NATIONAL IDENTITY CRISIS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA, 1999-2017

Economics And Social Sciences Academic Journal
 Vol.3, No.7; July- 2021
 ISSN (5282 -0053);
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 NATIONAL IDENTITY CRISIS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC
 DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA, 1999-2017

 EJIM, Miria Ushang and DAVIES, Emmanuel Opuene PhD
 Department of Political Science, Rivers State University, Nkpolu- Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract: This study examined the nexus between national identity crisis and socio economic development in Nigeria.
This is against the background of the increasing disarticulation in the loyal relationship between the citizens and the
state as well as the latter's persistent ranking among the poorest countries of the world, its rich natural endowments
notwithstanding. Three research questions were posed and analysed using the statistical tool of simple percentages
while two research hypotheses were raised and tested with the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient at 5%
significance level. Using the Descriptive Analytical methodology, the study relied on both the primary and secondary
data. 3,600 copies of a questionnaire titled national identity Crisis and Development in Nigeria (NICDIN) were
administered in the six geo-political zones of the country using a combination of the random and purposive sampling
methods to select the study areas. The study adopted the Marxian Political Economy theoretical framework, which
explains social phenomena from the standpoints of dialectics and class relations. It explained the prevailing
disarticulation in the loyal relationship between the people and the nation as part of an on-going dialectical process
with the potentials of evolving a new socio-economic order with a more equitable resource distribution system. The
major finding of this work is that the National Identity Crisis, rooted in the economic alienation of the masses by the
ruling class is a product of the failure of the state in its contractual obligation to its citizens and a major contributor to
the nation's underdevelopment. The work, therefore, recommends that effective management of the crisis, through
affirmative action by the state and the pursuit of distributive justice policies will enhance the people's sense of
ownership of the country and by extension, reignite the 'we' feeling among the nation's identity-entities. These will
promote their collective commitment to the cause of the nation and engender the much needed development.
Keywords: Nation Identity, Crisis, Socio-economic, Development, Nigeria

Introduction 1000 people, the 6th worst case in the world; her infant
Despite having Africa's highest Gross Domestic mortality rate per 1000 live births stands at 92.99 which
Product (GDP) (IMFM, 2014), Nigeria ranks amongst puts her in the 10th position; Her life expectancy is put
the poorest countries of the world. The 2014 United in 47.24 years on the average. HIV/AIDS adult
Nations Human Development report, which groups prevalence rate by 2007 estimates is 3.10 percent and
countries into three categories - High, Medium and this placed her in the 23rdposition while only 68 percent
Low Human Development, based on their levels of of Nigerians are literate. Over 70 percent of Nigerians
socio-economic development, places Nigeria, the live below the poverty line, according to the report.
highest oil producer in Africa and the fourth in the Insecurity, a social corollary of the economic crisis
world conspicuously in the Low Human Development presents a similar picture. The International Society for
category. She occupies the 22ndposition in Africa and Civil Liberties and the Rule of Law, in her report to
the 152nd in the World. (UN HDI, 2014). mark the 63rd anniversary of the UNHR (2011 World
Statistics from the World Fact Book as captured by Human Rights Day), revealed that, between 1999 and
Odumosu (2011, pp. 2-4) elaborated in the report 2011, over 54,000 Nigerians died outside the law.
above reveals that the death rate for Nigeria is 16.31 per Unfortunately, these cases were hardly prosecuted,
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which suggests that the life of the average Nigerian Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB), the Movement
means little or nothing to the state. Yahaya Mahmud for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), the
(2015, p.5), a Senior Advocate of Nigeria corroborated Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People
this when he remarked that perpetrators are hardly tried (MOSOP), Oodua People's Congress (OPC), Arewa
and also hardly punished because our judicial process is People's Congress (APC), the South-South Peoples
slow. Secondly, we don't value human life. Assembly (SSPA), etc. and their clamour for either self-
Despite the enormous wealth accruing to the nation determination or the review of the terms of :heir
from her natural resources, the collective welfare of the engagement with the nation lend credence to the
people appears to have very little appeal to the State. people's seeming disillusionment in the nation as a
The majority of the citizens, from their meagre platform for the achievement of their socioeconomic
resources, are compelled to provide for themselves, aspirations. Their occasional but growing defiant
such basic necessities as drinking water, electricity, resistance to,or even confrontation with state authority
roads and sometimes security - tasks which are the and sovereignty and sometimes, attack on national
primary responsibility of the people. This shows a economic assets or symbols speak of a loss of faith in
failure of the state in its contractual obligation to the the nation.
people. This apparent 'breach of contract' by the state Reporting on one of the violent demonstrations of
creates a disarticulation in the people's perception of the loyalty crisis against the Nigerian state by the
state as a platform for the realisation of their Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta
aspirations, their relationship with and loyalty to the (MEND), Ajayi wrote:
nation. As Locke, in his ‘Two Treatises of Government' Militant youths in the Niger Delta, Monday
(1690) noted, initiated another deadly attack on the country's oil
 ...when the State negates from its social facility in that area, blowing up a military house
 responsibility (i.e. Protection of life and boat and an oil pipeline in continuation of their
 properties, ensuring person's well-being and armed campaign against the Federal Government.
 justice) or the King becomes a tyrant and acts The militants who are holding nine foreign
 against the interests of the people, then people hostages, vowed to prevent Royal Dutch Shell from
 have the right, if not an outright obligation, to using the damaged forcados tanker loading
 resist the authority. Thus a socially platform, which accounts for 15 Percent of
 irresponsible and unresponsive State or Nigerian exports, and threatened an even more
 leadership, which scuttles good governance, devastating series of attack on the whole region
 simply creates the atmosphere for social (Ajayi 2006,p.2).
 disobedience, instability, up-rising and In her quest to address the nation's development
 revolution, (cited in Hamza 2007,p.6) aspirations, it is estimated that the Federal Government
Consequently, there has been a rise in loyalty crisis in of Nigeria spent over 32.0364 trillion naira between
recent years, demonstrated by a weakening of the bond 1999 and 2013 (Ahmed 2013,p.90). Agencies,
between the nation and its citizens, citizens' low sense Commissions and institutional frameworks have also
of ownership of the state, increase in group nationalism, been set up to help the nation attain the much needed
a significant drop in the people's commitment to the development. But despite these efforts and resources
cause of the state etc. These further seem to have an invested, Nigeria still maintains a 'prominent' place in
impact the nation's economy, security and social life. the list of the Least Developed Countries of the world.
The rise of groups like the Indigenous People of Biafra It is evident that Nigeria's development challenge has
(IPOB), the Movement for the Actualization of the defied all the development efforts of successive

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governments over the years. The question therefore is, economic incapacitation. This circle, according to him,
"Why has Nigeria 'refused' to develop?" This provoking implies a collection of forces that act and react upon
irony of the nation's inability to achieve socio-economic one another in such a way as to perpetuate a poor
development in spite of her rich natural endowments, country in a state of poverty.
and the need to interrogate the possible role of the weak The import of this thesis is that a country is poor
citizens - state bond in perpetuating Nigeria's because it is poor. He explains this using the analogy of
development dilemma are the propelling forces behind a poor man. In his words,
this study. ...a poor man may not have enough to eat; being
Statement of the Problem underfed, his health may be weak; being
Decades after political independence, Nigeria, just like physically weak, his working capacity is low,
other third World Countries, still grapples with the which means that he is poor, which in turn
challenges of providing for her citizens, the basic socio- means that he will not have enough to eat, and
economic needs of food, shelter, good roads, electricity, so on (Nurkse 1997,p.12).
health care, security and education etc. Implied in the above, is that low productivity in
The 2014 UNDP report on Nigeria reveals that the underdeveloped societies is a product of capital
nation's HDI value for 2013 is 0.504 - which places her deficiency. This is in line with the economic aphorism
in the low human development category, positioning that, the marginal propensity to invest is a function of
the country at 152 out of 187 countries and territories. the marginal propensity to save. Therefore, until one is
A comparative review of previous years' reports able to save enough, he cannot invest in productive
demonstrates a similar trend. In 2012, Nigeria ranked ventures and until productivity is high, income will
152 out of a total of 175 nations on the basis of remain low and hence the perpetuity of
examined Human development indicators and in 2011, underdevelopment.
she was ranked 142 out of 169 nations (UNDP, 2014). Speaking in this vain, Jhingan (2007,p.31) submits that
For the majority of the citizens, all what political Low productivity is reflected in low real income.
independence seems to have brought is failed promises The low level of real income means low saving.
of a better life — a promise that easily fizzles away The low level of saving leads to a low
asone regime succeeds another, usually with the investment and to deficiency of capital. The
promise of providing the ever elusive better things of deficiency of capital, in turn, leads to a low level
life that the previous could not. The people have had to of productivity and back to low income.
endure the agony of living in perpetual poverty in a The above views are summarized by Bhattacharya
country that is reasonably endowed with abundant when he opined that:
human and natural resources. Poverty and underdevelopment of the
 economy are thus synonymous. A country is
Explanations to Third World inability to achieve socio- poor because it is underdeveloped. A country
economic development are many and varied and are is underdeveloped because it is poor and
usually products of different authors' ideological remains underdeveloped as it has not the
leaning or analytical persuasion. Writing from the necessary resources for promoting
Mainstream theoretical persuasion, Nurkse (2007,p.4) development. Poverty is a curse, but a greater
posits that underdevelopment is a product of the curse is that it is self-perpetuating.
existing Vicious Circle of Poverty in these societies. (1997,p.4).
These vicious circles possess the capacity to trap the
underdeveloped societies in an unending loop of

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Nurkse locates the root of the initial poverty dilemma geographic and demographic standpoints. In their
on deficiency of human endowments, social attitudes, theses, the majority of the Least Developed Countries
political conditions and historical accidents. are predominantly agricultural. Agriculture contributes
This view is clearly a reflection of a strand of the a large chunk of their GDP; therefore any obstacle to
modernization theory of development. To the the productive forces distorts the development process
modernization school, the obstacles to the attainment of and engenders underdevelopment and poverty.
development are both cultural and endemic in the According to Jhingan,
backward societies. According to David Lerner (1984), ... The constraints are to be found in the
 ...high emphatic capacity is the predominant environment in which farmers operate; the
 personal style in modern society which is technology available to them, the incentives for
 distinctively industrial, urban, literate and production and investment, the availability and
 participant. Traditional society is non- prices of inputs, the provision of irrigation and
 participant, it deploys people by kinship into the climate. The LDCs situated in tropical and
 communities isolated from each other and sub-tropical zones are at a disadvantage in
 from a centre; it develops a few needs terms of climate. Due to heat and torrential
 requiring economic interdependence, lacking rains, their soils are poor as they contain little
 the bonds of interdependence, people's organic matter. As a result of the environmental
 horizons is limited by location and their factors, agricultural output fails to increase to
 decision involve mainly other known people meet the rising demand of the developing
 and known situations, (cited in Nna, economy(Jhingan 2007,p.36).
 2002,p.109). Research has, however shown that among the net
To attain development, this school advocates that these exporters, of food, the so-called third world is fully
societies must abandon their 'backward and inferior' represented. A UN 2010 report on agricultural exports
values which the U.N also refers to as the 'social and import notes that:
resistance to economic change' and look more Among the net exporters, of food,
'progressively' like the west. It is their belief that the we find the majority of South
underdeveloped societies cannot grow without external American countries, the United
influence and or intervention. It also recommends the States, Canada, Indonesia,
adoption of the capitalist economic structure and this Australia and a few African
serves as their justification for colonialism. This, it countries such as Mauritania, Ivory
appears, was also the rationale behind imposition of the Coast and Ghana. The largest net
colonial policy of Assimilation in Francophone nations exporter of food, by far, is
of Africa. However, the failure of the policy in these Argentina with $23.42 of food
societies and its replacement with the policy of export per $1:00 of food imports...'
Association suggests volumes of the inappropriateness (UNFAO, 2010).
of this theory. Again, while the theory of the Vicious The seeming over-simplification of such a serious issue
Circle of Poverty carries a plausible logic, its argument lends credence to its lack of depth and of course
may not reasonably apply to Nigeria, whose oil insufficiency in the resolution of the underdevelopment
resources have generated enormous wealth since its challenge of the third world.
discovery in 1956. Closely Linked to this is the 'Man-Centred Theory of
To Hansen (1960) and Jhingan (2007), Third World Development' as expounded by Okowa (1996). To him,
underdevelopment can be explained from the Sub-Sahara African underdevelopment is not

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necessarily a product of imperialism, colonialism or neo copy their methods if we are to productively confront
colonialism per say; rather it is a consequence of their them” (Okowa 1996,p. xvi).
relative low level of development of certain human Though this dissertation seeks to place development
faculties namely: their scientific consciousness emphasis where it rightly belongs, it tends to downplay
(awareness of the existence of scientific laws), the monumental conditioning impact and the dynamics
scientific knowledge (actual knowledge of those laws), of international capitalism in perpetuating the existing
and technology (application of such knowledge to development divide for the interest of the West. Indeed,
conquer nature for man's advantage) on one hand and the historical impact of the forces of imperialism,
their intra-social consciousness (awareness of the colonialism, neocolonialism and recently, globalisation
existence of social laws that guide human interaction), in the perpetuation of third world underdevelopment
social consciousness (understanding such laws) and forms the bed rock of theDependency School as may be
institutional technology(creation of social institutions to summarized by the works of Walter Rodney, Gunder
direct these laws in man's interest). According to him, Frank, Santos (1970), Sunkel, Amin, Furtardo, Claude
this was engendered by the isolation of the Negro in the Ake (1981), and other neo-Marxist scholars.
'major motions of the main body of humanity in the For Ake, (1981) the penetration of Western capitalism
Eurasian mass'. In his words, and the subsequent monetization of the pre-capitalist
 For some 3000 years or so of post economy culminated in the disorientation of not just the
 civilization human existence, the third world economy but also their social formations.
 major motions of the main body of African economy was forcefully integrated into an
 humanity in the Eurasian mass international economic exchange of unequal
 bypassed the Negro. These motions relationship. Among other things, this led to the
 in various ways enhanced the creation of some;
 cultural heritage of the resulting ...fundamental affinities between
 societies. Questions were raised and African economy and that of the
 successfully confronted. The cross- colonizing power, the controlled
 breeding of ideas, cultures and development of the African economy
 genes enhanced the resulting in the interest of the Metropole.... and
 cultural personality. It is the totality the dependence of economic growth in
 of all these interactions carried out the colony on the Metropole's demand
 over thousands of years that gave for colonial imports (Age, 1981,p.36).
 birth to the industrial man (Okowa, This represents the central argument of the dependency
 1996,p. xv). approach. According to Dos Santos (1970), a leading
He concludes that their isolation in the continental level proponent of this school,Dependency is a situation in
motions of humanity placed the Negro historically, at a which the economy of certain countries is conditioned
disadvantage in his attempt to productively confront by the development and expansion of another economy
modern industrial development. To achieve to which the former is subjected...when some countries
development, therefore, the dissertation advocates that (the dominant ones) can expand and be self-sustaining,
Africa must be prepared to borrow from the developed while other countries (the dependent ones) can do this
world. She has to live and work with imperialism and only as a reflection of that expansion, which can have
capitalism. She has to welcome both so that she can either a positive or a negative effect on their immediate
learn from both. This he sums thus “let the capitalist development (cited in Nna 2002,p.207).
come in, let the imperialist also come in. We need to

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It is the view of Dependency theorists like Gunder countries based on the following; (a) a
Frank, Santos, Sunkel, Amin and Furtardo, that the self-reliant development strategy based
present economic and socio-political conditions on one's own resources (b) collective
prevailing in the periphery are the result of a historical self-reliance strategy based on mutual
international process. It is Santo's view that cooperation and economic integration
development emerged as a global historical of LDCs and (c) demand for a new
phenomenon, as a consequence of the formation, International Economic Order based on
expansion and consolidation of the capitalist system, the transfer of technologies to the
known as dependent capitalism. Both the Developed LDCs, the control of natural resources
Countries and the Less Developed Countries are by the LDCs, higher prices of raw
integral parts of the capitalist system. But the global materials of LDCs, and access to the
system is such that the development of the centre markets of DCs for the manufactures of
occurs at the expense of the underdevelopment of the LDCs (Jhingan, 2007,p.210).
periphery (Jhingan, 2007,p.210). This position has however been criticized on the basis
To achieve development, this theory prescribes that that not minding their colonial and continued post-
underdeveloped countries must necessarily embark on colonial interaction with the western capitalist powers,
internal structural and institutional changes in all a number of the Asian tigers like Singapore have
sectors of the economy. Sunkel, according to Jhingan successfully transformed their society from a third
advocates 'increase in agricultural production through world to leading global economic and technological
agrarian reforms in order to supply farm products at power houses. In this direction also, the failure of
lower prices to each other. This will create a substantial Ethiopia, who, but for a few years of Italian occupation
export surplus when cheap agricultural goods are was not colonized, to shrug off the underdevelopment
exported and eventually reduce foreign dependence.' robe quickly comes to mind. This theory's apparent
Jhingan (2007) further states that: total neglect of the internal factors that impede
 Because all dependency economists development in the Third World is also one of its major
 lay emphasis on the development of weaknesses.
 capitalism in the peripheral countries In all, the fact that despite these studies and their
 as the main cause of their recommendations, the underdevelopment challenge still
 underdevelopment, the remedy to remains with most of the Third World makes it evident
 overcome underdevelopment is to that, these factors, though necessary, are not sufficient
 adopt a socialist system in such to fully explain the development crisis facing these
 countries, or to delink or snap ties nations. It also suggests that there may be more salient
 with the world capitalist system but silent issues that may not have been addressed.
 (Jhingan 2007:210 ix). This work was therefore an attempt to extend the
According to him, having delinked, this school further frontiers of Nigeria's development discourse beyond
prescribes a these factors by interrogating the possible role of
 ...mutual cooperation among the Least national identity crisis in the seemingly endless web of
 Developed Countries in the form of development challenge into which the nation is
 regional economic cooperation and enmeshed.
 international commodity agreements. Indeed, the pervasive nature of Nigeria's
 Amin in particular, suggests a new development dilemma and the resultant economic
 development strategy for peripheral deprivation unleashed on the people appear to have

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reached a frustrating level and consequently impacted difficult to expect the development of such a society.
on the bond between citizens and the state. There This apparent link notwithstanding, previousworks have
appears to be a low sense of ownership of the nation not established the direct relationship that exists
among the people. Not many appear willing to pay the between the identity crisis and the nation's
supreme price for the wellbeing of the state which underdevelopment. For instance Osaghae (1998)was
apparently cares very little about them. Many appear to preoccupied with 'clearing the conceptual underbush'.
have lost faith in the state as a platform for the No effort was made to establish a relationship between
achievement of their socio-econmic aspirations and the identity crisis and underdevelopment in either
have consequently resorted to committing to other Nigeria or the African continent. He was more
identity-entities which they believe (rightly or wrongly) committed to setting up the conceptual foundations of
hold the promise of enabling them achieve the ever the national identity crises in Africa; a task he modestly
elusive good life the state has failed to provide. accomplished.
Nnoli (1978) lends credence to this. On the conditions Osimen, Balogun and Adenegan (2013) focused on the
that accelerated the rise of group nationalism as well as link between the crisis and national integration. Though
the competition for citizens' loyalty, he opines that: allusions were made to the fact that crisis possesses the
 The apparent withdrawal (reneging) of capacity to impact on the development of a society, no
 the government from the realm of effort was made to carry out a detailed analysis of how
 employment and social welfare that occurs in Nigeria. Olu's effort (2014) was devoted
 amenities also heightened the primarily to establishing how the marginalisation of the
 importance and significance of these minority has contributed to identity crisis. Again, his
 (identity) associations of the individual. preoccupation was on the relationship between
 They became the only institutions within marginalisation and the identity crisis. No effort was
 which he could meaningfully expect to made to establish, in clear terms, the relationship
 solve some of his most pressing between the identity crisis and Nigeria's development.
 problems ... With the increasing greater The absence of a detailed literature on the relationship
 salience of the union than the colonial between the national identity crisis and Nigeria's
 state for the satisfaction of the socio- chronic development predicament over the years
 economic needs of the individual; the presents a gap. Again, the fact that the subject of
 member gave these unions his loyalty at national identity crisis is not usually as pronounced as
 the expense of the state (Nnoli, such other factors as corruption, in Nigeria's
 1978,p.140). development discourse, irrespective of the huge but
Consequently, the state, which by virtue of its silent impact it has on the people's commitment to the
sovereignty, is supposed to enjoy the citizen's prior and development of the state, attests to the fact thatthere is a
overarching loyalty now has to compete with other missing link in our development literature. This was the
identity entities for the citizens' loyalty. There is a gap this work sought to fill.
disarticulation in the people's perception of the state as Aim and Objectives of the Study
a platform for the achievement of their socio-economic The main aim of this study is to interrogate the impact
aspirations. This seems to have further implications on of national identity crisis on socio- economic
the development of the state because until a people are development in Nigeria, 1999-2017. Following from
willing to make the needed commitment to the the aim, the following objectives were identified:
collective well-being of the state and even be ready to i. To examine the root causes of the national identity
pay the supreme price for it, if need be, it may be crisis in Nigeria.

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ii. To investigate the character of national identity going dialectical process in the nation's quest for a more
 crisis in Nigeria. responsive social order.
iii. To ascertain the extent national identity crisis has By focusing on some of the often neglected seemingly
 adversely impacted on development in Nigeria. intangible issues that have significant impact on the
iv. To evaluate how unmanaged identity crisis can politics and economy of the country, this workfurther
 engender development in Nigeria. expands the frontiers of the discussion on Nigeria's
Research Questions identity issues and socio-economic development. The
The following constituted our research questions: empirical data generated by this study provide Nigerian
1. What are the root causes of the national identity policy makers with both policy options and insights on
 crisis? the insights to make the management of the national
2. What is the character of the national identity identity crisis a key component of their policy
 crisis in Nigeria? considerations in the nation's quest for development.
3. In what ways has national identity crisis Scope of the Study
 impacted the development of Nigeria? The relationship between the National Identity Crisis
4. How can unmanaged identity crisis engender and Nigeria's development formed the content scope of
 development in Nigeria? this study. The work, therefore, covered the Nigerian
Research Hypotheses society. A state from each of the six geo-political zones
H01. There is no correlation between National Identity of the country was selected as our study area to ensure a
 Crisis and the development of Nigeria. fair representation of the identity composition of the
H02. There is no correlation between effective nation.
 management of the national identity crisis and The time frame for the study was a 18-year period
 Nigeria's development. (1999-2017). This period provides a watershed in
H03. There is no significant adverse impact of national Nigeria's democratic history. Ironically, it also
 identity crisis on development of Nigeria. witnessed a manifestation of a reasonable level of the
H04. The national identity crisis cannot engender identity crisis in the country.
 development in Nigeria. Limitation of the Study
Significance of the Study The limitation of this work was the difficulty in
The significance of this work lies in the fact that it personally accessing the entire study area for
interrogates the often neglected silent issue of national questionnaire administration. This was, however,
identity crisis, which actually has implications on the overcome with the use of research assistants for some
nation's socio-economic development. It provides of the locations.
explanations to the now commonplace deliberate THE LITERATURE
sabotage of public facilities/assets, state policies and the Theoretical Framework
general lack of commitment by virtually every segment From the end of the Second World War in 1945, the
of the society to the success of the Nigeria project. issues of development and poverty have occupied a
Theoretically and empirically, this work is significant front burner in the global discourse. This growing
because it explains the identity crisis within the context global interest may have arisen either from the belief in
of the citizens' material conditions of existence and how some quarters that underdevelopment anywhere is a
the interplay of class contradictions within the system is threat to development everywhere (Thirlwall, 2008, p.
impacting on the nation's development. 36), or the desire of the developed world to appear
Methodologically, it highlights the reality of the on- concerned with the plight of the vast majority of the
 global population living in conditions of poverty.

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Initially, development was interpreted purely as left to pursue it to his own advantage. In
economic. Underdevelopment was therefore seen in furthering his own self-interest, he
terms of low per capita income in the Third World would also further common good....
communities. Consequently, a primary position was since every individual, if left free, will
accorded economic growth, with emphasis on the issues seek to maximize his own wealth,
of savings, investment and growth of national income therefore, all individuals, if left free, will
(Okowa, 1996,p.11). However, despite a fairly good maximize aggregate wealth (Jhingan,
growth of national incomes in the 1960s and early 2007,p.66).
1970s, a situation of worsening poverty still persisted. He concludes that Smith and by extension, this
Using the South East Asia example, Myrdal (1968) approach is naturally opposed to government
explained that it was a case of persistent and in some intervention in industry and commerce, but believed in
cases, rising mass poverty, despite a fair record of the regulatory role of the 'invisible hand'. This thinking
growth of national income. Given this scenario, the laid the foundation of liberalism as a socio-political and
inadequacy of this line of thinking was already economic doctrine. Implicit in this therefore is the
becoming evident. Indeed, as noted by Seers, belief that individuals and societies (and not external
 The questions to ask about a country's bodies) are responsible for their state of development or
 development is therefore: What has been underdevelopment. The Neo-Marxist approach, on the
 happening to poverty? What has been other hand, draws its ideological foundation from the
 happening to unemployment? What has been early works of Smith, Ricardo, Marx and Engels. It
 happening to inequality? If all three of these looks at development and underdevelopment within a
 have declined from high levels, then, beyond context of historical interplay of social relations and
 doubt, this has been a period of development economic forces. It is based on the concept of
 for the country concerned. If one or two of dialectical materialism and economic determinism. In
 these central problems, have been growing fact, to this school, development ' and
 worse, especially if all three have, it will be underdevelopment are a consequence of each other, as
 strange to call the result 'development', even if they are both products of the same historical experience
 per capita income doubled (Seers, 1969,p.3). (Nna, 2002,p.198). It is within this school, that the
It was under these circumstances that the concept of Political Economy approach (our preferred theoretical
development was broadened to include such other framework for this study) is located. Indeed, the two are
variables as income distribution, availability and access sometimes used interchangeably.
to the basic needs of food, shelter, education, health,  The Political Economy Approach
human rights and dignity etc. As interest in the study of The Political Economy framework represents those
development increased, many theories emerged. The theories built around of economic, sociological,
myriad of these theories notwithstanding, two major political, psychological and geographical elements
approaches are identifiable. These are the Mainstream within the context of historical change (Okowa, 1996,
and the Neo-Marxian approaches. The mainstream pp. 203-204). Itlooks at the problems of the society in a
approach draws inspiration from the early works of cross-disciplinary, holistic approach; from a standpoint
Adam Smith. Central to this approach is the doctrine of of social relations and historical evolution. As noted
'natural law' in economic affairs (Jhingan, 2007). earlier, the political economy examines the complex
According to Jhingan, interplay of socio-economic forcesin defining and
 Smith regarded every person as the best redefining the sub and superstructures of any given
 judge of his self-interest who should be society.

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Ake (1981) opines that the approach gives primacy to economic and material conditions
man's material conditions of existence as a key of production and exchange
determinant of other facets of his life. He notes that (Ekekwe, 1986,p.3)
 Economic need is man's most Indeed, beyond the availability and quantum of
 fundamental need. Unless he is productive forces, the framework sees the impact of the
 able to meet this need, he cannot social relations of production as key in understanding
 exist in the first place. He must eat the social formation of any given society.
 before he can do anything else — Worthy of note also is the fact that the political
 exhibit patriotism, acquire economy approach employs the dialectical materialism
 education, seek space exploration as its method of analysis and x-rays the ever-present
 and be willing to pay the supreme and on-going class conflicts historically. Both at the
 price in the defence of his society. international and national levels, this methodology
 (Ake, 1981,p.1) analysis the conditioning development relationship that
Indeed, while the political machinery sets the economic exists among nations and between classes. It is its view
development agenda for the members of the society; that development and underdevelopment are products
their material conditions of existence as well as their of the same historical process such that the
perception of the society influence their response and development of one leads to the underdevelopment of
role in the society and by extension to define the the other. It is therefore clear from this framework that
politics and the development of the society. man's, and by extension, the society's development at
Central to this framework is the analysis of class any given time is a product of class interaction, defined
relations. Nna (2002,p.235) succinctly puts it that; in terms of the appropriation of societal values as well
 Political Economy focuses as the synthesis that emerges as a resolution of the
 attention on not only the thesis/ antithesis clash over time.
 production and management of  Application of the Theoretical Framework for
 society's material wealth, but also the Study
 its distribution among the various The adoption of the political economy approach to this
 segments or classes and conflicts study is appropriate for a number of reasons. Firstly, it
 which arise from these processes. seeks to explain the irony of the majority of Nigerians
Writing on the concept of class in relation to the living under conditions of economic deprivation in a
political economy approach, Ekekwe (1986) explains country that ranks among the most naturally endowed
that class and the historical approach constitute the two in the world, while a minority lives in inexplicable
components that define the essence of the Marxist opulence. This helps us highlight the reality of the class
method. In his words conflict which is rooted in the struggle for the
 In this methodology, social appropriation of surplus value. This fact is aptly
 classes and the forces of captured by Ekekwe (1986,p.7) when he notes that
 production are given primacy in Class relationships involve conflict and
 determining, in the final analysis, opposition. They are dynamic relationships.
 the dynamics of any society and There may indeed appear to be
 of history itself. Furthermore, it complementary aspects of class relationships,
 considers societies as totalities, as in the capitalist mode of production, the
 the existence and reproduction of coexistence of the bourgeoisie and the
 which are based on their proletariat. It is precisely in this seemingly

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 complementary association between them to increased activities by the state and the firms in
 that the elements of conflict and opposition colonial economy. The expansion of state bureaucracy
 are embedded. Conflict and opposition are and the administrative requirements of the foreign
 rooted in the struggle for the appropriation of enterprises resulted in the increased recruitment of
 surplus value. This class conflict may not Nigerians into these institutions.
 always be openly expressed and it may not Among those so recruited, two broad groups may be
 always take very clear forms. identified. One was the traditional elite, without whom
Furthermore, it helps us explain how these class the state's policy of indirect rule could not have worked.
contradictions, representing the thesis-antithesis The other comprised educated persons without any
structure, is generating a conflict as manifested in the links with traditional rule. He goes further to explain
identity crisis, which has the potentials of evolving a that, some of the both groups were to become
new social order of a more equitable distribution of the professionals and private entrepreneurs. This set the
commonwealth. Though this work is not all about the stage for the emergence of the petty bourgeois class.
study of the class structure in Nigeria, it is important to From among the fractions and strata of the petty
attempt a brief highlight of the class formation in the bourgeoisie came its dominant element: the political
country. This will, no doubt, aid our appreciation of the leaders. Ekekwe further points out that, upon gaining
forces responsible for the emergence and sustenance of political power, elements of the petty bourgeoisie
the existing social relations of production in the turned that power into a means for accumulation of
country. both wealth and capital.
It has been pointed out, and rightly too, that Nigeria is a On the working class, Ekekwe opined that its
complex society and that trying to understand it can be development commenced in pari passu with the
exasperating (Ekekwe 1986,p.8). This is as true for its creation of the colonial economy. Railway construction,
class structure. tin and coal mining in Jos and Enugu respectively,
Quoting Stavenhagen (1975), Ekekwe posits that the shipping produce and even the domestic needs of
study of classes in capitalist peripheral societies can be resident expatriates — all these required the creation of
very difficult. He explains that the reason for the a pool of wage-earners. For such a pool to be created
difficulty is because, in such societies, meant a persistent andcontinuing application of political
 ...class limits will not be clearly defined, and economic pressures to coerce people into (at least
 class relationships will be ambiguous, partial) proletarianization.
 structures that belong to different A key point to note in the character of the evolving
 historical epochs will coexist and cut working class, which is germane to our study, is that the
 across each other (Ekekwe, 1986,p.8) evolving working class existed in two modes of
The Nigerian class structure is a product of a production. According to Ekekwe (2011),
combination of historical, social evolution and colonial ...although its members are factory and
legacy. To discover what classes exist in any given industrial workers, their link with the peasant
society, an analysis of its mode of production and the mode are not completely severed. Thus,
conditions under which social production takes place is proletarianization is incomplete. Many workers
necessary. On class formation, Ekekwe (1986,p.60) receive a food supplement from their relations
explained that the class structure in Nigeria was created in the rural areas; this link remains important.
by colonialism through the activities of the colonial In many cases too, they retain their rights to
state and the trading firms. Theneed of the British communal land and, through ethnic
economy to increase the exploitation of the colonies led 'improvement' associations and unions, or even

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 family, still participate in lifestyles more and attain the good life. The ability of the people to
 associated with another mode of production transcend their differences, carve out a common
 than that to which they ostensibly belong definition for themselves, cultivate a feeling of oneness
 (Ekekwe, Erne, UkohaandOgali,2011,p.8). and a commitment to the nation on the basis of shared
This point is important because it appears that the values defines national identity.
coexistence of these two modes of production and their It follows therefore, that beyond establishing national
ideological correlates provides the elite the platform for identity on the basis of the myth of a common ancestry,
the manipulation of other identical sentiments for the acculturation, engendered by a reciprocal cultural
furtherance of their economic interest. interaction among groups provides another process of
Conceptual Lens the evolution of national identity. Implicit in this is that
National Identity national identity is not only acquired because
A useful starting point, perhaps should be the individuals are ethnically homogeneous but also on the
understanding of the concept of national identity. In her basis of shared values through a civic process in which
work, 'National Identity Crises Threaten World Order', diverse entities are joined together for the fulfilment of
Maria Snegovaya (2015) explains that national identity common aspirations and values cherished by the
is the feeling of commonality among a people and their affected identities, and their interactions, regulated by
commitment to defend the nation which represents the the rule of law.
platform upon which such commonalties are better Basis for National Identity
projected and protected. Of note here is the perception No nation is 'pure'. All have elements of differences
of the existence of a mutually beneficial bond between ranging from ethnic, tribal regions, religions, and class
the people and the nation. This view agrees with that of peculiarities. This constitutes the vertical and horizontal
Giiven (1985,p. 27) who sees national identity as structure of every society. As Ekekwe (2011,p.2) noted,
 a feeling of the state of belonging to any group Each person (in the state) has an idea of who she
 by means of acculturation. It is the 'we feeling' or he is, and the identity she (or he) chooses
 which is shared by all individuals living within invariably includes multiple of factors that are
 the certain geographical frontiers...,it is important to her (or him): home town where the
 perceived inevitable for every community person was born, the school she (or he) attended,
 within the process of nationalization as the the culture, region or state of origin or the
 guarantee and base of the national existence. country. These factors of identity may appear in
More pronounced in Guveng's view is the idea of the the concentric or layered form and the importance
'we' feeling. Two ideas are clear from the above - of each may vary from situation to situation.
submission to the nation as an umbrella platform for the These differences notwithstanding, each nation
achievement of the good of all and the cultivation of a possesses a basis for the definition of its people - the
comrade spirit among the component entities in the foundation for its identity. These include;
nation. i. Common Ancestry:
Nations are created by the coming together of men who States composed primarily of one major ethnic
are either from one dominant homogeneous group or nationality tend to build their national identity on the
heterogeneous groups, and of course, diverse socio- basis of their shared common ancestry or ethnic
economic background (Alien, 2011). They are built on homogeneity. Japan constructs her identity on this and
values that appeal to the history and or aspirations of any non-ethnic Japanese is seen as the "other" (Flahive
the component entities - values that hold the promise of 2007). The homogeneity factor imbues in them the
providing them the opportunities to fulfil their potential comradie to forge a common front for a common cause.

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ii. Common Values: preservation of the nation that the interests of the
Differences in racial, ethnic, cultural and economic citizens are guaranteed.
backgrounds notwithstanding, the existence of common The preamble of the Nigerian constitution, for instance,
values, to which members of different identities aspire, espouses the values that constitute the cord that bind the
forms another basis for the building of a national diverse peoples of the country together.
identity. The U.S.A and Australia are classical We the people of the federal republic
examples of this. In Australia, for example, 'civil of Nigeria, having firmly and
culture' instead of 'ethnicity' is the basis for defining solemnly resolved, to live in unity and
Australian identity (Flahive 2007). In the U.S., such harmony as one indivisible and
values as freedom, equality, and justice form the basis indissoluble sovereign the promotion
of the American national identity (The Bradley Project: of inter African solidarity, world
2008). peace, international cooperation and
 iii. Common National Symbols: understanding. And to provide for a
As demonstrated in New Zealand, theexistence of constitution for the purpose of
national symbols, through which all segments of the promoting good government and
society can be identified, represents the basis for their welfare of all persons in our country,
identity (Roger Letch worth 2014). on the principles of freedom, equality
Irrespective of the basis of a nation's identity, those and justice, and for the purpose of
values, symbols or commonalities constitute a cord that consolidating the unity of our people.
generates the 'we' feeling among members of a society. Do hereby make, enact and give ourselves the
This injects in the citizens, the spirit of prior loyalty to following constitution. (FGN: 2010,p.17).
the nation -a resolve to always commit to the cause of It has been argued, however, that the constitution was
the nation and possibly pay the supreme price if imposed on Nigerians by undemocratic forces. But for
situations demand. This argument is amplified by over five decades of independence and almost two
Gellner in Bechhofer & McCrone (2009,p.5). To him, decades of uninterrupted democracy, have successive
ordinarily, governments not adopted all available means to
 Citizenship invokes in people, the spirit preserve the oneness of Nigeria? Was the unity of
 of nationalism, and that nationalism is Nigeria, even in the just concluded National Conference
 the taken-for-granted ideology which by the immediate past democratic regime in 2012, not
 binds us to the state, or, as he would made non-negotiable? And though we have preached
 have it, the nation. People fight and die the sanctity of the sovereignty of the nation over all its
 for the nation - with alarming component entities and citizens, from the high alters of
 willingness. our Government Houses, does the relationship between
A common thread that weaves through the thoughts of the citizens and the state on one hand, and among the
scholars on national identity is their concurrence on the people on the other, not tend to suggest otherwise?
existence of the feeling, among a people, of belonging National Identity Crisis
to a nation with either a common ancestry, shared By virtue of a state's sovereignty, her citizens' prior and
values or common destiny as well as the people's overarching loyalty to it is a given. Such loyalty to the
commitment to the defence of the nation as a means of system stems from the people's belief in the state as a
protecting and preserving those shared values and platform for the realization of their common
interests. This is borne out of the belief that, it is in the aspirations. Loyalty to the nation, therefore, becomes a
 natural obligation because the people realize that in

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committing to the national cause, their interest is and allegiance to the nation. As observed by Osaghae
protected. The sense of ownership of the state is thus (1998,p.4):
enhanced and this imbues in them, the willingness to Identity crisis is not simply about identity per se
make sacrifices for the success of the state project. as for example, being Ghanaian. Both within and
Citizens at such level willingly pay the supreme price outside his country, a Ghanaian is most likely to,
for the state, if situations demand. without prodding, identify himself as such. The
Elebeke (2010) in Osimen (2013,p.80) explains that an problem is mainly in the injunctions that follow
identity crisis occurs when one either loses track of who this identity; prior loyalty and commitment to
he is, or feels dissatisfied with his identity and wants to the state rather than the ethnic, religious,
change or restructure his life. This feeling of discontent regional or even, class Communities.' The crisis
with one's identity and the desire to restructure it has to do with the dilemma as to which unit of
presents a picture of an internal dilemma within a identity enjoys the citizen's prior loyalty.
person, which ultimately finds an outward expression in (Emphasis mine)
their perception of, and relationship with the object of Osaghae narrows the national identity crisis down to a
identity (the state). loyalty crisis between the citizens and the state - a
The identity crisis could be an outcome of a person's situation in which the state is denied the overarching
reaction to historical manipulation, in which a common loyalty and commitment of the citizens and has to
identity is fast on hitherto diverse entities in a manner compete with other identity-entities for it. He further
that the organic social evolution of such entities explains that:
becomes disarticulated. Here, the question of 'who are These identity-entities compete for the
we?' becomes critical in appreciating one's role in the individual's loyalty in usually, zero-sum terms,
promotion or otherwise, of-the cause of the larger and the individual often has to make a choice of
identity community (Osaghae, 1998). identity. The consequence of this is that the State
But beyond historical forces, failure to meet collective which, to the extent of its being sovereign within
aspirations - values which also form a basis for national the given territory, is supposed to be the claimant
identity creates a feeling of disillusionment within the of every citizen's identity and loyalty, loses its
identity-entities and becomes a precursor to the desire monopoly and has to compete with partial and
for identity restructuring. Thus, the collective resolve to particularist entities like ethnic and religious
forge a common front as a person against common communities, regions, provinces, classes and so
challenges suffers and the aggregate strength of the on which also lay claims, to the individual's
nation wanes. loyalty (Osaghae 1998,p.5)
The above is in tandem with Snegovaya's submission. Osaghae locates the crisis in the dislocation of the
In her view, an identity crisis occurs when members of 'contractual' relationship between the citizens and state.
a community become divided over what constitutes In his words,
their core values. This presupposes a snap in the cord The alienation of the people, which
that binds them together as a people; ideals that form started with the establishment of the
the basis, ab initio, of their common definition as a colonial state....is worsened in the
distinct entity. post-colonial period by the ineptitude
The import of the identity crisis goes beyond just the of African governments to make good,
dilemma of a people's discontent with their identity or the hopes and expectations of
their mere expression of a desire to restructure it. It independence as well as their never-
carries serious implications in the citizens' perception ending promises of a life more

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