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Vol. 18,
No. 1, 20
21THE NEW SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN Vol. 18, No. 1, 2021 The New School for Social Research New York, NY
The New School Psychology Bulletin (NSPB) is operated by graduate students in psychology and
published by the Psychology Department at The New School for Social Research.
Name of Publication Editors Taylor Courier,
The New School Psychology Bulletin: Lorraine Afflitto, University of Northern Iowa
Vol. 18, No. 1, 2021 The New School for Social Research Bri Darboh,
Frequency: Semi-Annually Zishan Jiwani, York University
Rebecca Dolgin,
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The New School for Social Research
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The New School for Social Research The New School for Social ResearchThe New School Psychology Bulletin, Volume 18, Number 1
Table of Contents
Lorraine Afflitto Letter from the Editors ii
Zishan Jiwani
Ali Revill
Emily Weiss
Noel Shafi The Neuroscience of Terrorism: A Neuroscientific 1
Approach to Understanding Cognitive-Behavioral
Traits of Violent Extremists
Guillermo Farfan Cognitive Effects of Sleep Deficiency on Students’ 19
Mathematical Proficiency: A Review of the Literature
Rebecca Reidy Bunn Is Ignorance Bliss? The Relationship Between News 39
Antonina S. Farmer Exposure and Anxiety Levels in AdultsAcknowledgements ____________________________________________________________________________________ The current issue of the New School Psychology Bulletin (NSPB) is proof of the power of collective engagement. Together we assembled the pieces created by a year of uncertainty and isolation. We whole- heartedly acknowledge our good fortune and the gift of mutual support. For us, life in lockdown became more bearable thanks to NSPB. We thank the many who made this publication possible. Howard Steele, our brilliant faculty advisor, encouraged students to become a part of NSPB and always saw a bright future. Janiera Warren, an NSPB advocate, gave us her uncanny problem-solving skills. Our authors shared their work, engaged in the publication process, and waited patiently for this issue to be ready. Our editorial board worked diligently to review every submission and contributed to the high-quality work contained herein. They are the backbone of our journal. Gregory Weil held us in mind and provided guidance as needed. Alyson Aladro’s distinctive cover design hallmarks this issue. We consider the minds of our readers and are humbled to produce a journal that piques their curiosity and holds their interest. We are indebted to the Psychology Department of the New School for Social Research for providing financial support. It is with heartfelt appreciation that we say thank you. i
Letter from the Editors
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summer 2021
The issue you are about to read is one of the shortest in the New School Psychology Bulletin’s (NSPB)
18-year history. Nonetheless, it is a remarkable achievement, if we do say so ourselves, given the
extraordinary challenges presented by COVID-19. Our current issue is a testament to perseverance
and patience. The editors, editorial board, and authors weathered through an unprecedented scholastic
experience. While university campuses closed, we became mindful of the pandemic’s negative impact on
research, academic conversation, and the free exchange of ideas. Our concerns fueled our determination
to publish the journal. The current issue reminds us that academic inquiry and expression are relevant and
necessary despite an unfolding crisis.
Each of the three articles included in this issue feature an interplay between social-environmental
conditions and human psychology. Shafi investigates terrorism from a neuroscience perspective,
Farfan discusses the relationship between sleep and academic achievement, and Reidy Bunn describes our
emotional relationship to news exposure. Dramatically evident in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic
and implied by the results of these investigations is a statement of human vulnerability. We thrive in
the right conditions, and we struggle when those conditions are disturbed. In philosophical terms, these
authors are suggesting we shift our focus from the “seed” to the “soil.”
This issue becomes a reality just as we in the United States are emerging from a year of isolation,
illness, and death. We are grateful to have kept the scholarly vision and collaborative work of NSPB alive
throughout this difficult year. We affirm our commitment to psychology student research and publication.
Welcome to NSPB volume 18 issue 1. Thank you to our authors and reviewers.
We look forward to a better year.
Sincerely,
Lorraine Afflitto, Emily Weiss, Zishan Jiwani, and Ali Revill
iiThe New School Psychology Bulletin Copyright 2021 by the New School of Social Research
2021, Vol. 18, No. 1 Print 2021 ISSN: 1931-793X; Online ISSN: 1931-7948
The Neuroscience of Terrorism: A Neuroscientific Approach to
Understanding Cognitive-Behavioral Traits of Violent Extremists
Noel Shafi
The State University of New York at Buffalo
The neuroscience of terrorism is a newly emerging interdisciplinary topic with potential
implications for national security, forensic psychology, neuroimaging, and foreign policy.
The exploratory case study and literature review presented highlight some of the most
important findings in neuroscience in the previous decade. This paper attempts to apply
current theories of brain-behavior relationships to understanding terrorism and violent ex-
tremism. Violent extremism is essential to terrorism and terrorist organizations. We found
that a neuroscientific approach can identify and formulate research questions poised to in-
vestigate terrorism and violent extremism. Ultimately, we believe that neuroscience can be
used in unison with traditional counterterrorism methods to better understand the terrorist
mindset.
Keywords: Neuroscience, terrorism, violence, aggression, extremism, neuroimaging
Little research has examined the role that neurosci- would be more closely associated with terrorism,
ence can play in understanding terrorism. Such a which is often meticulously calculated and orga-
question has an interdisciplinary function because nized (Bogerts et al., 2018). Violent extremism is
it looks at terrorism, a political science issue, in the ideological blueprint of terrorism; it is a form
the context of brain-behavior relationships, a neu- of extremism where violence is often used to pro-
roscience issue. There are numerous core concepts mote an ideology.
to define before we begin our discussion, including Violent extremism presents a challenge to
terrorism, violence, and violent extremism. Terror- public health (Rosell & Siever, 2015) and national
ism is a violent act orchestrated by non-state actors security (Lebovic, 2007). Approximately 10,900
against the civilian population to create fear and terrorist attacks worldwide occurred in 2017 alone,
intimidation in the general public, with the long- with 97 attacks occurring in North America (Na-
term goal of achieving a political, religious, eth- tional Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and
nic, or nationalist objective. Violence can be de- Responses to Terrorism, 2018). Applying certain
fined as “any behavior intended to cause extreme theories of brain-behavior relationships can help
physical harm to another person who does not want researchers to understand how and why violent ex-
to be harmed, such as injury or death” (Bushman, tremism occurs.
2018, p. v). Violence can be further categorized
into two subtypes: impulsive violence and instru- The Present Study
mental violence (Bogerts, Schöne, & Breitschuh, In the present study, we explored terrorism
2018). Impulsive violence is emotionally driven from a neuroscience perspective in the context of
and spontaneous, whereas instrumental violence mental well-being, society and culture, the neural
is methodical and premeditated. Instrumental vi- correlates of violence and aggression, neurodevel-
olence, which is premeditated and goal-oriented, opment, and social cognition. We utilized an ex-SHAFI
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ploratory case study as a first-step research design salient features of the case study and literature re-
in order to explore a relatively new field of scien- view. In light of limited prior investigations aimed
tific inquiry (Streb, 2010). at determining the role of neuroscience in describ-
Terrorism has been studied from multiple ing terrorism, this exploratory case study and liter-
perspectives, including international law (Travalio, ature review provided a foundation for hypothesis
2000), developmental psychology (Locicero & generation and future research.
Sinclair, 2008), political science (Abrahms, 2012),
psychoanalysis (Jones, 2006), sociology (Turk, An Exploratory Case Study of the 9/11 Hijack-
2004), and more recently, neuroscience (Decety, ers: The al-Shehri Brothers
Pape, & Workman, 2017). Terrorism researchers On September 11, 2001, 19 hijackers at-
should continue to take on these multidisciplinary tacked the U.S. mainland in one of the worst ter-
approaches. The present study contributes to a rorist attacks in American history. Psychological
growing body of multidisciplinary terrorism re- motivations for committing terrorist acts have been
search. heavily investigated by the mental health commu-
nity for decades (Hilke & Kaiser, 1979; Srenshaw,
Method 1988; Hudson, 1999; Weatherston & Moran, 2003;
Horgan, 2005; Diamond, 2011; Lankford, 2017),
Exploratory Case Study with competing theories on the role of mental ill-
The next section presents an exploratory ness in terrorism being proposed throughout. It
case study featuring two of the 19 September 11 seems to be the consensus among scholars that
(9/11) hijackers. Our case study explored the utility mental illness is not a causal factor in terrorism, but
of a holistic psychological approach to the study of it may be a contributing factor in some cases. As
violent extremism. This approach set the ground- such, even in those minority of cases where mental
work for the application of a neuroscientific spot- illness does appear to be significant, it should only
light on mental health and the social and develop- be viewed as part of a multivariate analysis of ter-
mental determinants of radicalization and violent rorism. Recent research has observed that mental
extremism. illness was overrepresented among the 9/11 hijack-
ers, with new evidence of mental health problems
Literature Review in these individuals (Lankford, 2017).
A selected literature review of recent arti-
cles in the neuroscience literature concerning the Mental Health
neural basis of cognitive-behavioral traits com- Among the hijackers were the al-Sheh-
monly associated with terrorism follows the case ri brothers: Wail Muhammad Abdullah al-Shehri,
presentation. An initial computerized search was born on July 31, 1973, aged 28, and Walid Muham-
performed on electronic databases available in the mad Abdullah al-Shehri, aged 22 as of 2001. While
University of Buffalo libraries. The computerized little is known about Walid, his older brother Wail
keyword search included search terms “neurosci- is known to have experienced depressive episodes,
ence” or “neuroimaging,” or “brain” combined according to a CIA intelligence report (Lankford,
with “terrorism” or “counterterrorism” or “vio- 2017; CIA, 2003). According to one journalist,
lence” or “aggression.” Additional sources were Abdel Rahman, one of the 11 al-Shehri brothers,
identified from bibliographies from relevant arti- reported that Wail allegedly “fell into a deep de-
cles. pression” in 1999, at the age of 25. Additionally,
his friends described him as having a “suicidal ten-
Design dency” (Sennott, 2002). This is in line with recent
Research questions were formulated from research on (attempted) suicide bombers, whichNEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
3
found that 40% of the sample appeared to have a stimulating environment is important for brain
suicidal tendencies while 53% of the sample had maturation (Benefiel & Greenough, 1998). Their
depressive tendencies (Merari et al., 2010a). reported lack of motivation may be an indicator of
nihilism or a lack of life meaning due to under-
Depression developed goals. Subsequent radicalization may
Previous studies have found that depressed have catalyzed their sense of purpose and fulfilled
individuals were three times more likely to com- their quest for personal significance (Kruglanski,
mit violence than non-depressed individuals from Chen, Dechesne, Fishman, & Orehek, 2009). How-
the general population (Fazel et al., 2015; Yu et al., ever, while there is always room to speculate on
2017). It is plausible that untreated depression in- the terrorist personality profile, I would interpret
creased Wail’s susceptibility toward radicalization. the previous media reports with caution. Reports of
As previous research has shown, depression is as- Walid and Wail being “depressed” or “bored” offer
sociated with cortical and subcortical brain abnor- only a few pieces of a more complex picture. There
malities, including atypical metabolic activity and are certainly many other aspects of their personal-
reduced volume in the prefrontal, amygdala, hip- ity which remained hidden from view, even from
pocampal, and thalamic regions (Pandya, Altinay, their friends and family. Frustration, for instance,
Malone, & Anand, 2012). It was perhaps at this is believed to be an important factor leading to ag-
point, when Wail al-Shehri was most psychologi- gression, according to classic psychiatric literature
cally vulnerable, that he was radicalized by a mil- (Miller et al., 1958).
itant Islamic cleric. In 2000, Wail al-Shehri took
an oath to commit himself to jihad at the Seqeley Cultural Healing Practices
mosque along with his brother and a few other Wail is known to have consulted a reli-
hijackers. Afterward, they allegedly went to the Al gious counselor or “faith healer” in Mecca. Con-
Farouq training camp in Kandahar, Afghanistan sultations with faith healers are common practice
(Sennott, 2002). in non-western cultures. However, this kind of
practice underscores the fact that psychiatric coun-
Boredom seling may not play as much of a significant role
In the same news report cited earlier, Rah- in treating mental health issues as religious coun-
man made a key observation about his two broth- seling in this region due to their cultural standards
ers, the al-Shehri brothers: “You have to under- (Alosaimi et al., 2014). In one report, researchers
stand my brothers were not Islamic purists. They described the state of psychiatry in Saudi Arabia,
were young, they were bored, and we have no idea stating that people from this region are primarily
what happened to them. To be very honest, neither informed by religion, and as such, they often re-
one of them was very smart, nor very motivated spond to emotional distress with religious activi-
to do anything.” (Sennott, 2002). The fact that the ties, like praying, fasting, and going on a spiritual
al-Shehri brothers were described as “bored” is pilgrimage (Koenig et al., 2013). Psychiatry has
telling, given that boredom is also linked to anger only recently emerged as a formal discipline in the
and aggression (Rupp & Vodanovich, 1997). The Arabian Peninsula circa 1983 (Carlisle, 2018). The
lack of external stimulation in a region that was interplay of cultural practices such as religion and
relatively impoverished may help explain their medicine certainly influences long-term outcomes
apparent boredom. This is important from a neu- for people with depression.
roscience perspective because boredom has impli- While the cause of terrorist violence is cer-
cations for psychosocial development (Watt and tainly multifactorial, it is well known in the liter-
Vodanovich, 1999). Animal studies have found that ature that some “religious elements” may be usedSHAFI
4
(or misused) as a part of belief systems underlying lings, with later-born children often having more
violent extremism (Rogers et al., 2007). Research- agreeable and submissive traits (Sulloway, 2001).
ers disagree with the assertion that religion, per se, In addition, a review of family studies suggested
causes terrorism and that religion is more so used that antisocial and violent behavior is moderately
as a moral “excuse” for terrorist activity (Rogers heritable, indicating a possible genetic basis for
et al., 2007). However, we should also consider violent extremism in particular (Poldrack et al.,
the possibility that the faith healer Wail consulted 2017; Anholt & Mackay, 2012).
was, in fact, a militant preacher who radicalized
him at a time when he was emotionally vulnerable. Neurocognitive Development
Although, this is only speculative and, in all like- While early life for the al-Shehri brothers
lihood, there were numerous other bad actors who was perhaps seemingly typical for young males in
interacted with Wail during his radicalization. this region, it is important to recognize environ-
mental factors that may have adversely impacted
Social Determinants of Radicalization their brain development. These could have includ-
Wail and Walid al-Shehri were “muscle” ed limited resources for recreation, stimulation,
hijackers on American Airlines Flight 11. The or entertainment. Since little is known about their
al-Shehri brothers were two of 11 children (Mur- childhood, I can only assume a poverty of environ-
phy & Ottaway, 2001). Both brothers studied at mental stimuli as compared to my own western up-
Abha Teacher Training College and attended the bringing. People from Asir generally follow Wah-
Seqeley mosque in Khamis Mushayt, a city inside habist Islam, with the strict prohibition of cinema,
Asir, Saudi Arabia. Wail was employed as an el- theatre, dancing, drugs, and premarital relations
ementary school gym teacher, while his younger between men and women (Lamb, 2002).
brother, Walid, was still in school studying to en- It has long been known that the environ-
ter the same profession. Both brothers were single ment plays a major role in neurodevelopment.
without children. Both were born in Asir. Asir is a Brain maturation is necessary but not sufficient for
southwestern province of Saudi Arabia described cognitive development. An enriched environment
as a poor region, with weak policing and having a is also needed in order to afford the opportunities
reputation as a “wild frontier” (National Commis- to practice and refine the skills associated with
sion on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, normal cognitive functioning (Kinsbourne & Ca-
2004). This region was described by journalists as plan, 1979). An impoverished environment in Asir
a conservative, tribal society with a high unem- would not fully explain why the al-Shehri brothers
ployment rate among young men (Lamb, 2002). In engaged in terrorism. Yet, the brothers may have
our case, however, the two brothers were educated experienced a sense of relative loss. Their feel-
and employed, which seems to indicate that other ings of loss, experienced in the presence of limited
variables beyond socioeconomics played a more opportunities for success, may have created feel-
significant role in their radicalization. ings of frustration, humiliation, and victimization
(Taspinar, 2009). These feelings may have later
Possible Sibling Effects been linked to feelings of deprivation. Ultimately,
Given that the al-Shehri brothers were both radicalization may have filled their void and helped
willing to engage in violent terrorist activity, there them to fulfill their desire to find meaning, but in a
might have been a sibling effect on such behavior. perverted fashion.
The older Wail may have influenced Walid into ex-
tremism due to the potential dominant and asser- Radicalization
tive traits often attributed to firstborn or older sib- The al-Shehri brothers were reported toNEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
5
have disappeared in 1999 while traveling to Me- beyond the scope of the current study.
dina, and upon their return home, their cousin
described them as being different, having grown Extant Literature:
beards, increasingly religious, and associating The Neuroscience of Terrorism
with a secretive group of people. They were also Mental Illness, Terrorism, and Neuroscience
described by this same cousin as being “ordinary One of the quintessential questions on the
guys” who later “changed” through some “kind of nature of terrorism is the potential role of mental
Islamic awakening.” They also reportedly “heard illness. This is a contentious issue that has contin-
sermons from people who came back from jihad ued to generate discussion from opposing camps.
in Afghanistan” (Lamb, 2002). These observations Whenever we examine the brain basis of human
on personality changes and sudden intensification behavior, especially violent extremist behaviors
of ideological beliefs are indicative of radicaliza- present in terrorism, there is often an underlying
tion. Social interactions with local community question: is the behavior being examined a result of
leaders, including militant preachers, likely influ- an abnormality in the brain? While some research-
enced new patterns of thought and behavior in the ers view the “terrorist mind” as essentially normal,
al-Shehri brothers. Research shows “human be- others view it through the lens of psychopathology.
havior is influenced, directly and indirectly, by the The kinds of psychological problems that
presence and behavior of others. This is manifested may be present in terrorists fundamentally depends
in many phenomena studied by social psychology on whether they are a group or lone actors. For in-
such as social influence, conformity, obedience, or stance, recent research has raised the possibility of
compliance” (Decety et al., 2017, p. 6). In addition, mental illness in some terrorist subgroups, such as
Decety and colleagues reported that various brain lone actors (Corner, Gill, & Mason, 2016). In this
regions have been implicated in social cognition, study on lone-actor terrorists, researchers found a
including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmP- higher prevalence rate of schizophrenia, delusion-
FC), an area of the brain that is critically involved al disorder, and autism spectrum disorder in lone
in social decision-making. actors than the general population (Corner et al.,
A closer study of how the al-Shehri brothers 2016). The same authors suggested that a higher
were radicalized may provide important insights incidence of mental disorders among lone actors
and parallels to the Tsarnaev brothers, who were involved with terrorism in comparison with group
likewise radicalized and later involved in the Bos- actors (Corner et al., 2016).
ton Bombings. However, important and insightful In a short correspondence, Khoshnood
differences should emerge. The al-Shehri brothers (2017) concludes that the correlation between ter-
were born and raised in a non-western environ- rorism and mental illness is very weak. Based on
ment, a relatively monocultural society, in the early his brief review of recent research, Khoshnood
stages of internet and computer technology, with (2017) acknowledged the importance of studying
lifetime exposure to conservative religion and tra- radicalization’s psychological factors. However,
ditional customs. In contrast, the Tsarnaev brothers he concluded that mental illness does not play a
lived most of their lives in a western environment, major role in terrorism. His conclusion was based
a multicultural society, in the later stages of inter- on a previous study conducted by terrorism experts
net and computer technology, with predominant (Alonso et al., 2008).
exposure to moderate religion prior to radicaliza- Another well-noted expert in the psycholo-
tion. These are interesting differences that could gy of terrorism reported that only a minority of ter-
help elucidate the various psychosocial trajectories rorists have a history of mental health issues (Hor-
into radicalization. However, such a comparison is gan, 2005). However, Horgan’s research, althoughSHAFI
6
exclusive and insightful, is mostly limited to case of mental impairment, institutionalization, child
studies. As he points out, an ongoing problem in neglect, special education, persistent criminal of-
terrorism research is the lack of access researchers fenses, child abuse, anger management, childhood
have to the mental health information of terrorists. trauma, tantrums, aggression, youth detention, and
Most medical and psychiatric files on terrorists are homelessness. Mental disorder diagnoses in the
likely to remain classified for security reasons, and sample included psychosis, narcissistic personality
mental health professionals who have access to disorder, ADHD, schizophrenia, autism spectrum
such individuals are few. Horgan is one of the few disorder, and post traumatic stress disorder.
premier researchers who has had the special privi- A subsequent review examined several
lege to interview terrorists and develop theories on personality disorders often suspected of terror-
the psychology of terrorism based on actual case ists, including narcissistic, paranoid, antisocial,
studies. and borderline personality disorders (Sahito et al.,
In a theoretical article by Decety and col- 2013). The study by Sahito and colleagues (2013)
leagues (2017), the authors argued that radicalized highlighted possible approaches to individual and
individuals are mainly ordinary people, and that group profiling of terrorists from a psychological
violent extremism does not appear to be caused by trait perspective. These researchers proposed using
a brain disorder. The authors theorize that under- psychological profiling and trait analysis as a way
standing terrorist psychology depends on a multi- of guiding interrogations during counterterrorism
level approach that integrates social, political, and operations.
economic perspectives with organizational and in- Another study revealed that suicidal bomb-
dividual perspectives (Decety et al., 2017). ers were significantly more likely to present with
In support of the link between mental ill- avoidant-dependent personality disorder, depres-
ness and terrorism, other researchers have found sive symptoms, and suicidal tendencies in com-
that terrorists are more likely to present with a his- parison with non-suicidal terrorists and terrorist
tory of psychosocial problems such as mental im- organizers (Merari et al., 2010a). Also, a forensic
pairment, psychiatric examinations, post traumatic case study observed impulsive behavior in lone-ac-
stress disorder, special education, violence, child tor terrorism (Meloy et al., 2017). Similar observa-
abuse, criminality, anger, noncompliance with tions have been made of suicide bombers in com-
therapy, child behavioral issues, or any number of parison to non-suicide actors (Merari et al., 2010a).
documented psychiatric illnesses such as border- Even if a purported link between mental
line personality disorder, compulsive disorder, au- illness and terrorism is found, there seems to be
tism, and schizophrenia (Weenink, 2005; Merari et many limitations with applying psychiatric diagno-
al., 2010a; Sahito et al., 2013; Meloy et al., 2017). ses and psychological profiling. Understanding ter-
Weenink (2005) studied the police files of rorism is not just about psychopathology. Diagnos-
140 subjects suspected of traveling or planning ing a patient will help explain their constellation
to travel from the Netherlands to Syria. He found of symptoms, but it will not explain the motiva-
that radical Islamists with a history of behavioral tion behind their behavior (Bhui et al., 2016). Un-
problems were overrepresented in these files, with derstanding how individual and group processes
46% of the suspects exhibiting a “problem behav- converge offers a more comprehensive outlook on
ior.” Additionally, the same study found that 6% terrorist involvement. Terrorists come in a wide va-
of the sample presented with a personality disorder riety, which makes profiling impractical and even
or mental illness. In these police files on terrorist counterproductive. As one expert noted, “when we
suspects, there were indications of problem be- assume static qualities of the terrorist (a feature of
haviors and mental illness, which included reports profiles), we become blind to the quality of the dy-NEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
7
namics that shape and support the development of ple, violence and aggression may result from ab-
the terrorist” (Horgan, 2008, p. 84). normalities in the cortical region, including lesions
We cannot fully understand terrorism in caused by trauma or tumors, decreased cortical vol-
terms of any single fundamental cause or contrib- umes due to developmental problems, and reduced
uting factor, such as mental health. However, it is processing efficiency (Siever, 2008). Violence and
important to examine the commonality of psycho- aggression may also result from abnormalities in
logical traits attributed to terrorism. They may re- the limbic regions, including hyperactivity of the
veal the neurological underpinnings of violent ex- amygdala and related structures, reduced subcorti-
tremism. Ultimately, no definitive conclusion can cal volumes, and emotional hypersensitivity (Siev-
be made on the role of mental illness in terrorism er, 2008).
without evidence based on psychiatric interviews,
neuropsychological testing, and neuroimaging re- Functional Neuroanatomy of Prefrontal
ports. However, some useful interpretations of the Regions
available evidence can still be made. The current The following sections will focus on pre-
debate on the role of mental illness in terrorism frontal regions of the brain, as these areas are com-
will undoubtedly continue. monly associated with violence and aggression
(Bogerts et al., 2018). The prefrontal cortex (PFC)
Violence, Aggression, and the Brain constitutes one-third of the neocortex and is divid-
The neural correlates of violence reside ed into the lateral (including ventrolateral and dor-
among various structures of the brain (Bogerts et solateral), medial, and orbitofrontal cortices (Fus-
al., 2018). Bogerts et al.’s (2018) review is truly ter, 2001; Siddiqui, Chatterjee, Kumar, Siddiqui,
the first of its kind and one of the only known arti- & Goyal, 2008). The same authors provide the
cles to exclusively look at terrorist violence from a following information on regional prefrontal func-
neuroscience perspective. One of the most intrigu- tion. First, the lateral region is associated with lan-
ing observations regarding functional anatomy is guage, attention, memory, response conflict, posi-
that some of the same regions involved with vio- tive/negative attitude mediation, spatial reasoning,
lence and aggression are also involved with em- planning, novelty processing, creativity, and new
pathy (Bogerts et al., 2018), indicating that abnor- learning. Second, the medial region is associated
mal changes in these brain areas may have a dual with bimanual coordination, attention to complex
impact on aggression and empathy alike. Empathy, cognitive tasks, modulating arousal states, spatial
or the ability to understand or share the feelings memory, self-initiated movement, conflict resolu-
of others, is an essential trait of modern humans. tion, decision making, long-term memory retrieval,
Neuroscience literature has previously examined and metacognition. Third, and finally, the orbitof-
the relationship between impaired empathy and rontal region is associated with reward expecta-
violence (Chialant, Edersheim, & Price, 2016). tions, emotional processing, delayed response, and
This study suggested that the prefrontal cortex and behavioral self-regulation. In summary, PFC func-
limbic system, under pathological conditions, are tion is strongly associated with executive function,
associated with violent behavior. In contrast, these memory, intelligence, language, visual search, and
same areas, under normal conditions, are associat- gaze (Siddiqui et al., 2008). Notably, the orbitof-
ed with empathy. rontal cortex is strongly linked to the amygdala, a
Bogerts et al. (2018) reviewed various limbic structure, forming an important circuit in-
structural and functional imaging studies that volved in violence and aggression.
found several cortical and subcortical limbic re- Unique and common clinical symptoms
gions linked to aggression and violence. For exam- characterize damage to each of the PFC subregionsSHAFI
8
(lateral, medial, and orbitofrontal cortices). Fuster with violent inclinations. This same review found
(2001) describes them as follows: lesions in the that past studies have observed patterns of reduced
lateral PFC are associated with the inability to or- gray matter volumes in the OFC, cingulate cortex,
ganize and execute behaviors, speech, reasoning, hippocampus, and insula in forensic and psychiat-
and attentional control. Second, lesions in the me- ric populations. In particular, these structural ab-
dial PFC are associated with the loss of initiation normalities have been observed in criminals with
of movement and speech, akinetic mutism, apathy, psychopathy, in some psychiatric patients with
and impaired concentration. Third, lesions in the schizophrenia or antisocial personality disorder,
orbital PFC are associated with personality chang- and in male prisoners with a history of violent of-
es, impulsivity, irritability, disinhibition, amorality, fenses, including, but not limited to, homicide (Bo-
and attentional deficits. gerts et al., 2018). Individuals with orbitofrontal
While regional specificity of functional lesions are more likely to have neuropsychiatric
anatomy is important, understanding the neural disorders, impaired social judgment, reduced em-
function of the PFC cannot be understood in iso- pathy, and reflexive aggression (Brower & Price,
lation, but in the context of neural circuitry or the 2001). An earlier review also found that both hu-
connections that the PFC has with other areas of man and animal studies have implicated the PFC
the brain, including the brainstem, thalamus, and in aggression in cases where ablative brain surgery
limbic system (Fuster, 2001). In other words, brain was performed on animals, in cases where humans
functioning is not exclusively localized to discrete underwent surgical or accidental lesions, in psychi-
areas but subserved by a complex network (Fuster, atric patients, or in human subjects in experimental
2001). The PFC has reciprocal connections with settings (Giancola, 1995). This review also found
all of the aforementioned regions except the limbic that the orbital region was more likely to be associ-
system’s basal ganglia (Siddiqui et al., 2008). The ated with disinhibited but non-aggressive behavior.
PFC also has interconnections between its lateral, In contrast, it was the dorsolateral region that was
medial, and orbitofrontal subregions. more likely to be associated with physical aggres-
The following sections consider the seg- sion. While some studies have been inconsistent in
mental PFC areas that have been implicated in vio- terms of orbital contributions to aggression, many
lence and aggression. A recent neuroimaging study studies point to this region as being a neural cor-
found that violent offenders presented with reduced relate of impulsivity (Winstanley et al., 2004).
gray matter volume in the PFC and increased gray Lateral Prefrontal Cortex (LPFC). The
matter volume in the cerebellum and basal ganglia lateral PFC (LPFC) can be divided into dorsolat-
in comparison with non-violent controls (Leutgeb eral and ventrolateral cortices. One review found
et al., 2015). Reduced gray matter volume in the that lesions in the dorsolateral cortex were asso-
PFC was also associated with psychopathy in the ciated with increased aggressive behavior (Brow-
same subjects. Another study found reduced gray er & Price, 2001). The ventrolateral PFC is heav-
matter volume in the PFC in violent offenders and ily involved in the cognitive control of memory,
reduced functional connectivity of prefrontal ar- including semantic retrieval, episodic retrieval,
eas with limbic areas (Contreras-Rodriguez et al., post-retrieval selection, and task switching (Badre
2015). & Wagner, 2007). However, there seem to be lim-
Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC). One review ited studies on how the ventrolateral PFC contrib-
found that lesions in the orbitofrontal cortex were utes to violence and aggression.
associated with increased aggression and impul- In one meta-analysis by Yang and col-
sivity (Bogerts et al., 2018). In addition, reduced leagues (2009), researchers analyzed 43 function-
volume of the OFC was also observed in males al and structural neuroimaging studies on clinicalNEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
9
subjects characterized as antisocial. These individ- amygdala is divided into central, basolateral, and
uals presented with any one of various disorders, superficial complexes (Rosell & Siever, 2015). It
including antisocial personality disorder, antisocial receives multisensory input and delivers motor
behavior, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant signals to various other brain regions (Sah, Faber,
disorder, psychopathy, and individual histories of Lopez de Armentia, & Power, 2003). The central
criminal behavior, violence, or aggression (Yang complex generally projects efferent (motor) nerve
& Raine, 2009). This study found that individu- fibers to subcortical regions and the brainstem.
als with antisocial personality disorder showed The basolateral complex generally receives affer-
reduced prefrontal volume and reduced prefron- ent (sensory) nerve fibers from various cortical re-
tal activity. Specifically, these researchers found gions and the thalamus. Less is known about the
these reductions in various regions, including the superficial complex, however. Functionally, the
left dorsolateral PFC, right orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala is associated with emotional process-
and right anterior cingulate cortex in brain scans of ing (including fear conditioning, aggression, and
clinical subjects as compared to controls. recognizing facial expressions), the hypothalamus
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC). In a with homeostatic function, and the cingulate gyrus
recent review, one researcher found that dysfunc- with regulation of autonomic functions (Siddiqui
tions in both the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and et al., 2008).
amygdala are associated with psychopathy, as well However, brain functioning is not best
as impairments in reversal learning and increased understood in terms of discrete parts but by their
reactive aggression (Blair, 2010). Experimental re- interconnections. This is a maxim of neurology
search has shown that ventral and dorsal aspects of that is crucial for understanding neuropathology
the mPFC are implicated in social reactive aggres- in violent extremism. For instance, a systems ap-
sion in healthy male subjects (Lotze et al., 2007). proach to understanding prefrontal-amygdala cir-
This study found increased activity in the mPFC cuitry reveals that aggression can be understood in
in these subjects during an interactive fMRI task. the context of top-down and bottom-up processes,
Subjects exhibited increased dorsal mPFC activity with the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus
while administering a retaliatory stimulus to their regulating aggression (through a top-down process
opponent during an fMRI task but exhibited in- analogous to a braking system), and the amygdala
creased ventral PFC activity while observing their and insular triggering aggression (through a bot-
opponent suffering. The medial PFC (mPFC) is tom-up process analogous to an accelerating sys-
primarily involved in memory and decision-mak- tem; Siever, 2008). The nature of violence from
ing (Euston et al., 2012). a neurological perspective should reveal a loss of
balance between these two systems, with a hypoac-
Functional Neuroanatomy of the Limbic System tive top-down process and a hyperactive bottom-up
The limbic system includes the olfacto- process.
ry bulb, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, Amygdala. A functional imaging study
basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus. Of primary im- by da Cunha-Bang and colleagues (2017) found
portance to the study of violence and aggression reduced amygdala-prefrontal connectivity and re-
in terrorism are the amygdala, hypothalamus, and duced striatal-prefrontal connectivity in violent
cingulate gyrus. The amygdala is nuclei located in offenders. These same authors found increased
the medial temporal lobe; the hypothalamus is in amygdala reactivity in this group (da Cunha-Bang
the frontal lobe, directly below the thalamus; and et al., 2017). These findings indicate increased neu-
the cingulate gyrus is in the medial cerebral cor- ral sensitivity in response to provocative stimuli, a
tex, immediately above the corpus callosum. The characteristic that is often associated with aggres-SHAFI
10
sion. subcortical regions develop earlier and cortical re-
A review article by Davidson and col- gions develop later. Subcortical regions are gen-
leagues (2000) argued that emotional dysregula- erally associated with impulsive behaviors and
tion is a prelude to violence and aggression. The primitive functions, whereas cortical regions are
authors reported that the orbital frontal cortex, associated with rationalization and higher-order
amygdala, anterior cingulate, and other associated functions. Generally, the earlier the stage in brain
regions are involved in emotional regulation. The development, the more time and potential the brain
PFC, in particular, received projections from neu- may have to adapt in response to stress, although
rons secreting serotonin, a neurotransmitter associ- resilience to stress decreases with aging. Such re-
ated with regulating mood, social behavior, appe- siliency is present in the prefrontal cortex (McEw-
tite, digestion, sleep, memory, and sexual function. en & Morrison, 2013). While some lesions leave a
A dysfunctional circuity involving the aforemen- permanent mark on cognitive or behavioral func-
tioned regions may explain why individuals are tion, other injuries may be compensated for with
more prone to impulsive aggression and violence cerebral reorganization, depending on the site and
due to emotional regulation problems. A recent re- extent of the injury and chronological age. How-
view also found that bilateral volume reductions ever, it is the connection between cortico-subcorti-
of the amygdala were associated with childhood cal regions that may allow for regulatory functions
aggression, reduced volume of the left central to emerge. As such, neurodevelopment should be
amygdala was associated with a lifetime histo- examined in terms of regional growth and system
ry of aggression, and reduced bilateral volume of growth. According to research, understanding brain
the amygdala was associated with adult men who development is not only a matter of observing de-
were classified as aggressive (Pardini et al., 2014). velopmental changes in individual brain regions,
Amygdala volumes were inconsistent in clinical but also the connections between regions, which
samples of patients with psychopathy, however. are largely bidirectional and possess a hierarchical
organization (Logothetis, 2008).
Development, Terrorism, and Neuroscience Neurodevelopment is tied to functional de-
The brain undergoes extraordinary struc- velopment, and as a consequence of late PFC de-
tural and functional changes over time. Some ar- velopment, higher-order functions such as logical
eas generally develop earlier than others, and it is reasoning develop later in life (Fuster, 2001). The
not uncommon to observe a healthy range of vari- PFC, in comparison with other cortical regions, is
ability between individuals. Age and development one of the last areas of the brain to undergo my-
have direct implications for human cognition and elination and synaptogenesis, which are long-term
behavior, including rational decision-making. An maturational processes that often do not culminate
examination of criminals or terrorists might re- until adolescence (Siddiqui et al., 2008). Recent
veal subjects with brains that are unlikely to have neuroimaging research suggests that the prefron-
reached full maturation. Indeed, a review of terror- tal cortex does not fully develop until the third de-
ism research has indicated that terrorists typically cade of the human life cycle (Fuster, 2015). These
join terrorist groups between 17-26 years of age patterns of late-PFC maturation may be important
(Loza, 2007). The inclination for adolescent and in explaining violent extremism in terrorism from
young adult recruitment and radicalization may a neurodevelopmental perspective. It is plausible
be understood in terms of neurodevelopment, in- that individuals are more likely to become radi-
cluding developmental trajectories of cortical and calized in these periods of adolescence and young
subcortical regions. For instance, there appears to adulthood when regulatory mechanisms are under-
be a differential pattern of brain maturation where developed. However, this is speculative. EmpiricalNEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
11
research is necessary to prove this claim. age range, including increases in novelty-seeking
In contrast, the amygdala develops early and risk-taking (Spear, 2000). Young adults are
in life, with high rates of development occurring considered to be between the ages of 20-35. The
within two weeks of the postnatal period (see Tot- average age of the 9/11 hijackers was 24 (Central
tenham, 2013, for review). There appears to be a Intelligence Agency, 2008). Some suspected ter-
sensitive time period in brain development where rorists from other organizations also appear to fit
different regions are more susceptible to environ- within the young adult age range (Loza, 2007). For
mental influence. This kind of susceptibility is instance, according to a report by journalists from
greatest during “peak periods” of neurodevelop- The Washington Post, a total of 125 individuals in
ment where specific brain regions are rapidly de- the U.S. were charged by Federal prosecutors for
veloping (Tottenham, 2013; Lupin et al., 2009). activities in connection with the Islamic State, a ji-
One researcher notes, “for some regions, like the hadist militant group. This information was based
prefrontal cortex, this period will be quite late and on files from the U.S. Department of Justice. The
extended; for the amygdala, it will be early and average age of these individuals was 27 at the time
rapid” (Tottenham, 2013, p. 4). Tottenham notes that they were charged (Goldman et al., 2015). The
that the amygdala is particularly sensitive to envi- age range for these individuals was 17-52.
ronmental changes during early life. Loza (2007) argued that some of the older
Neurodevelopmental changes are non- terrorist leaders tend to promote martyrdom in re-
linear (Gogtay & Thompson, 2010). In terms of cruits while being less likely to follow that pathway
brain volume, there is a pre-puberty increase in themselves. Similarly, another study conducted on
gray matter volume followed by a post-puber- the personality characteristics of suicidal terrorists,
ty decrease, which is explained by neurological non-suicidal terrorists, or violent offenders and
processes of maturation, such as synaptic pruning terrorist organizers found that both suicidal and
and cortical myelination. In contrast, white matter non-suicidal terrorists had an average age of 19.
volumes increase throughout the lifespan for sev- In contrast, terrorist organizers had an average age
eral decades (Gogtay & Thompson, 2010). These of 27 (Merari et al., 2010b). This data is not sur-
changes in volumes are heterogeneous across prising given the longstanding research on the age-
lobes. Development is often prolonged, especially crime curve, which shows that criminal behavior,
in the prefrontal region. The previously described including aggression, is correlated with males from
changes in gray and white matter volume are best adolescent or young adult age groups. Maturation
explained as a mechanism of improved efficiency of the brain occurs in adolescence and early adult-
of neural function during growth. Adult cognitive hood, and this period is associated with a decrease
function is not so much dependent upon the num- in risk-taking behaviors, including criminal behav-
ber of brain cells in a given region as it is by the ior, as the central nervous system fully develops
fine-tuned connections between cells and regions (Blonigen, 2010).
overall. Development of the PFC from 7 years to
early adulthood is correlated with improvements in Social Cognition, Terrorism, and Neuroscience
cognitive function, specifically with regard to pro- Social cognition encompasses several re-
cessing speech, strategic thinking, working mem- lated constructs, including empathy, prosocial be-
ory, and inhibition. These four abilities are linked havior, morality, and the regulation of violence and
to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in particular aggression (Decety et al., 2010). The aforemen-
(Diamond, 2002). tioned constructs are very important in mediating
There are unique behaviors associated our social interaction with others. Dysfunctional
with individuals in the adolescent-young adult social cognitive processes are often manifested asSHAFI
12
problematic social behaviors, including violence ization based on individual differences, i.e.,
and aggression, and may, perhaps, contribute to age, socialization, personality, neurocognitive
radicalization and associated terrorist activity. In- development, identified by neuroscientific
vestigating the neural mechanisms of social cog- measures?
nition is essential to understanding how terrorists • Social-cultural: Is empathy a mediator of ag-
become radicalized. Decety and colleagues (2010) gression?
argue that we can understand the neural correlates • Social-cultural: Can shared perspective-taking
of radicalization by studying the psychological in groups and between siblings be explained by
and demographic characteristics associated with neuroimaging?
extremism and analyzing patterns of brain activity • Social-cultural: What are the neural correlates
in individuals with such characteristics in experi- of religious fundamentalism?
ments designed to probe moral decision-making. • Environmental: Do environmental conditions
With the support of a social psychological impact neurodevelopment in such a way as to
model, Smith et al. (2020) proposed that radicaliza- increase the probability of violent extremism?
tion is basically a group socialization process that
unfolds during “situated social interactions” that Discussion: A Neuroscientific Conversation
optimize the influence of shared understanding and Some researchers in terrorism studies of-
experiences. They claim, “people’s radicalization ten use inductive reasoning to infer potential brain
to violence is inseparable from the social context in abnormalities in terrorists based on clinical and
which their social interactions take place” (Smith forensic studies (Bogerts et al., 2018). That is,
et al., 2020, p. 327). In other words, terrorism is an general principles regarding the neural correlates
evolving psychosocial process that develops with- of violence in forensic and clinical populations are
in a group context and does not simply manifest used to make probable but uncertain conclusions
itself from individual tendencies but from the in- about terrorist suspects. Stronger evidence on the
fluence of outside forces. neuroscience of terrorism would certainly emerge
if neuroimaging studies were to be conducted on
Results: Research Questions these persons of interest. As researchers, we should
Multiple perspectives are needed in terror- readily acknowledge that there are problems with
ism studies given the complex interplay of genet- the external validity of whatever assumptions we
ic predispositions, individual psychopathology, make about the terrorist mindset, given the utter
socio-cultural determinants, and environmental lack of informative case studies. However, we are
conditions in shaping human behavior. Taken to- responsible for attempting to fill the gaps in our in-
gether, our exploratory case study and literature re- formation, although our degree of confidence will
view generated research questions to be addressed again, depend on the level of evidence on which
through a hypothetical neuroscientific lens. Sug- we base our conclusions. In our case, using infor-
gested research questions include: mation from psychiatric and forensic research to
• Genetics: Can our study of genes and neuro- apply toward terrorism research is, indeed, specu-
development help us to predict violence and lative, although it raises important questions for fu-
aggression in later adulthood? ture research, such as the potential neural basis of
• Psychopathology: Can neuroscientific re- violence, which appears to manifest itself in many
search methods elucidate a causal or explana- different contexts. Neuroscience information on the
tory role for mental illness in the study of ter- terrorist population is limited because the number
rorism? of available human subjects is limited, as terrorism
• Psychopathology: Is the potential for radical- is a rare phenomenon, and secondly because infor-NEUROSCIENCE OF TERRORISM
13
mation on these subjects is often classified due to addition, researchers should reexamine potential
national security reasons - and rightfully so. links between terrorism and mental illness.
I acknowledge the practical limitations that I strongly recommend that law enforce-
neuroscience would have within counterterrorism. ment and the intelligence community collaborate
Neuroimaging could only be used as a supportive with professional neuroscientists within a legal
analytical tool. In addition, while new evidence framework in order to further investigate the neural
on the brain-behavior relationship is constantly correlates of violent extremism in terrorism. One
emerging, there are still many unknowns in neuro- cannot have a “multidisciplinary dialogue” about
science. counterterrorism without neuroscience being part
of the conversation.
Conclusion: The Role of Neuroscience in Un-
derstanding Terrorism References
Some of the available sources that may Abrahms, M. (2012). The political effec-
shed light on the inner workings of the terror- tiveness of terrorism revisited. Compar-
ist mind may include information obtained from ative Political Studies, 45(3), 366-393.
psychiatric interviews, family narratives, military doi:10.1177/0010414011433104
intelligence, legal proceedings, news reports, offi- Alonso, R., Bjorgo, T., Della Porta, D., Coolsaet,
cial media from terrorist organizations, and autobi- R., Khosrokhavar, F., Lohker, R., ... & Taarnby,
ographies by members or ex-members of terrorist M. (2008). Radicalisation processes leading to
groups. However, whatever inferences one makes acts of terrorism. A concise report prepared by
should always be interpreted with caution. One the European Commission’s Expert Group on
should always remember the heterogeneous nature Violent Radicalisation.
of the terrorist profile (Horgan, 2005). Generaliza- Alosaimi, F. D., Alshehri, Y., Alfraih, I., Al-
tions should not be made as to the “neurological” ghamdi, A., Aldahash, S., Alkhuzayem, H.,
characteristics of terrorists with a history of violent & Albeeeshi, H. (2014). The prevalence of
extremism, although some speculation is import- psychiatric disorders among visitors to faith
ant for advancing our discussion of possible neural healers in Saudi Arabia. Pakistan Journal of
correlates of cognitive-behavioral traits commonly Medical Sciences, 30(5), 1077–1082. https://doi.
associated with this population. The role of neu- org/10.12669/pjms.305.5434
roscience in understanding extremist violence may Anholt, R.H.H., Mackay, T.F.C. (2012). Genetics
also contribute to policymaking in the legal sys- of aggression. Annual Review of Genetics, 46,
tem. 145-164. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-gen-
From a counterterrorism perspective, neu- et-110711-155514
roscience is not a preventative tool but a support- Asp, E., Ramchandran, K., & Tranel, D. (2012).
ive, analytical tool. The current psychiatric and Authoritarianism, religious fundamentalism, and
forensic literature can help inform contemporary the human prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychology,
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