD-200SX Doppler radar, designed and built by the National Radar Center in Camagüey. The small gray dome on the which will have a
far right is a GPS antenna. major focus on the
hydrological effects
of climate change
S
ince 2013, the Future of Climate Weather Forecasts Reanalysis (ERA)-Interim and future food security for Cuba. Alan Robock
Extremes in the Caribbean (XCUBE) Reanalysis for Cuba was also discussed (see from Rutgers University (New Brunswick, N.J.)
project has studied the vulnerability of http://bit.ly/ERA-Interim). will be leading the work on food security with
the Caribbean to future climate extremes. The results achieved are encouraging the cooperation of Roger Rivero Vega from
XCUBE is funded by the Norwegian Directorate because they identify, quantify, and make pre- INSMET/Camagüey, an expert on potential cli-
for Civil Protection on assignment of the Nor- liminary attribution of ERA-Interim Reanaly- mate change effects on food production. We
wegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In Novem- sis biases for Cuba. For example, the study expect that this and the next phase of the
ber 2015, the Grupo de Óptica Atmosférica de found that 2 -meter surface air temperature in project will enhance scientific understanding
Camagüey (GOAC; http://www.goac.cu) of the the ERA-Interim model is warmer than of climate variability in the Caribbean.
Cuban Meteorological Institute (INSMET) observed. Further work will be conducted to
hosted an XCUBE workshop at which compare temperature at mandatory levels
researchers discussed advances in bilateral from Caribbean sounding stations (based on By Juan Carlos Antuña-Marrero, Grupo de
scientific cooperation between Cuba and Nor- the Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive data Óptica Atmosférica de Camagüey, Meteo-
way on climate change. set) and ERA-Interim Reanalysis. rological Institute, Camagüey, Cuba; email:
Workshop participants discussed a recently The workshop also included a visit to the anadelia@caonao.cu; Michel d. S. Mesquita, Uni
published paper on sea surface temperature Camagüey Meteorological Centre (CMC), the Research Climate and the Bjerknes Centre for
trends in observations and models for the GOAC facilities, the National Radar Center, the Climate Research, Bergen, Norway; and Albeth
Caribbean and the Antilles. A follow-up study CMC Forecast Department, and a local facility Rodriguez, Grupo de Óptica Atmosférica de
looking at an intercomparison of station data developed jointly by Norway and Cuba to con- Camagüey, Meteorological Institute, Camagüey,
and European Centre for M edium-Range duct capacity-building activities. The Norwe- Cuba
8 // Eos 1 July 2016Creating Career Paths
for African-American Students
in Geosciences
By Robert Liebermann, Lars Ehm, and Gabriel Gwanmesia
O
n the morning of
6 February 2015,
Melissa Sims walked
the short path to the
podium in the lec-
ture hall of the newly
constructed National Synchro-
tron Light Source II facility, a build-
ing of Brookhaven National Labora-
tory. This was no ordinary lecture. At
age 28, Sims was a graduate student
studying how feldspar minerals com-
press during meteorite impacts. In
the audience sat Secretary of Energy
Ernest Moniz, whom she was tasked
with introducing at the new facility’s
dedication.
It’s not every day that a graduate
student gets to open for a cabinet
member. Rarer still is Sims, an
African-American woman geoscien-
tist in a field dominated by white
men. As she sat on stage, Sims
Mmdi/Getty Images
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 9ences to A
frican-Americans in the 5-year
period of 2000–2004.
The dearth of degrees awarded to African-
Americans is even more pronounced at the
master’s level, despite the fact that more than
500,000 such degrees are awarded each year
in the United States. As the report notes, “The
geosciences have the unenviable distinction
of having the poorest representation of
Brookhaven National Laboratory
African Americans (1%) among master’s
degree recipients” [Czujko et al., 2008].
Framework for Training and Employment
To address this poor record, the National Sci-
ence Foundation (NSF) Directorate for Geosci-
ences established in 2006 a program called
Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the
Melissa Sims from Stony Brook University (right) introducing Secretary of Energy Ernest
Geosciences (OEDG). Stony Brook’s new ini-
Moniz (left) at the dedication of the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) II facility in
tiative is a product of OEDG.
February 2015 with NSLS director Steve Dierker (far right) looking on.
The initiative has a few key steps. First,
project leaders seek to recruit undergraduate
science and engineering students from under-
remembers thinking, “How did I end up here, on a stage represented groups into the graduate program
with someone appointed by the president?” in the Department of Geosciences at Stony Brook Univer-
Sims is the product of a new initiative at Stony Brook sity. For expediency, efforts are focused on historically
University called “A Career Path for African-American black colleges and universities, such as Delaware State
Students from Historically Black Colleges and Universities University.
to National Laboratories.” The initiative teaches market- Next, the recruited students take courses and develop
able skills, places students in internships, and fosters the research projects toward an M.S. in geosciences instru-
professional career tracks of underrepresented minorities. mentation—a degree provided by Stony Brook. Thus far,
We offer this initiative as a proof of concept example of project leaders have chosen to focus on instrumentation so
how and what institutions can do to address the shortage that students could develop marketable skill sets in an
of A frican-Americans in the geosciences. emerging field between science and technology.
Finally, students receive training that prepares them for
The Scope of Underrepresentation employment as science associates in national user facilities
The geosciences have the lowest African-American repre- of the U.S. Department of Energy. All graduates of the pro-
sentation of all the science, technology, engineering, and gram have conducted their research projects at the
mathematics disciplines [Huntoon et al., 2015]. National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) of the Brookha-
A report from the American Institute of Physics entitled ven National Laboratory (BNL).
“Untapped Talent: The African American Presence in
Physics and the Geosciences” [Czujko et al., 2008] gives Building on Existing Foundations
some background on the root causes of this underrepre- The new program has taken advantage of the long-
sentation. standing relationship between professors from historically
The report emphasizes that although many African- black colleges and universities and BNL. An important ele-
American students have the necessary high school back- ment of this relationship is the Interdisciplinary Consor-
grounds to succeed in physics, “these prepared students tium for Research and Educational Access in Science and
are more likely to choose math or sciences other than Engineering (INCREASE), an organization that supports
physics and geosciences.” In fact, “compared to other sci- access to research facilities not typically available to fac-
entific disciplines, physics and the geosciences consis- ulty at historically black colleges and universities (see
tently come out near the bottom in terms of their ability to http://www.increaseonline.org/). To enhance its ability to
attract and retain African Americans,” the report notes attract A frican-American undergraduates, Stony Brook
[Czujko et al., 2008]. For example, in 2004, 4% of African- University has capitalized on its connection with col-
American undergraduates earned a bachelor’s degree in leagues in INCREASE institutions to help identify and
physics and only 2% in the geosciences (compared with recruit students.
9% for all sciences, which is still below the 13% of African- In addition to I NCREASE and NSLS at BNL, partners in
Americans in the U.S. population). this new initiative include the Center for Inclusive Educa-
Czujko et al. [2008] also examine the state of African- tion and the Graduate School of Stony Brook University
Americans within the larger context of the U.S. educational (see http://bit.ly/1Zc41hJ). All of these organizations have
system and social structure, including geography and eco- provided matching funds to complement the National Sci-
nomics. Most African-American students go to college ence Foundation support.
near their homes, and more than 70% of U.S. universities The M.S. in geosciences instrumentation program
and colleges awarded no bachelor’s degrees in the geosci- includes both formal courses and hands-on research proj-
10 // Eos 1 July 2016Lars Ehm
(left to right) Melissa Sims, Adairé Heady, and Ashley Thompson examining one of NSLS’s beamlines. Beamlines are paths for accelerated particles,
used in this case to study properties of crystal structures.
ects at the NSLS. The projects typically involve the study of returning to his home institution to teach for a year before
the physical and chemical properties of minerals under deciding whether to pursue further graduate study.
high-pressure conditions, which is the major focus of the Stony Brook’s program shows how science-minded stu-
Consortium for Materials Properties for Research in Earth dents, through mentoring and research opportunities, can
Sciences, which operates synchrotron beamlines for high- change their expectations to embrace geoscience research.
pressure research in the United States. For example, Sims was an undergraduate in exploration geo-
physics and headed toward a career in the oil industry. But
Program Successes when she learned about Stony Brook’s program, she shifted
To date, the initiative has graduated three M.S. students: her ambitions to a more academic direction. Similarly,
Ashley Thompson from Delaware State University, Melissa Rhymer initially was considering opportunities in engineer-
Sims from the University of South Carolina, and Adairé ing but changed his focus to study geophysics after spending
Heady from Delaware State University. All graduated from two summers at BNL in the Science Undergraduate Labora-
Stony Brook within a 2-year period. tory Internship program (see http://1.usa.gov/1XOleiB).
Thompson is now in a Ph.D. program in mechanical
engineering at Stony Brook; Sims, who was awarded a The Future
prestigious graduate fellowship from Stony Brook, is The NSF Directorate for Geosciences has approved a
studying for her doctorate in geosciences at the university; no-cost extension of Stony Brook’s grant, which allows the
and Heady is seeking employment at a national laboratory program’s time period to run to 2016. Unfortunately, NSF
such as BNL. has temporarily suspended funding for the OEDG program,
In September 2014, Brandon Rhymer from the Univer- so Stony Brook is seeking new funding to extend the pro-
sity of the Virgin Islands enrolled in Stony Brook’s initia- gram beyond 2016. However, both Brookhaven National
tive. He graduated with his M.S. degree in May 2016 and is Laboratory and the Graduate School at Stony Brook have
extended their funding for another 2 years.
For tips on how to implement such a program in your
institution, contact Robert Liebermann.
References
Czujko, R., R. Ivie, and J. H. Stith (2008), Untapped talent: The African American pres-
ence in physics and the geosciences, Publ. R-444, 22 pp., Am. Inst. of Phys., College
Park, Md.
Huntoon, J. E., C. Tanenbaum, and J. Hodges (2015), Increasing diversity in the geosci-
ences, Eos, 96, doi:10.1029/2015EO025897.
Author Information
Gabriel Gwanmesia
Robert Liebermann, Department of Geosciences and Mineral
Physics Institute, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y.;
email: robert.liebermann@stonybrook.edu; Lars Ehm, Mineral
Physics Institute, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, N.Y.,
Brandon Rhymer with the 2000-ton uniaxial split sphere apparatus in and Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, N.Y.; and Gabriel
the Stony Brook High Pressure Laboratory. The apparatus helps scien- Gwanmesia, Department of Physics and Engineering, Dela-
tists simulate the high pressures of Earth’s deep interior. ware State University, Dover
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 11UNDERSTANDING
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
WHERE PLATES MEET
By Raffaele Azzaro and Rosanna De Rosa
A new project clarifies the relationships
between tectonics and volcanic systems
and how they influence hazards on Italy’s
Mount Etna and Vulcano and Lipari islands.
Mount Etna erupting at dusk.
12 // Eos 1 July 2016M
ount Etna and the Aeo- a cluster of volcanoes, some of the most active
lian Islands in southern in Europe.
Italy represent ideal nat- The region’s proximity to major urban centers
ural laboratories to study is a double-edged sword. Researchers have little
how magma and tectonics trouble visiting volcanoes to study how tectonics
Antonio Zimbone/AGF/UIG/Getty Images
interact in active volcanic influence volcanic plumbing. At the same time,
zones and their associated hazards. The geo- this proximity presents hazards to inland com-
dynamic context of both areas is characterized munities and those on nearby shores.
by a tectonic compression running north and To take advantage of this natural laboratory
south, related to the convergence of the Afri- and to help protect people living nearby, sev-
can and Eurasian plates in the central Medi- eral branches of Italy’s government research
terranean (Figure 1). This compression creates community established the V3 Project—so
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 13R. Azzaro
The active crater of Vulcano (in the background) viewed from Lipari, in Italy’s Aeolian Islands. The cliffs in the foreground are governed by tectonics.
named because it is project number 3 of the Italian Civil frequent, but also the volcano emits a greater volume of
Protection Department’s Volcanological Research Pro- lava.
gram. Data collection for the project ran from 2012 to At Vulcano and Lipari, in the Aeolian Islands, volcanic
2015; now researchers are analyzing the data to build bet- unrest is much less frequent but produces more intense
ter hazards maps and strengthen understanding of how explosive activity and emissions of viscous and thick lava
tectonic and volcanic processes work together to exacer- flows. The previous outbreak at Lipari, in 1230, produced a
bate risk. renowned eruption of pumice and obsidian. Vulcano
erupted more recently, in 1888–1890, but since then it has
Tectonic Setting exhibited only high-temperature fumarolic activity.
A remnant of the Ionian slab (African plate) is subducting The hazards in active volcanic areas are generally related
toward the northwest beneath the Calabrian Arc, which to eruptive activity: lava and flows of hot gas and rock,
forms the toe of Italy’s boot [Gvirtzman and Nur, 2001]. The tephra fallout, fast moving mudflows (lahars), or volcanic
resulting Tindari Fault is a right-lateral strike-slip struc- gas emissions. However, other less devastating kinds of
ture capable of generating moderate earthquakes (the most events may also threaten local communities living on the
recent event, in 1978, was M6.2) that extends from the flanks of a volcano, mostly because these events occur fre-
central sector of the Aeolian Archipelago (islands of Vul- quently or almost continuously.
cano and Lipari) in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea toward the At Etna, recurrent v olcano-tectonic seismicity poses a
Etna region to the south [Billi et al., 2006]. This tectonic serious hazard to the 400,000 or so people who live in
feature, located in eastern Sicily, is considered to represent urbanized areas and to important infrastructure (roads,
a stress transfer zone between the two volcanic areas water/gas/power lines, hospitals, schools, etc.) [Azzaro
[De Guidi et al., 2013]. et al., 2016]. At Vulcano, rockfalls and landslides affect-
ing the active crater put the village and its tourist facili-
A System of Volcanoes ties at risk [Marsella et al., 2015]. These instabilities can
Mount Etna (3340 meters above sea level) is the most happen unexpectedly because of variations in volcanic
active volcano in Europe. It features nearly constant sum- activity or such other triggering processes as rainfall and
mit activity and frequent flank eruptions, with extended seismic activity. Ongoing sea flooding in Lipari’s main
lava flows and copious ashfall. Its activity has increased town provides overwhelming evidence of land subsid-
significantly in recent years—not only are eruptions more ence that, coupled with the expected sea level rise in the
14 // Eos 1 July 2016Modified from Billi et al. [2006]
Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic map showing the geodynamic framework of the Mediterranean region. (b) Main structural features of Sicily and location of the vol-
canic areas studied in the V3 Project.
next decades [Anzidei et al., 2014], will lead to future per- The V3 Project had four goals:
manent inundations.
• nic
to define the tectonic framework controlling the volca-
systems
Addressing the Issues
To tackle hazards and risk in this seismically active volca- • mental datatheacquired
to analyze exceptionally long time series of instru-
by the multiparametric monitoring
nic zone, the Italian Civil Protection Department (DPC),
and define the relationships among them
with the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology
(INGV, through branches in Catania, Palermo, and Rome), • between
to characterize processes connected with the interaction
tectonic structures and volcanic systems
three Italian universities (Cosenza, Catania, and Rome),
and the National Institute of Oceanography and Experi- • of earthquakes,
to produce hazards maps aimed at mitigating the effects
landslides, and land subsidence
mental Geophysics (Trieste), launched the V3 Project.
According to the project’s mission statement, V3 aimed The results of the project have been presented at confer-
to develop “multidisciplinary analysis of the relationships ences and are being published in technical reports [Azzaro
between tectonic structures and volcanic activity.” The and De Rosa, 2016] and scientific papers.
project extended previous research programs on the same
areas funded by DPC. It dealt with various methodological Assessing Hazards at Etna
approaches—tectonic, geophysical, geochemical, petro- As a result of the V3 Project, we now have a greater under-
logical, and geotechnical investigations—to interpret standing of the volcanic and tectonic mechanisms that
ongoing phenomena and assess related hazards. drive hazards in the region.
We found significant correla-
tions in the eastern flank of Etna
among active fault zones, seismic
patterns, variations of crustal
geodetic strain, and fluids circu-
lation. This opens new perspec-
tives to understand faulting at
Etna. We have obtained an ana-
lytical estimation of creep pro-
cesses, indicating that about 40%
of the deformation occurs aseis-
mically. Moreover, we recognized
that the pore pressure of fluids
circulating in the volcanic rocks
(chiefly groundwater) depends on
variations in the crustal strains
related to volcanic or seismic
M. Anzidei
activity [Mattia et al., 2015].
We performed a full probabi-
Scientists measure land subsidence effects along the shoreline of Lipari. listic seismic hazards assessment
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 15at Etna through local seismic sources defined
with instrumental and historic earthquake
data sets [Azzaro et al., 2015]. The obtained
estimations (Figure 2) show that relevant val-
ues of ground accelerations are probabilisti-
cally likely to occur also in short times (5–30
years) and are intended to complement the
50-year seismic hazards map of Italy [Stucchi
et al., 2011]. The assessment can be used to
establish priorities for seismic retrofitting of
the more exposed municipalities.
V3 efforts improved knowledge of the
geometry and structural setting of the sedi-
mentary basement underlying Etna using
high-resolution aeromagnetic surveys and
offshore seismic profiles. They reveal mag-
netic anomalies associated with important
faults [Nicolosi et al., 2014] and shallow-seated
batches of crystallized magma in a framework
of active compressive and extensional tectonic
structures related to the African plate colliding
C. Federico
with Europe [Polonia et al., 2016].
Hazards Elsewhere
Scientists sample bubbling gases from mofettes—vents where chiefly carbon dioxide The regional pattern of north–south crustal
escapes—around Etna. shortening in the southern sector of the Aeo-
lian Islands is associated with a diffuse sub-
sidence [Esposito et al., 2015], but at a local
scale the dynamics reflect different processes
(Figure 3a). At Vulcano a shallow
(4-kilometer-deep) deflating magmatic
source in the northernmost part of the island
is periodically fed by deep fluids coming from
the underlying reservoir. At Lipari, long-
term land subsidence [Anzidei et al., 2016] is
enhanced by coastal dynamics (retreating of
submarine canyons into the shelf), with a
maximum sea level rise of up to 2.2 meters
expected in 2100.
We confirmed the existence of a common
plumbing system responsible for the historic
eruptions (less than 1000 years ago) of Lipari
and Vulcano. This plumbing system, which
lies at a depth of 20 kilometers, periodically
feeds shallow magma storage zones where
processes of magma crystallization occur
[Fusillo et al., 2015]. The eruptive activity took
place contemporaneously at both islands
along a narrow zone characterized by a domi-
nant east–west extensional stress field (Fig-
ure 3b). Any future eruption is likely to take
place in this narrow zone [Ruch et al., 2016].
The susceptibility of the active crater of
Vulcano to landslides, which endanger the
main village, is enhanced by hydrothermal
alteration of rock mass due to hydrothermal
fluid circulation (fumarolic fields, indicated by
red in Figure 3a). Fractures and volcano strati-
graphic discontinuities control the locations
of areas potentially affected by shallow (debris
avalanches/flows and rockfalls) and deep-
seated instability processes [Cangemi et al.,
16 // Eos 1 July 2016Full assessments can be found
on V3’s Web pages (http://bit.ly/
20Ss8mk).
References
Anzidei, M., et al. (2014), Coastal structure, s ea-
level changes and vertical motion of the land in
the Mediterranean, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 388,
453–479, doi:10.1144/SP388.20.
Anzidei, M., et al. (2016), New insights on the sub-
sidence of Lipari island (Aeolian Islands, southern
Italy) from the submerged Roman age pier at
Marina Lunga, Quat. Int., 401, 162–173,
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.07.003.
Azzaro, R., and R. De Rosa (2016), Project V3:
Multi-disciplinary analysis of the relationships
between tectonic structures and volcanic activity
Azzaro and De Rosa [2016]
(Etna, Vulcano-Lipari system), final report, Misc.
INGV 29, 1722 pp., Ist. Naz. di Geofiz. e Vulcanol.,
Rome. [Available at https://sites.g oogle.com/a/
ingv.it/volcpro2014/.]
Azzaro, R., et al. (2015), Towards a new generation
of seismic hazard maps for the volcanic region
of Mt. Etna, in Proceedings of the 34° GNGTS
Meeting, 17–19 November 2015, Trieste (Italy),
pp. 5–11, Ist. Naz. di Oceanogr. e di Geofis. Sper.,
Fig. 2. (a) Shallow (depth ≤5 kilometers) seismicity recorded at Mount Etna from 2005 to 2014 (circles) Trieste, Italy.
and main historic, damaging earthquakes (stars) occurring since 1600. Areas enclosed in yellow lines Azzaro, R., S. D’Amico, and T. Tuvè (2016), Seismic
hazard assessment in the volcanic region of
indicate the studied seismic zones embracing active faults (black lines): FF, Fiandaca; MF-SLF, Mt. Etna (Italy): A probabilistic approach based
Moscarello–San Leonardello; PF, Pernicana; STF-SVF, Santa T ecla–Santa Venerina. (b) Example of on macroseismic data applied to volcano-
tectonic seismicity, Bull. Earthquake Eng.,
probabilistic seismic hazards map: spectral acceleration at 0.2 second, probability of exceedance of doi:10.1007/s10518-015-9806-2, in press.
10% calculated for an exposure time of 50 years. (c) Relevance of local site amplification effects on the Billi, A., et al. (2006), Tectonics and seismicity of
maximum value of expected acceleration due to shaking. Colors in Figures 2b and 2c represent the the Tindari Fault System, southern Italy: Crustal
deformations at the transition between ongoing
values of estimated ground acceleration, from red (maximum) to blue (minimum, close to zero). contractional and extensional domains located
above the edge of a subducting slab, Tecton-
ics, 25, TC2006, doi:10.1029/2004TC001763.
Cangemi, M., et al. (2016), Shallow hydrothermal
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De Guidi, G., et al. (2013), Multidisciplinary study of the Tindari Fault (Sicily, Italy) sepa-
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Science to Mitigate Risk Eurasia convergent boundary, Tectonophysics, 588, 1–17, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2012.11.021.
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Italy): Open data archive and velocity field, Ann. Geophys., 58, S0439, doi:10.4401/
findings of the V3 Project represent the efforts of the sci- ag-6823.
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studied processes. slabs in the central Mediterranean, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 187, 117–130, doi:10.1016/
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Fig. 3. The Vulcano-Lipari system (Aeolian Islands). (a) Location of the regional (Tindari Author Information
Fault zone, responsible for the M6.2 1978 earthquake) and volcanic sources acting in Raffaele Azzaro, Osservatorio Etneo, Istituto
this region. Red squares with connected lines are GPS and electronic distance mea- Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Catania,
surement networks; blue triangles are leveling benchmarks. (b) Sketch to explain the Italy; email: raffaele.azzaro@ingv.it; and Rosanna
transition from strike-slip kinematics along the Tindari Fault (horizontal tectonic stress De Rosa, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra,
(σ1t) dominant) to extension (vertical magmatic stress (σ1m) dominant, orange in Fig- Università della Calabria, Arcavacata di Rende
ure 3a) responsible for magma intrusions in the past 20,000 years. (CS), Italy
Earth & Space Science News Eos.org // 17You can also read
