Under His Eye Religion and Social Control in Atwood's Alias Grace and The Handmaid's Tale.
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Under His Eye
Religion and Social Control in Atwood’s Alias
Grace and The Handmaid’s Tale.
Tonje Rønning Åsen
A Thesis Submitted to The Department of Literature,
Area Studies and European Languages
University of Oslo
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the MA Degree
Spring 2020
30 Point Master ThesisUnder His Eye
Religion and Social Control in Atwood’s Alias Grace and
The Handmaid’s Tale.
Tonje Rønning Åsen
iiAbstract
This thesis argues that Atwood exposes religion as one of the main factors for the
oppression of women by the use of social control in her two novels Alias
Grace and The Handmaid’s Tale. The thesis gives an introduction to the ideas
of Émile Durkheim and the theory of social control. Chapter two focuses mainly on
the use of indirect social control in Alias Grace, while chapter three demonstrates the
implementation of direct social control in The Handmaid’s Tale. This thesis sheds
light on the sparse attention religious criticism is given in literary theory today, and
hopefully, contributes to a more open discussion about religion and discrimination in
the literary field onwards.
iiiAcknowledgements
First of all, the thesis would like to thank the thesis’ supervisor, Dr. Matthew
Williamson. The thesis could not have asked for a better or more patient supervisor
than Dr. Williamson. A special thanks to Dr. Williamson for teaching the thesis that
all personal pronouns are superfluous in a master thesis. Also, the thesis never
doubted the supervisor’s brilliancy.
A huge thanks to HF, and especially Tor Erik Risvik Johnsen and Mia
Brunelle Jønnum. Without your help, I could never have finished this thesis. Thank
you!
I would also like to thank my colleagues for all the support provided. I am grateful
that you always show concern, ask to be of assistance and show interest in everything
I go on about.
A special thanks to my family and friends for your love and support. To my parents,
who taught me to love books and to question authorities, and who read to me when I
was young, but drew a distinction between fiction and reality. To my friends, for all
the encouragement, football, discussions, respites and respect you give. I am lucky to
have you in my life.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Maje. I am extremely grateful for all the help,
discussions and suggestions you have provided through it all. You make me a better
person in so many ways.
ivThe Trouble with Women
Reprinted by permission of Jacky Fleming, The Trouble with Women, London, Square
Peg, 2016.
vTable of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ iii
Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................iv
The Trouble with Women .................................................................................................. v
Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................vi
Abbreviations.................................................................................................................... vii
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter One: Theory ......................................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Alias Grace .............................................................................................. 12
2.1 Spare the Rod and Spoil the Child.................................................................................17
2.2 I Put on Righteousness, and it Clothed me; My Justice Was Like a Robe and a
Turban. ..........................................................................................................................................21
2.3 Let marriage be held in honor among all, and let the marriage bed be
undefiled, for God will judge the sexually immoral and adulterous. ......................27
2.4 Chapter Summary...............................................................................................................32
Chapter Three: The Handmaid’s Tale........................................................................ 34
3.1 For He Will Command His Angels concerning you to Guard you in all your
Ways ...............................................................................................................................................36
3.2 For the Wages of Sin is Death .........................................................................................40
3.3 Charm is Deceitful, and Beauty is Vain, but a Woman who Fears the Lord is
to Be Praised................................................................................................................................42
3.4 Do not conform to the Pattern of this World, but Be Transformed by the
Renewing of your Mind............................................................................................................47
3.5 Chapter Summary...............................................................................................................50
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 51
Works Cited ....................................................................................................................... 53
viAbbreviations
Quotations from the following works are cited in the text through these
abbreviations:
AG: Atwood, Margaret. Alias Grace. London. Virago Press, 2017. Print.
THT: Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. London. Vintage, 2017. Print.
viiIntroduction
Religion is a major theme in our society, and a topic that concerns many people,
religious and non-religious alike. Yet despite this, there remains relatively little
attention to the issue within literary criticism. A historical walkthrough of literary
theory will most likely be reflective of the history of great philosophers and their
views on society. After feminism truly became recognized as a theory in the 70-ies,
however, several new areas within literary criticism emerged, rioting against the white
male prevalence in literature, including queer studies, Marxism, historicism, cultural
studies, postcolonial and race studies and now also the emerging theories of
ecocriticism and disability studies (Parker). The emergence of these schools speaks to
a general tendency within society to attend to different kinds of discrimination as
separate causes but at the same time reveals a significant gap in literary theory:
religion. One might wonder why a topic like religion, which is so important in our
lives and communities, as reflected in our culture, and not least in literature, could
escape the attention of so many thinkers. After persisting, in the field of literature, that
everything is “always already intertwined”, this gap is particularly strange. If
everything depends on one another, and all is shaped in reciprocal actions, surely you
must account for everything. It is peculiar, then, that we do not interpret literature on
basis of religion as we do by for instance culture. As Seth D. Kunin argues, “[i]f
religion is part of culture, (...) religion should be analyzed using theoretical
approaches that are relevant to other area of society” (Kunin, 4-5). Similarly,
Professor Mark Regnerus, has observed, “[c]onnecting religious behavior or identity
to the contexts in which these are given meaning, for the purpose of understanding
human behaviors, is not widely practiced outside the sociology of religion” (Regnerus
2003, 1-2). He recognizes the lack of involving religion in other fields than
the particular field it “belongs” to. This is what we see in literary theory; religion is
rarely subjected to scrutiny. Not least because of the ways in which religion is
entrenched with gender, sexuality and oppression of women, there is a need for
religion to take its place among the other schools in literary theory.
Religion appears to enjoy a somewhat protected position in society. There
may be many reasons for this avoidance or oversight, including fear of causing insult
or an idea that criticizing religion is blasphemy. Especially in America, where religion
tends to be a private matter, it is rarely a topic of discussion, despite the significant
1role it plays in their lives. One could argue that this is counterproductive to a society
that promotes dialogue, understanding and reflection and one should sooner stress the
value of communication on all topics, including religion. As the British politician and
writer Sharmishta Chakrabarti says, “one cannot ignore the way in which the great
world religions have all too often clung to their less progressive cultural and scriptural
roots in the distant past, and stood in the way of women’s rights and equality”
(Chakrabarti 173). Thus, one cannot be afraid to acknowledge the offenses done by
religious groups and people, in the name of religion. We need to have a debate where
religious malpractice is discussed as that: religious, and not cultural, as it often seems
to be pardoned by. This thesis calls attention to religion and its “protected” status
within society - as reflected in the field of literary theory - and especially religious
teaching’s tendency to oppress women.
It is not uncommon to hear the phrase social control in the media today. It is
often used when talking about restrictions or limitations of young girls, and it is
usually linked to immigrants and family honor. Yet, social control is much more than
how it is portrayed in the news. We are all taking part in social control one way or
another, and sometimes it is necessary, and even wanted behavior (Ugelvik). And we
do see a shift in the usage of the expression. One wants to acknowledge the different
types of social control and understand that not all social control is bad. Therefore, we
now see a tendency to be more specific and thus talk about positive and negative
social control. However, for simplicity, this thesis will only use the term social
control as it is, but one should keep in mind that it focuses primarily on the negative
types and consequences of social control.
Religion has through various forms of social control, both subtle and direct,
played a big part in forming our norms to what is acceptable and what is not in
society, where women for the most part have had the worst of it. As professor of
religion Ellen Pagels reminds us “[e]ven those who think of Genesis only as literature,
and those who are not Christian, live in a culture indelibly shaped by such
interpretation as these” (Pagels xix) and when referring to the Bible’s direct influence
on society through their rules and commandments, and how their faith became our
law, she states that “the Christian movement emphasized and institutionalized such
views, which soon became inseparable from Christian faith” (Pagels xvii-xviii). This
quote acts as a reminder of why religion has become so substantial for our approach
2to life; why we behave in a certain way and why we police others who do not appear
to do the same.
One of the ways religions have contributed to the oppression of women is
through social control, both by sanctioning bad behavior, but also through setting
different standards of behavior for women and men, often guided by holy
scriptures. Especially when it comes to sex and appearance, there has been a
tendency in religious circles to teach different things to, and expect different conduct
from, boys and girls. Hannah Gadsby, a Tasmanian comedian, approaches gender and
social control with tremendous power in her show Nanette. She is angry at how
society treats people who go against the norms of what is normal and anticipated for
their assigned gender. Gadsby finds explanation by turning to the role of shame, and
its gendered dimensions in the upbringing of children. Because, as she says, how can
you not predict gender-based discrimination “when you soak one child in shame and
give permission to another to hate” (Gadsby in Nanette). This is critical, and that is
why this thesis aims to expose ways in which religion invoke shame in girls, to a
larger extent than boys, and to show that religious practice plays a big role in this
shaming.
Drawing on moralized arguments to shape other people’s conduct is one form
of social conduct that is still practiced globally, also in Western societies. This
was illustrated by Swedish writer Åsa Linderborg in an article she wrote
for Klassekampen. She describes an incident in Sweden some two years ago, where
several users of their local libraries were denied access to certain books because the
librarians themselves thought of the books as racist, sexist or pornographic
(Linderborg in Klassekampen). The librarians claimed the moral high ground, and
(ab)used their power to control their customers reading habits. This is the type of
social control we find within a society based on Christian ethics.
Sweden is not the only country to host episodes of morally-based censorship.
The US is known to ban books that contain themes they see as amoral, for fear of
“sinful” characters having negative influence on children. Such censorship is a way of
applying social control, where you deny others what you yourself on moral grounds
dislike or disapprove of. One of these books, typically disliked in pious circles, is The
Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorn. According to Banned Books Week, “an annual
event celebrating the freedom to read,” endorsed by The Center for the Books at the
Library of Congress “the book is still being banned because it is sinful and conflicts
3with community values” (Banned Books That Shaped America, 2018). The message
conveyed is that the book, as it conflicts with community values; must be made
inaccessible to read lest no member from the community should get corrupted reading
it. Interestingly, the same moralized views are expressed in AG, set 160 years ago. Dr.
Jordan makes a note on this after Reverend Verringer cites Hawthorne in a passage
about spiritualism. “He is surprised to find a clergyman reading Hawthorne: the man
has been accused for sensualism, and – especially after The Scarlet Letter – of a laxity
in morals” (AG 223). Here, the reader is linked to the author, and the story to the
readers’ own morality. Moreover, censorship represents a common use of social
control by religious parents in the US even today, and one we will see executed in
both AG and THT.
Possibly one of Canada's finest writers, Margaret Atwood, has published
books from a variety of genres worldwide. She is an acclaimed writer, and especially
famous for her dystopian novels. With the recent boost in popularity in her
authorship, thanks to Hulu, HBO and Netflix, Atwood’s earlier novels, Alias
Grace and The Handmaid’s Tale, have become relevant again. The reception of THT
has been such that Atwood wrote a sequel, 34 years after the first novel was
published. The dystopian setting, not too dissimilar to our own worlds religious wars
and terrors, with the familiar use of social control, may be one reason why the public
has become so interested in the story about Offred. Likewise, Atwood’s depiction of
young Grace’s life, under the influence of a type of social control that is more
relatable to readers might kindle interest in AG as well. The central role of religion,
and the ways in which it is tied in with social control positions these two novels as
ideal for this thesis in literary analysis.
Atwood addresses religion as a topic one must include, discuss, and not
pretend to ignore. It is not coincidental that Atwood writes about religion, and
typically draws from Christianity in her books. In a piece about beliefs, she addresses
religion, both privately and in general:
Because despite what I said about Martians and agnostics, I am of course deeply immersed in
Christian culture, both through what the French call my “formation” — my upbringing — and
through the present-day world of North America, in which religion has got into politics in a
big way and cannot, therefore, be discounted. (Atwood in Words that Matter)
4Atwood pinpoints the very problem, that religion is so intertwined with our everyday
life and the societies we live in, that you cannot avoid it. We need to take religion into
account when we write, read, and talk about issues that concern us, like we do with
other concerns or cultural references. Taking the cue from Atwood, this thesis draws
attention to religion as an important topic for literary theory to concern itself
with. Although the thesis talks about religion in general, the nature of the novels and
Atwood’s upbringing, makes it reasonable to discuss Christianity as the main religion.
This does not mean that Christianity necessarily is the only valid frame of reference to
the arguments made about religion in this thesis.
The thesis includes three chapters, where the first chapter will give a brief
introduction to the term social control. Here, it will look at the general definition of
social control, and what that means for society. The thesis presents insight into the
various forms of direct and indirect control, before moving on to Émile Durkheim’s
theory on religion. Durkheim will be the primary scholar in this thesis, but it will also
consider other theoretical approaches to the topic as well. This will provide the
theoretical basis with which to analyze Atwood’s engagement with religion.
The second chapter argues that religion is one of the main factors for the
oppression of women by the means of social control in AG. This chapter will deal
with three aspects of social control enmeshed in religious practice, which are central
to the storyline and main character, Grace, in AG. First, it will demonstrate the
importance of early indoctrination, and how parents shape their children's moral
conduct by teaching them what to believe in. After that, the thesis moves on to how
your conduct is affected by what others think of you. This is how social control work
when it comes to how you dress and how free you are to do as you please. Atwood
raises many issues with her description of Grace’s everyday life and thoughts.
Seemingly trivial passages about fashion and relationships hold deep meanings on
how our society works, and how religion, through social control, has helped form
ways of acting and thinking.
Lastly, the third chapter explores a different take on social control and religion
in THT. This chapter includes four aspects of the usage of social control in THT. As
the two novels are different in form and genre, the way one reads social control in the
novels will be as well. This novel demonstrates a more obvious use of control. The
first part will deal with how Atwood portrays the use of terror, and the unknown, as a
way of controlling people. Then the thesis moves on to how severe punishments act as
5a form of prevention for unwanted conduct. The third part will draw attention to
social control acting through the introduction of uniforms and infliction of shame. The
last part of this chapter considers how the human mind adapts to change, however
awful, and the distressing way in which Atwood describes such adaption as the
normal course of events.
As this thesis unfolds, it will connect these aspects and compare similarities
and differences in the two novels. In such manner, this thesis argues that Atwood
exposes religion as one of the main factors for the oppression of women by the use
of social control in her two novels Alias Grace and The Handmaid’s Tale. The reason
why this is important is to show the significant position religion holds in people’s
lives and at the same time reveal how religion partakes in and upholds discrimination
against women. As Atwood states in an interview with Anna Czarnik-Neimeyer,
“[r]eligion has been- and is in other parts of the world today- used as a hammer to
whack people on the heads with” (Atwood in Czarnik-Neimeyer). Her opinion on
religion is obvious in her depiction of the life of both Grace Marks and Offred. There
is no arguing against the significant role religion plays in the oppression of women in
both novels, and social control is clearly the hammer used in these stories. As such,
Atwood’s authorship demonstrates why there is need to take religion into account
when reading and interpreting literature. The essential role of religion in connection to
gender-related and other forms of discrimination and injustice shines through in
various literary works, including these two novels. Therefore, this thesis highlights
that religious criticism deserves a greater place in literary theory than is found today.
6Chapter One: Theory
Although religion as a topic has engaged many philosophers throughout history, such
as Durkheim, Weber and Freud, it has not been common to link it to literary
theory. That is why this thesis draws mainly from the field of sociology,
and chiefly from the French social scientist Émile Durkheim. Kunin states
that Durkheim’s The Elementary Forms of a Religious Life “was a groundbreaking
work, which presents an extended argument examining the relationship between
religion and society” (Kunin, 16). This relationship will be fundamental to this thesis,
which examines the role religion plays in forming a society, particularly
considering how to make people behave in certain ways, and make them
follow societies norms, as well as laws.
Professor in social science Robert J. Sampson defines social control in a
simple way, writing that “[i]n its most general sense “social control” refers to the
regulation of human behavior” (Sampson 7). However, the theory of social control is
not as straightforward and ever since the term was coined there has been disagreement
on what it meant. Even today, scholars argue about how to use this theory. According
to Robert F. Meier this is remarkable for two reasons: One being that it is the most
widely used term in the sociological lexicon, and the other that people still have
interest in the matter (Meier 1). He also lists the three ways the term is used in
sociological literature: “(a) as a description of a basic social process or condition; (b)
as a mechanism to insure compliance with norms; and (c) as a method by which to
study (or to interpret data about) social order” (Meier 1). By these three terms one can
understand why it’s become such a wide concept. It is also used in different schools,
including psychology and criminology, and not only in sociology. They all use social
control to describe and explain society and individuals in their field, surely making it
wider. This is why Jack Gibbs, one of the fathers of social control called for a
reformulation of the phrase. A similar plea had already been made as early as 1941 by
Professor August B. Hollingshead, a prominent figure in social control theory (Clark
and Gibbs 1). This goes to show that social control has been a hotly debated and
broadly applied theme for a long time.
This thesis will focus mainly on the second context Meier listed: social control
as a mechanism to insure compliance with norms. This has been offered as an
explanation for how societies behave by many theorists in many fields. Marx, for
7instance, used social control to construe his theory about capitalism and socialism.
However, he used it to describe the economic order of society rather than the
sociological order. Durkheim, on the other hand, used social control in his work on
society and religion. His work was revolutionary, showing that all religions were
equal, and that Christianity was not the protagonist in world history and society.
Durkheim studied various religions all over the world, and he came up with an
explanation for why religion is so dominant in society. To fathom this, one needs to
understand what Durkheim meant by the term collective consciousness, on which he
based his studies. He believed that “[t]he totality of beliefs and sentiments common to
the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own. It
can be termed the collective or creative consciousness” (Durkheim 1984, 38-39).
Furthermore, Durkheim claims that:
[T]he hold society has over consciousness owes far less to the prerogative its physical
superiority gives it than to the moral authority with which it is invested. We defer to society’s
orders not simply because it is equipped to overcome our resistance but, first and foremost,
because it is the object of genuine respect. (Durkheim 1995, 209)
According to Durkheim, the physical boundaries and institutions of and in a society
are not the main factors for our restrictions. Rather, what keeps us from acting against
the norms is our collective sense of being part of something greater, something we
can believe gives meaning to our lives. This is the primary reason for acting according
to a given society’s principles. A successful society is one that makes its members
believe in its systems and incorporates its core values and beliefs into their own faith.
If a society manages to instill their set of values and truths into their members, they
will be more likely to live by the norms and laws of that community. This is a practice
used by religious communities all over the world. If you want your parish to behave
in a certain way and follow your mores you are more likely to succeed with a group
that respects your truth to be the one truth.
There are many definitions of religion, but it seems appropriate to use
Durkheim’s own definition here, which is a fair-minded and impartial interpretation
of an otherwise sensitive topic. He defines religion as “a unified system of beliefs and
practices relative to sacred things, i.e., things set apart and forbidden- beliefs and
practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church, [and] all those
8who adhere to them” (Durkheim 1995, 44). Durkheim presents an unbiased take on
religion, here it is not assumed as the one truth, but rather as a system formed by
members of the same faith. The focus is on the community rather than the divine,
which makes the concept of religion more accessible. It is this definition the thesis
will base its meaning of religion, Church and religious institutions on.
In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life Durkheim discusses the role of
moral in religion and society. Moral is closely connected to the collective
consciousness:
[W]e cannot help but feel that this moral toning up has an external cause, though we do not
see where that cause is or what it is. So we readily conceive of it in the form of a moral power
that, while immanent in us, also represents something in us that is other than ourselves. This is
man’s moral consciousness and his conscience. And it is only with the aid of religious
symbols that most have ever managed to conceive of it with any clarity at all. (Durkheim
1995, 214)
Durkheim describes moral consciousness as a feeling of holiness. Although he states
that morality is something inherent in us all, his experience is that most people
assume morality to have a higher meaning, and that the mores that comprise certain
moral behavior have been imparted from something divine. This is because people as
a community feel part of something bigger. When believing in the same laws, rules,
gods, etc. as the rest of a community, our beliefs are justified. They are legitimated
through commonness, and a conviction that what most people do must be the right
thing, because, why else would they be doing it? This commonness is part of a
naturalization of actions.
In addition, Durkheim found in his studies of religion that the feeling of
commonness was stronger for religious people, because they also received approval
from what they believed to be a higher power. Not only did they get their support
from a collective consciousness, they also had faith that something greater than
human made their norms for them to follow. This way of thinking is what gives social
control its authority, and what makes Durkheim’s research important for this thesis.
Religious societies have scriptures, manifestos, rules and norms that the followers
must embrace. And, depending on the religion, they use punishment in various forms,
including exclusion and murder, for those who do not obey. This thesis maintains that
Durkheim’s findings support the idea that social control is widely used in religious
9groups, and that the theory of social control, which is most widely applied to the
fields of law and criminology is relevant for studies on religion as well.
Social control is found in Marxism as well, and one of the ways we can look at
social control is through Althusser’s concept of interpellation. Professor Robert
Parker explains that “interpellation is the process of being passively, unconsciously
drawn into dominant social assumptions” (Parker 234). Althusser argues that we
participate in a society that speaks to our subconsciousness in a way that makes us
believe we are making conscious choices. He believes that we, in many ways,
unknowingly make choices based on what society chooses for us: We think we are
acting on our own volition, when in reality we are programmed to make these
choices, through society’s influence on us. Althusser further differs between what he
calls ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) and repressive state apparatuses (RSAs).
The ISAs “include the schools, media, churches, families, unions, and entertainment
culture (…), [while the RSAs] include the police, courts, prisons, and
military” (Parker 233- 234). The ISAs, then, will mainly be a control method for
informal or indirect social control, whereas the RSAs will mainly employ formal or
direct social control. Althusser also believed that “[t]he ISAs can recruit us into
ideology more subtly than the RSAs, making us imagine that we have chosen the
actions that real conditions have chosen for us” (Parker 234). Accordingly, the ISAs
exert the strongest influence on us, shaping our beliefs and behaviors, in ways that
make us think they are our own persuasions. The effectiveness of the more subtle
forms of social control is an essential point of the thesis and will be looked at more
closely in the next chapter.
Psychologist and scientist Sheelagh Strawbridge writes about the parallels in
Althusser’s and Durkheim’s work, and finds there are many similarities between the
two theories. While Durkheim studied many different religions, Althusser focused on
Christianity, but they both regarded their theories as applicable to all religions, and, in
Althusser’s case, to other institutions as well (Strawbridge 11). Althusser says,
according to Strawbridge, “that religious ideology is addressed to individuals in order
to constitute them as seemingly autonomous subjects freely occupying their
designated places in society,” (Althusser in Strawbridge 11) and that “in order for
there to be a multitude of possible religious subjects there must be a “Unique
Absolute Other Subject, i.e. God” (Althusser in Strawbridge 11). This is in line with
Durkheim’s idea about religion and moral, that members of a society have a feeling of
10being part of something bigger and other than human; that their morality reaches a
higher standard when it comes from something divine. Althusser adds to this idea,
claiming that the divine needs to be present for the members of a society to accept the
laws, rules and choices of society. Moreover, he suggests that the very basis of
religion is to get the parishioners to believe that they are choosing to comply, when
they in reality have been interpellated into their faith.
Ultimately, different theorists have categorized different types of social
control. Dr. Francis Ivan Nye, a famous theorist in the field, talked about three forms
of social control: “direct control (direct use of punishments and rewards), indirect
control (controls asserted through identification with non-criminals), and internal
control (an individual’s conscience or guilt)” (Nye in Marsing 21). Definitions one
and three are most relevant to this thesis, as definition number two is namely specific
to Nye’s study on criminals and lawbreakers. Direct and internal control are directly
transferable to religious groups, as is shown throughout this paper, and correspond to
the common distinction between formal and informal social control. In short, formal
control comes from the RSAs and informal control comes from the ISAs. On that
note, Hollinger and Clark did an interesting study on formal and informal social
control among employees. They looked at what threats had best effect on deviant
behavior of employees. The results were in line with Althusser’s, indicating that
social control through the ISAs is the most efficient way to control social behavior.
They state that their “data clearly indicate that the loss of respect among one’s
“acquaintances” was the single most effective variable in predicting future deviant
involvement” (Hollinger, Clark 3). Their study supports the idea that the informal
social control found in AG is equally effective, if not as horrendous, as the formal
social control found in THT. As this thesis unfolds, the ideas of Durkheim and
Althusser will be essential for the interpretation of social control in the two novels.
Their concepts will shed light on how religion, through collective consciousness,
family, neighbors and the Church, is a central factor to consider in relation to
oppression of women.
11Chapter Two: Alias Grace
Alias Grace was first published in 1996 as a historical fiction novel. The story depicts
the life of young Grace Marks, a character based upon the convicted criminal by the
same name. Still, Atwood states that “Alias Grace is very much a novel rather than it
is a documentary” (Atwood, 1998). Atwood portrays the life of a young girl in the
19th century through her thoughts and conversations. In this way we are admitted to
the memories of her past, as well as her thoughts on the present.
Grace was incarcerated at a very young age for the murders of her employers,
Thomas Kinnear and Nancy Montgomery. No doubt because of her young age and
gender, she escaped the punishment of hanging that was assigned James McDermott,
her partner in crime, and was sentenced to prison instead. In the novel we meet her in
prison, attending regular appointments with Dr. Jordan, where he aims to find out
what truly happened that night. The doctor is engaged by a Methodist minister,
Reverend Verringer, who wants to believe in and prove Grace’s innocence.
The story takes place mostly in Canada around the 1850s, a time when many
people sought a better life in Canada, either because they were poor or because they
were persecuted for their religion at home. There were many different religious
groups in Canada, but although they may have been perceived as more liberal at the
time, Coral Ann Howells states that “Anglo-Canadian society a hundred years ago—
or fifty years ago—was no less troubled and divided than today, and beset by the
same conflicts around class and gender issues, suspicion and resentment of
immigrants from ethnic minorities, and warring political factions” (Howells 27).
Thus, moving to Canada was not a guarantee for a better life. Which religion you
belonged to mattered a great deal, especially in Canada, argues Callum G. Brown, “in
which there was until the 1980s a perception of very high religiosity, strong levels of
churchgoing, and a national culture infused with a dominant Christianity” (Brown
24). Grace has faith and Stephanie Lovelady notes that “[a]s an adult, [she] attends a
Methodist church. While this is an unsurprising choice, given her family background,
it is also a very strategic, assimilationist one” (Lovelady 12). With this decision she
has a better chance to rid herself of her Irish heritage, and integrate into the new
society and become a good citizen.
Atwood tells this story through both Grace and Dr. Jordan, making the story’s
narration shift from first-person to third-person, in addition to giving us different
12points of views on ongoing and past situations. Atwood also includes several letters,
poems, hymns etc., which is a clever approach to bring various voices into the story.
Through a handful of characters and personas, she controls the information she wants
to share with the reader.
Lastly, Grace spends much of her life in prison, which is a type of direct social
control. However, this will not be addressed here, as it is not of religious character.
There is recognition of the many ways we employ social control in our society, but
the main focus in this paper is on how religious institutions exert it on their members
and society, so this will be the focal point of this thesis.
This chapter consists of three main parts, all of which have their own reminder
that social control was ever present and vastly used in the religious circles described
in the text. The first part focuses on the family, and their role in passing on their
religion and beliefs to their children. The second part looks at the way clothes and
appearance played a part in controlling women. Atwood has made clothes a concern
of Grace’s, of which she has many descriptions and opinions on throughout the novel.
The last part examines how religion took part in ostracizing and shaming women for
adultery or having premarital sex, an important theme in the novel. All the
components above will be read in light of social control theory. This will be based on
explanations of what forms one's behavior, here by Hollingshead. He clarifies how
behavior, like Grace’s persuasion, is a product of years and years with implementing
mores, norms and rules by folkways and institutions, legitimized through family and
neighbors:
[S]ociety is composed of the interrelations among persons acting within the confines of the
rules, regulations, practices, and beliefs common to their culture. Society, in contrast to the
person, is an ongoing processual existence lasting from generation to generation, perpetuated
by the sentiments, codes, customs, institutions, and ideologies communicated to individuals
born or adopted into the organization by those previously assimilated. (Hollingshead 220)
Any member of a specific society or family has been taught their ways through
association with older members and what Althusser calls the ISAs: family, school,
church, etc. This is important to keep in mind as we go on, because we will see that
much of Grace’s thoughts and behavior is formed through learnt norms, which is the
same social control that makes her life as a woman more restricted than that of a man.
13Although numerous critics have emphasized the role of gender roles within the
text, few have acknowledged the significance of religious forms of social
control. Quite a few writers have discussed the importance of the quilts in AG. A
common way of reading the quilts and patchwork in this novel is as meaningful parts
of the format of the text itself. (Ingersoll, 2001; Rogerson, 1998; Wiley, 1997) Both
Earl Ingersoll and Margaret Rogerson are concerned with gender as a theme, but
while Ingersoll talks about the male/female paradigm (Ingersoll), Rogerson
concentrates on the quilts being a voice for women, and she finds that for Grace the
quilts function as material for expressing herself and putting her story and secrets
into. (Rogerson) Although they cover the religious motifs of the quilts, they do not
weave these images into the story, as they do with gender. There does not seem to be
recognition that the religious parts of Grace’s life also shaped the patterns of her life.
This is noteworthy, as they seem to have a notion of religion as a powerful influence
on people’s minds and behavior in general. Ingersoll even believed it important to
consider the religion of the readers, noting that “early readers approached fiction with
anxieties about the power of fiction’s illusion-making because they had been taught
that Satan was the master of illusions” (Ingersoll 5). Rogerson, on the other hand,
touches upon morality, regarding there to be dark and light pieces of both the material
of the quilts and of humanity. However, despite the quilts’ religious motifs, she does
not draw religion into her interpretations:
Whether this interest in quilts and the beds under them is to be interpreted as shrewd
worldliness or naive innocence depends on whether the observer is “looking at the dark
pieces, or else the light” (p. 162): what does become clear is that, for Grace, talking about
quilts means talking about herself and about humanity. (Rogerson, 12)
Rogerson does not seem to relate the quilts’ dark or light pieces to the actions that
take place in the bed, and whether or not they are consensual, when she talks of naïve
innocence. An alternative reading, sensitive to gender and religion, might relate the
same pattern to a man’s claim and a woman’s duty when it comes to sex. Rogerson
also quotes Reverend Verringer, but leaves out the parts about morality. Concerned
mainly about the patchwork, she fails to attend to the religious motifs on the quilts as
references to the religious dominion of morality. Reverend Verringer reflects, “what
becomes of the soul? We cannot be mere patchworks! It is a horrifying thought, and
14one that, if true, would make a mockery of all notions of moral responsibility, and
indeed of morality itself, as we currently define it” (471). Here is an excellent
opportunity to talk about how religion is patched up, and gathered from different
stories, just like the quilts and characters in the novel. Atwood gives
Reverend Verringer the voice of a priest, whom believes that the moral compass is
integrated into the soul. A more plausible interpretation, sprung from social control
theory, is that the moral compass consists of bits and pieces of social and cultural
mores and laws that have been integrated into a given society. These patches are in
themselves different codes, which stitched together becomes a religion. When you are
making a quilt, you pick pieces you like to go into the quilt, in the same way you may
cherry-pick what pieces of your religion you want to follow. This cherry-picking
decides what rules to follow, but most importantly, which rules that apply to others.
Social control becomes negative when your believes and expectations of conduct are
imposed on others. In the end of the book, Grace chooses three pieces to go into her
quilt, and by choosing these particular pieces she shows she is in peace with her own
history, and not in need of rewriting her own past. She does not cherry-pick only the
good parts but chooses to embrace her dark past and incorporate it into her self-
consciousness.
Another main theme within studies of AG is voice and the narrative.
(Lovelady, 1999; March, 1997; Miller, 2002) The novel is a masterpiece of merging
different voices and bringing them together into one story. Many researchers have
focused on the gendered perspective of narration in the book, and both Lovelady
and Cristie March see this as an important theme. What is most interesting in these
articles is that they talk about several examples of social control, but they do not
perceive them as such. For instance, when Nancy dresses above her station, Grace
immediately judges this as strange, and March notes that “Grace’s observations clash
with the social implications of being a ‘lady’” (March 3). What lies beneath here, is
this notion that there is a certain way only a lady should dress, and that it would be
socially unacceptable for some people to dress that way. In this example “Nancy’s
clothing becomes a morally and socially coded object” (March 5). This is an example
of social control, and the same policing is found later in Grace’s life, where Lovelady
remarks that “[t]hey name their cat Tabby and their dog Rex because “[they] don’t
wish to get a reputation in the neighbourhood for being too original (455)” (Lovelady
14). The reputation amongst the neighbors is important, signaling that the neighbors
15hold some power over you, that acts as a form of social control. Furthermore,
Lovelady comments on two specific events that show the dichotomy between men
and women; “’He wears a "sand-coloured" suit ‘(305). Jeremiah slips through others'
definitions of him like sand, escaping where Grace seems trapped’ (Lovelady 10) and
“[u]ltimately, because he does not mean to marry her, Grace rejects the offer and
shortly thereafter she finds herself in prison. Her imprisonment contrasts starkly with
Jeremiah's physical and social mobility” (Lovelady 10). In both examples social
control and its gendered character creates this disparity between Grace and Jeremiah.
The norms of society decide what he is allowed, and when she is punished. Grace
could never have had the kind of life Jeremiah leads, escaping judgment and
denunciation. This shows it is essential to acknowledge the importance of social
control in a feminist reading.
In his article Ryan Miller acknowledges Atwood’s extensive use of religion
in AG, but makes the connection specific to Gnosticism and spirituality. He writes
that:
While there are other theological readings of Alias Grace possible, I would argue that to
understand the carefully structured relationships between the novel’s invented (as opposed to
the historical) characters—and the significance of Grace’s final ‘Tree of Paradise’ design—an
understanding of Gnosticism is essential. (Miller 4)
While an interesting notion, it could be argued that religion in general is more
essential to account for than Gnosticism in particular. Applying a Gnostic perspective
on AG, which emphasizes the individual’s freedom, both women and men, might
serve to overlook or undermine the presence and significance of social control in
religion. Gnosticism harbors a rather flexible view on rules compared with other more
conservative strands of Christianity. According to the Gnosis Archives:
To the Gnostic, commandments and rules are not salvific; they are not substantially conducive
to salvation. Rules of conduct may serve numerous ends, including the structuring of an
ordered and peaceful society, and the maintenance of harmonious relations within social
groups. Rules, however, are not relevant to salvation; that is brought about only by Gnosis.
Morality therefore needs to be viewed primarily in temporal and secular terms; it is ever
subject to changes and modifications in accordance with the spiritual development of the
individual. (Hoeller)
16This is in many ways a description of social control, and more so, one that fits
Durkheim’s idea about the peaceful society. However, notice the distinction between
morality to the Gnostic in comparison to the Christian beliefs. The Gnostics believe
that morality and conduct is not what will bring you salvation, only true knowledge
will lead you there. This would mean that you would be freer in a Gnostic society.
One could conclude then, that there would not be a need for women and men to
behave differently, as they would not be judged upon their actions.
Even if there is a group who are drawn to the spiritual in AG, as Miller argues,
we still see that these same people are under the influence of the same social control
as their neighbors. They dress and conduct themselves alike and find the same
behavior of an amoral standard. For instance, this is shown when the group is
attending a spiritual séance, and Jerome DuPont is hypnotizing Grace. Grace, under
the influence of Mary Whitney, uses crude language, which makes the Governor’s
wife and her daughter, Lydia, want to leave. DuPont urges them to stay: “‘Please’,
says DuPont. ‘Bear with me. Modesty must take second place to the interests of
science’” (465). Later, we find that the same Lydia has fallen, and that her virtue is
salvaged by entering matrimony with a man she does not even like:
After that she took to going out to more parties with more young men than ever, and
especially a certain Captain, which nothing came of him, and she got the name of a romp
amongst the military men; and then there were rows with her mother, and when another month
had gone by it was announced that she was engaged to be married to the Reverend Verringer;
which was a surprise, as she always used to make fun of him behind his back, and say he
looked like a frog. (493)
These incidents suggest that they live by the same Christian norms as others,
influenced by and partaking in the same social control that dominates that society.
They are not free to do as they please, because they are not free from other’s opinion
of them. Yet again, we see the need to discuss these events in light of social control
theory.
2.1 Spare the Rod and Spoil the Child
Through Grace’s accounts we gain insight into her childhood and upbringing, and the
role her parents play in shaping her religious life. Grace’s upbringing reflects how
17parents by far determine their children’s religion, and use religion to mold the way
they behave. Nye claims, “[t]o induce the child to obey rules and regulations rather
than to break them, society has produced a number of agencies of social control, the
most important of which is the family” (Nye 291). The family will be the first to
introduce the ways of society. Parents will teach their children how to behave and
pass on what they believe in and the practice and rituals of their own lives. Meier also
refers to this in his research where they found that there was pressure in society to
behave well, and “[t]raditionally, such pressure resulted from the enforcement of
custom by the family and religion” (Meier 9).
AG contains numerous examples from family settings, in support of Meier,
that highlight the role of religion in shaping people’s behavior. In addition to the laws
and norms you must follow whilst living in a state, many religious groups apply their
own mores you must obey to be included in their community. These mores are often
based on holy scriptures and sacred writs. Circumcision, male or female, prohibition
or instruction on what to eat or how to dress, or rituals of praying and meditating are
some principles we find in religions. As Regnerus puts it, “[s]uch a moral order is
not established by people’s own desires and decisions but instead exists apart from
and above them, providing standards by which to evaluate those desires and
decisions” (Regnerus 2007, 44). These are rules that create an “us vs. they”. It
divides the sinners and the saints, depending on which faith you follow, and this is
also a factor for keeping people in line with their religious policies. This corresponds
to what Nye’s study showed about the relationship between family bonds and crimes.
He saw that parents who acted as good role models played an important role in
molding the children to not behave in criminal ways (Nye 2). The children would
behave well and in accordance with what their parents thought of as good behavior, in
order to please their parents (Nye 3). Hence, if parents teach the ways of the Bible as
the true path, their children will strive to achieve this behavior in hope of pleasing
their parents.
Grace appears to be a subject of this type of religious social control through
her parents, starting from a young age. One example from the book is when Grace
recalls a terrible memory from her childhood. She explains to Dr. Jordan that she can
never reveal other people’s secrets, because that would be sinful. She looks back on
the time her mother told her so:
18And when I asked my mother what the secret was, she brought out the bible, and said I must
swear on it to keep the secret too, and that God would punish me if I broke such a sacred
promise; which terrified me very much, as I was in danger of letting it out unawares, because I
had no idea at all of what it was. And being punished by God must be a terrible thing, as he
was so much larger than my father: and after that I was always very careful about keeping the
secrets of others, no matter what they might be. (125)
This scene represents a common method in religious circuits, for making children
behave in a certain way. Grace’s mother uses God to intimidate Grace to act as she
pleases, here not to reveal a secret. And we see that it works, because fear of the
unknown functions as a strong motivator. Grace, who has an abusive father, infers
that since God is greater than her father, so must God’s punishment be worse than that
of her father. This frightens her, and even makes her scared that she can spoil secrets
she does not even know about, thus keeping her in a constant state of worry. Later in
AG, we get the sense that Grace recalls the incident in her adult life as well, and that it
may have laid the foundation of her self-image when she states at an older age,
“Heaven was not a place I ever used to think of myself as going”
(526). This demonstrates the power parents possess over their children, and how
religion can be used in a harmful way.
Grace’s experience of religiously based social control growing up can be taken
to represent real-life situations. Parents, knowingly or unknowingly, use the notion of
an afterlife as a strategy in child rearing. In some places, like the United States,
disciplining children through intimidation and threats has in extreme cases been
institutionalized and even commercialized. There are places where you can bring your
children to learn about sin and hell. Hell is the place some religious groups believe
they go to after having led a sinful life. In these places they visualize hell, and it is a
scaring display. Richard Dawkins, a famous atheist and writer, visits some of these
places and reports:
A Hell House is a place where children are brought, by their parents or Christian schools, to
be scared witless over what might happen to them after they die. Actors play out fearsome
tableaux of particular ‘sins’ like abortion or homosexuality, with a scarlet-clad devil in
gloating attendance. (Dawkins 359)
19This is religion at its most extreme, yet it does exist and cannot be ignored. We are
reminded of this in the novel as well, as Dr. Joseph Workman writes in a letter to Dr.
Jordan: “Religious fanaticism I find to be fully as prolific an exciting cause of
insanity as intemperance” (54). However, parents do not put their children through
such mental distress out of evil or insanity, but because they believe it to be what is
best for their children. Dawkins also finds this to be the case, and refers to the
justification offered by one of the operators of this Hell House:
‘I would rather for them to understand that Hell is a place that they absolutely do not want to
go. I would rather reach them with that message at twelve than not reach them with that
message and have them live a life of sin and to never find the Lord Jesus Christ. And if they
end up having nightmares, as a result of experiencing this, I think there’s a higher good that
would ultimately be archived and accomplished in their life than simply having nightmares’.
(Dawkins 359-360)
The operator defends his work with his belief that this is for a better cause. He
justifies it with the notion that even though a child is scarred by this experience, it will
lead to salvation, and a way of escaping real torture in the afterlife. Durkheim
explains, based on his research on the workings of religion, that those who believe in
a god, has fortitude in their actions from truly believing that they are doing the right
thing. He says that “[a] god is not only an authority to which we are subject but also a
force that buttresses our own. The man who has obeyed his god, and who for this
reason thinks he has his god with him, approaches the world with confidence and a
sense of heightened energy” (Durkheim 1995, 211). Similarly, when Grace’s mother
tells her she will be punished by God for her wrongdoings, it is probably for the same
reason. She believes she is saving Grace from the punishment of God. She employs
social control so that Grace will behave now and in the future according to the rules
of Christianity. As Nye would say, this is her “role in the formation of the conscience
(super-ego) of the child” (Nye 292). Durkheim points to the same, noting that some
people commit violent acts, because they feel an intense passion that comes from
belonging to a group that is convinced that they have a moral responsibility to do so
imparted from something mightier than themselves:
[T]he mental processes are so clearly the same as those at the root of religion that the
individuals themselves conceived the pressure they yielded to in explicitly religious terms.
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