TAttoo tAboo A Reader - OPUS 4
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T
at t o o
aboo
Tattoo Taboo
A Reader
A Reader
Alexandra Skedzuhn-Safir / Nicole Franceschini Tattoo Taboo
Tattoo Taboo A reader
A Reader
BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg
2020
6 Introduction
Alexandra Skedzuhn-Safir and Nicole Franceschini
Heritage
Bibliographic information of the German National Library: 12 Safeguarding and Intangibility of British Tattooing Practices
The German National Library lists this publication in the Kelsey Maas
German National Bibliography; detailed bibliographic data
are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 24 Identity for Indigenous Tattoo Practices
Jack Bell
ISBN 978-3-940471-58-1
DOI https://doi.org/10.26127/BTUOpen-5236 34 Troublesome Tattoos: The Difficulties of Tracing Tattooing Traditions within the
British Isles
© Alexandra Skedzuhn-Safir and Nicole Franceschini (eds.) Jacqueline Anderson
Chair of Architectural Conservation and
Chair of Cultural Management Art
Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus–Senftenberg
IKMZ – Universitätsbibliothek 52 The Invention of the Tattooing Machine
Postfach 10 13 44 Maike Winter
03013 Cottbus
60 Patterns and Designs: British Punk and Tattoos in 1970-80s
Copy-editors: Katelyn Williams and Nicole Vasconi Yiwen Wu
Cover photo of Emily in Berlin 2020: Alexandra Skedzuhn-Safir
Photos of authors: Sophia Hörmannsdorfer, Paul Künzel, 70 Globalisation of Traditional Japanese Tattooing in the Spotlight of Ed Hardy
Ben McArdle and Sophie Pleasance Jonathan Metzner
Typesetting, design and art: Lenika Muñoz
80 Deviant Fine Art. The Rise of the Tattoo Artification and the Problematics of Displaying
Tattoo Art and Practices
Sonia Alcaina Gallardo
List of figures
P. 4: Inspired by Sak Yant tattoo, from the Lanna Sak Yant Tattoo Studio, Thailand
Source: http://lannasakyant.com/the-himapant-animals
P. 10: Inspired by Maori Whakairo design
http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WalRobl-t1-body-d1-d4.html
P. 48: Inspired by The Japanese Tattoo (1987), by Sandi Fellman, p. 60
P. 90: Inspired by George Burchett designs
Source: https://www.artworldconfidential.org/ imported-20110121193907/tag/Tattoo
2 3
Space
98 Mapping as a Part of Methodology in Assessing, Organising and Communicating
Heritage Applied to London’s late-19th Century
Jana Eppler
110 Urban Space, Social Practices and the Tattoo: Tattooing in Tothill Street and Jermyn
Street, London, 1894-1903
Isabelle Meister
120 Mapping Tattooing Practices in London: Westminster between the 19th and the 20th
Centuries
Sonia Alcaina Gallardo, Jacqueline Anderson, Jack Bell, Jana Eppler, Kelsey Maas,
Andrea Martinez Fernandez, Jonathan Metzner, Isabelle Meister, Maike Winter, Yiwen
Wu and Zhuo Zhao
5
Introduction
Throughout the world, tattoos have historically been During our visit at Oxford, curator Nicholas Crowe at the
expressions of the socio-cultural identity of individuals Pitt Rivers Museum showed us the archived, historic
or communities: tattoos can be elements of initiation, tattoo templates of Japanese imagery, which inspired
marriage rites and other rituals or traditions. Yet in tattooists in the West, and discussed the challenges of
other parts of the world, tattooing practices have been preserving the collection. Gemma Angel—lecturer at the
ostracised due to their associations with crime and School of Anthropology and Museum Ethnography in
Skedzuhn-Safir, Franceschini
immorality. The historic late 19th and early 20th centuries Oxford—gave us an overview of the current academic
practice of tattooing is most commonly associated in interest of historic tattoo practices and the symbolism of
Western Europe with harbor cities, such as Hamburg 19th century tattoo patterns employed in Western Europe.
or Marseille. However, metropolises such as London Later Matt Lodder, art historian and senior lecturer in Art
featured a lively tattooing scene. History and Theory from the University of Essex, also
met with the students to discuss Western tattoo practice
To research the practice of and places associated with and image content from an art history perspective.
tattooing, a study project was designed to address
tattooing in terms of its cultural heritage, both intangible Some museum exhibits and collections on tattooing
and tangible. In the winter semester 2018/2019, this feature historic tattoos on preserved human skin. Due
study project was offered by the Chairs of Architectural to the ongoing debate on how museums should handle
Conservation and of Cultural Management. Twelve the repatriation of human remains, and what conditions
international students from the study programmes World must be fulfilled in order to do so, the (historical) remains
Heritage Studies and Architecture participated in this of human skin are a particularly problematic issue.
study project, which was held at Brandenburg University Tattooing as a taboo, therefore, not only concerns the
of Technology (Cottbus, Germany) and in London. practice and the people associated with it, but also
regards the collection and display of tattooed skin as
During a one-week excursion in January 2019, students a debatable practice that, regardless, requires framing
visited two sites at Westminster that were particularly in a sensitive, respectful manner in line with individual
prominent for tattooing in the 19th century. Where the human rights.
former exuberant Turkish Hammam on Jermyn Street in
the West End once stood, today there is only a large, As a hands-on project, students examined the
open space surrounded by other historic buildings. Also possibilities of assessing the meaning of past and
in Westminster at the site where once an imposing Royal present sites of tattoo parlours by researching primary
Aquarium had occupied a large area close to Westminster sources in archives, but also through conducting
Abbey. After it was demolished, the Methodist Central interviews with different stakeholders on contemporary
Hall was erected in its place. Its archivist Paul Moyihan tattooing practices.
kindly provided students with information and images of
the former Royal Aquarium. This reader presents a collection of their essays on this
topic with a particular focus the tangible and intangible
Other destinations visited during the excursion were aspects of tattooing, and the spatial history of tattooing
the Maritime Museum in Greenwich, where curator based on two distinct areas in London as a case study.
Kristian Martin described the exhibition Skin Deep held In recent years, academics have initiated reframing
in 2002 on the subject of tattoos, and the significance tattoos as part of the intangible cultural heritage
the participation of a community of people who are discourse within research, conferences, exhibitions
themselves tattooed or work as tattooists/tattoo artists. and publications dedicated to this field, covering tattoo
Alexandra Skedzuhn-Safir
Curator Sophie Richards gave us an insight into her practices in historic and contemporary contexts. The
exhibition Pacific Encounters. It shows traditional 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Nicole Franceschini
tattooing instruments, along with the historical practice Intangible Cultural Heritage defines intangible cultural
of tattooing in the Pacific, its influence on the Western heritage in Article 2 as:
world, and the transfer of knowledge.
8 7
‘…practices, representations, expressions, Westminster. Their research was primarily based on the mapping on tattooing practices and the historic urban
knowledge, skills—as well as the instruments, archival research conducted at the National Archives landscape, especially for two quarters surrounding the
objects, artefacts and cultural spaces in London. Here, they analysed the entries of London Royal Aquarium and the Turkish Hammam in Jermyn
associated therewith—that communities, directories for these two quarters, so that the students Street between 1890 and 1903 (Alcaina Gallardo et. al.).
groups and, in some cases, individuals could produce two distinct maps to visualise the historic This reader, overall, gives us a small insight into the links
recognize as part of their cultural heritage. context of the tattooing practices and five specific between two seemingly unconnected but nevertheless
Skedzuhn-Safir, Franceschini
This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted business categories: retail, leisure, manufacture, interdependent parts of cultural heritage: the material
from generation to generation, is constantly eateries and services. and immaterial.
recreated by communities and groups in
response to their environment, their interaction Students produced maps for this project based on Using the two examples of historical places in
with nature and their history, and provides them information from the historic maps by the Ordnance Westminster where tattoos were made, which—contrary
with a sense of identity and continuity […].’ 1 Survey Maps. To assess whether development occurred to what we might think—were rather offered for the upper
within one determined period and if the observed social classes, the method of Spatial History can be used
The interface between the intangible and tangible phenomenon of one particular year remained somewhat to show in which economic and social environments this
components of tattooing as cultural heritage may be stable, the students mapped the two areas for the years practice took place.
detected at the sites where tattooing is or has been 1890 and 1903. For this period, a sufficient amount of
carried out. Also, places where people meet—including data has survived to compile meaningful maps. These Future research could further provide detailed and
those who identify themselves as individuals or a cultural two distinct years are grounded in two facts. For the year differentiated statements about tattooing practices in
group through their tattoos—form part of this particular 1890, the location of the different businesses could be London at other locations and time layers—including
storyscape, as well as places where tattooing tools and well established due to a second set of maps that were other tattooists and tattooed people—in order to
materials are developed and produced. Examining the consulted: The Goad ‘Insurance Plan of West London’, determine the locations where the actual practices are
connections between tangible and intangible cultural whose last version had been published in 1889. The end located.
heritage, with the different places, practices and of tattooing at the Aquarium was in 1903, when it was
stakeholders is a significant gap in heritage research. demolished. We wish to thank all who have helped bring this reader
This study project, therefore, aims at providing a together: Katie Williams and Nicole Vasconi for their
preliminary examination of this gap. The students’ papers are divided into distinctive themes copyediting, Lénika Muñoz for the typesetting, layout and
connected to the practice of tattooing. Section one deals design, and Emily for permitting us to use a photograph
To determine the culture heritage values of tattoo parlours, with tattoos as a form of heritage. Specifically, section of her tattoos for the cover of the reader.
there are various models to illustrate the significance of one examines tattooing as an intangible practice and its
space, and methods to analyse and assess the cultural implications in safeguarding (Maas), the role of tattoos 1 UNESCO (n.d.) Intangible Cultural Heritage, Convention
significance of sites and buildings associated with in terms of shaping and forming identity (Bell), and text, available online at https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention
Tattoo Taboo
tattooing. It is possible to examine these places through research challenges presented by tattooing traditions (accessed 22 May 2020).
archived documents, historic photographs, or basically from the perspective of an archaeologist (Anderson).
by investigating the buildings themselves, making the The second section is dedicated to tattooing as an
building a primary source. To understand the ‘workings’ art form. This encompasses the production of tattoos
of historic urban sites, an approach called Spatial History through the development of respective tools (Winter),
has gained a revival. By mapping different types of specific designs as an expression of Punk culture (Wu),
buildings or places, determined by their social, political or the work of a tattooist and his influence in globalising
economic function, the historic urban landscape can be traditional Japanese tattoo patterns (Metzner), and the
visualised. Therefore, relationships and dependencies problems of exhibiting tattoos as a practice and art form
of sites and the activities that took place there can be (Alcaina Gallardo). The third section investigates the
(better) understood, and perhaps even discovered. possibilities of mapping as a methodological approach
to visualising, assessing and presenting relationships
In particular, students examined the historic urbanscape between tangible and intangible heritage (Eppler), to the
for the period between the late 19th and early 20th century tattooing practice and its connection to the social fabric in
of the area surrounding Jermyn Street in the West End, London at the turn of the penultimate century (Meister).
as well as the quarter around the former Aquarium in The third section concludes with students’ thematic
8 9
Heritage
Safeguarding
Brief History of Tattooing in the will likely always continue within the different tattooing
UK and Defining Intangible communities within Britain, it risks being misunderstood,
misrepresented and unprotected in formal institutions
such as cultural organisations and bodies — i.e.
and Intangibility
Tattooing practices have long been a part of the United museums, institutes and formal heritage societies. The
Kingdom. Their histories within the British Isles have aim of this paper is to look at how the intangible practice
spanned through the Celts and Romans to the era of of tattooing can be safeguarded within institutionalised
colonising the Americas and Oceania. This practice mechanisms within the United Kingdom. However,
was adapted into the maritime culture that interwove before understanding how tattooing can be safeguarded
with the English colonies in what was perceived to within the United Kingdom, the concept of intangible
be exotic and far away lands. From these exposures, heritage must first be understood.
Kelsey Maas
Europeans returned with stories of the Indigenous
of British
communities they encountered and their own ‘captive’ In 2003, the General Conference of the United Nations
stories and bore tattoos to lend them legitimacy. From Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
here they were incorporated into exhibitions and shows (UNESCO) adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding
of tattooed men and women. Outside of the sideshows, of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH Convention).2
tattooing became an established business practice in This document will be a guiding framework for the
the 19th century and a British person could get a tattoo content of this analysis as it is the most robust and
at a brick and mortar tattoo parlour instead of having to internationally recognised mechanism for safeguarding
know the right people or communities in order to gain and discussing intangible heritage. Through the ICH
Tattooing
access. In 1894, Sutherland Macdonald became the Convention,3 intangible cultural heritage (ICH) is defined
first listed ‘tattooist’ in London’s Post Office Directory, as:
making him the city’s first official professional in the field,
and he was rumoured to have tattooed British royalty ‘the practices, representations, expressions,
in addition to his aristocratic clientele.1 While it became knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments,
a more established practice, it also became subject to objects, artefacts and cultural spaces
critique and prohibition. From the 19th and 20th centuries, associated therewith – that communities, groups
and, in some cases, individuals recognize as
Practices
tattooing began to be associated with the criminal and
taboo. It was often associated with those living on the part of their cultural heritage. This intangible
margins of society. In the 20th century, it was often cultural heritage, transmitted from generation
used as a form of resistance and as a clear marker of to generation, is constantly recreated by
being part of a counter culture movement or alternative communities and groups in response to their
community. It has only been in the last decade that environment, their interaction with nature and
tattooing has become normalised and those with tattoos their history, and provides them with a sense of
are not necessarily considered to be actively resisting identity and continuity, thus promoting respect
a norm. Today, it has lost much of its previous taboo for cultural diversity and human creativity.’ 4
nature, but is still underappreciated or misunderstood
from those outside of the tattooed community. The ICH Convention is framed around four main goals:
safeguarding, ensuring respect, raising awareness and
The rich history of tattooing in Britain has changed and providing international cooperation and assistance.5
adapted with the social and cultural influences that have These goals ideally would align with what the UK should
made contact with the country. It has seen times of high strive for in the safeguarding of tattooing practices. The
popularity, but also has been perceived as extremely UK is a State Party to the Convention Concerning the
Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,
Kelsey Maas
taboo. Luckily, it has adapted through the restrictive
times and still exists today, but it still struggles to be which in theory could work in conjunction with the ICH
accepted within the mainstream and therefore risks not Convention, but they are not a State Party to the ICH
being protected as a cultural practice. While the custom Convention.
13
Safeguarding is a type of protection, but it stresses the this heritage for the future while getting the support of their own heritage organisations, as well as certain This has created an English discomfort with the concept
importance of being dynamic and evolving along with recognised bodies who typically protect and manage areas of autonomy for legislative powers outside of the of intangibility, as they fail to recognise it as a legitimate
the intangible cultural practice. The traditional notions of heritage. UK parliament that can influence heritage policies and form of cultural heritage, which impacts how heritage
protection conjure images of a stationary place or items organisations for their different regions. In England, is discussed, used and viewed within the UK.17 This is
to be guarded. This perception is grounded in an idea of The ICH Convention on paper sounds promising, and Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland there are English seen in UK legislation, which predominantly favours built
permanence. Safeguarding can never be fixed. Through while it is a step forward for the safeguarding of intangible Heritage, Historic Environment Scotland, Cadw and the heritage, such as the Town and Country Planning Act
the ICH Convention, safeguarding is defined as: heritage, it requires buy-in from the State Parties to Northern Ireland Environmental Agency respectively. (1947), the National Heritage Act (1983) and the Ancient
be fully actualised. There are organisations within the These agencies differ on how they manage and approach Monument and Archaeological Areas Act (1979).18
‘Measures aimed at ensuring the viability United Kingdom (ICOMOS UK, Museum Galleries heritage based on cultural and governmental influences
of the intangible cultural heritage, including Scotland and Edinburgh Napier University’s Centre of their nation. Scotland, for example, already has Conservation within the UK is strongly influenced by
the identification, documentation, research, for Cultural and Creative Industries) who push for the resources in place for safeguarding intangible heritage John Ruskin and tied to the idea of authenticity through
Kelsey Maas
preservation, protection, promotion, country to become a State Party, but there is push back and are trying to foster greater recognition of the concept the originality of the structure and aesthetic value.19
enhancement, transmission, particularly from the state. The convention requires State Parties of intangibility within heritage, whereas, England’s This attitude conflicts with the nature of intangible
through formal and non formal education, commit to the necessary processes to show they are viewpoint on heritage is based in monumentality and heritage, which is ever changing to adapt to the needs
as well as the revitalization of the various ensuring safeguarding measures both from legislative tangibility which may prove difficult to overcome when and culture of the time. For many English people,
aspects of such heritage.’ 6 standpoints as well as collaborating with communities, attempting to implement intangible heritage policies or they cannot understand how a cultural practice can
groups and relevant NGOs.8 The ICH Convention convincing English communities that they have intangible be considered heritage and thereby authentic if it has
While certain traditional elements of conservation exist actively promotes the equality of all heritage, which culture and it should be appreciated and protected at the changed from its original form. Or how a practice can be
within this definition, it also moves beyond them to conflicts with the English dominance of monumental and same level as their physical heritage. considered heritage if it does not measure to the levels
ensure the ICH is appreciated and transmitted to future physical heritage. of monumentality so often promoted in English heritage,
generations. From the Western discourse of heritage, heritage such as castles, cathedrals and megaliths.
Ten years after its ratification, the ICH Convention has has conventionally been viewed as tangible, built and
The approach to look at safeguarding through authorised influenced over a dozen State Parties to create new or monumental.12 Smith has critiqued this through what she From interviews performed with heritage professionals
and institutionalised measures is not an attempt to add to existing legislation to safeguard their ICH.9 This terms as the Authorised Heritage Discourse (AHD), which throughout the field, Smith and Waterton overwhelmingly
remove the methods of protection tattooed communities is promising and shows it is possible to adjust current serves heritage experts who act as the gatekeepers in found that the interviewees either denied the existence
have long been employing, but to add additional legislation to incorporate intangible heritage or even determining what is considered heritage and validates of intangible heritage within England or stressed how
safeguards in a fast moving and globalised world. While create new legislation. Blake noted that much of the Western knowledge systems that influence heritage those within England simply cannot comprehend English
tattooing has lost much of its negative connotations at legislation and institutional development surrounding ICH practices.13 Institutions like UNESCO and its World heritage within the notion of intangible heritage.20 This
present, cultural viewpoints may shift and recognising for State Parties of the ICH Convention happened at the Heritage List are founded within the influences of AHD attitude has clearly influenced current practices within
the practice through official mechanisms would help regional level.10 This can enable different communities and have resulted in the dominance of Western thinking England. If one searches on English Heritage’s website
ensure the protection of the practice in the future. Also, to highlight the distinctness of their region’s tattooing in how global heritage is recognised and protected. For for the term ‘intangible’, or, for the context of this paper,
Tattoo Taboo
by being seen through authorised institutions, tattooing culture, which may differ due to the type of trade or example, the current structure of the World Heritage List ‘tattoo’, it comes back with zero results. The same results
can be given a platform it previously did not have access migration to and from the area. makes it quite difficult to nominate intangible elements of return on the United Kingdom National Commission
to, which enables it to not only be safeguarded, but also a site because it is difficult to prove authenticity, which in for UNESCO’s website. To contrast, in Scotland they
celebrated as a cultural practice and important piece of The ICH Convention attempts to place importance on turn makes it harder to safeguard intangible values.14 It is have the ICH Scotland Wiki, which was developed
British heritage. human rights and how they relate to ICH, which is an only in the recent past that UNESCO has tried to counter by Edinburgh Napier University in 2008 and is now
important step forward in recognising communities and this by providing mechanisms to honour and safeguard managed by Museums Galleries Scotland (MGS) with
A critically important aspect of the ICH Convention is the groups that may see their rights infringed upon.11 For heritage that challenges AHD values, such as the ICH the sole purpose of giving general education on Scottish
involvement of the communities who participate in this tattooed communities, the ICH convention can offer Convention,15 the Representative List of the Intangible ICH and providing a dynamic platform to inventory and
heritage. To be nominated, the convention calls for ‘their recognition of their culture, ensure safeguarding of the Cultural Heritage of Humanity and the Register of Good reference this heritage.21
free, prior and informed consent’ as a key element for practice and protect their cultural rights in the future. Safeguarding Practices.
the nomination to be considered.7 This creates a cross- It is uncertain if the UK will ratify the ICH Convention
collaborative approach to safeguarding. It attempts Smith and Waterson argue that the dominant heritage in the near future. Hill et al. argues the UK may be
to avoid a purely authorised take on the protection Understanding the United Kingdom discourse in England is based on tangibility and in order avoiding ratifying the convention in order to avoid having
and management of the ICH by instead forming a to be genuine English heritage, it must hold elements to actively reevaluate how they interact with minority
collaboration with those who are truly the experts who Within the United Kingdom, the four countries of of physical permanence that symbolise English cultural groups in the country.22 From the lens of AHD, the ICH
can contribute meaningful ways to continue and protect England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have values and can be conserved for future generations.16 Convention provides official mechanisms to challenge
14 15
Western norms, which continue to misunderstand and drawings. As the British Empire expanded throughout These receptions and performances acted as a way to This type of document may capture the interest of
resist the concept of intangibility. However, official the globe, explorers returned with writings and drawings promote the artistry of tattooing and the communities novices or those interested in tattooing, but tattooists
groups within the UK, such as UK ICOMOS and Arts from these faraway lands. It was one of the few ways to who either had or made them. It was a way for those themselves have a history of learning by doing and
Council England, recognise the importance of the ICH capture the imagery of unknown lands and peoples for outside of this community to see tattoos displayed shadowing those already in the craft. Guides offer the
Convention’s work and may help in nudging the nation an unacquainted audience. In the 16th century, the artist fully, but as with drawings and writings, it is not a tattooists perspective into their work, but do they actually
forward in becoming a State Party. John White created watercolour paintings of Indigenous straightforward promotion of the practice. Shows were transmit the knowledge to other tattooists? Guides
Americans and his images were adapted for the book commercial, so while they helped provide income to result in another form of documentation, which provide
To be listed as a World Heritage site, the site must A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of tattooists and the tattooed community, it also meant they historical insights into how the practice was approached
demonstrate that it meets at least one of ten criteria set Virginia (1590).24 These images displayed people who had to make the shows as appealing as possible. Often since the late 19th century. The historic guides were sold
by the World Heritage Centre, which focus on cultural often had markings on their arms, legs, face and chest the tattooed person had fantastical background stories in a time where tattoos were perceived as exotic and
and natural values, in addition to having Outstanding and were some of the first depictions of tattooed people of being captured by Indigenous tribes, who they were were not known within the mainstream. It allowed for
Kelsey Maas
Universal Value. Currently, six of the 31 UK World from North America. Captain James Cook’s journey on forced to live amongst and who allegedly tattooed them technical observations of the craft to be shared with both
Heritage sites are inscribed with criterion (vi), with three the Endeavour provided England with the first glimpse against their will. In all reality, many had not even been those inside and outside of the tattooed community.
being in England. This criterion focuses on a direct link of tattooing in the Pacific. One of the illustrators on to the areas where they were supposedly held captive.
between the site and associated events or traditions,23 board, Sydney Parkinson, captured the facial tattoos of Although the authenticity of the performer’s background
or in short, the site has intangible elements. This is the Maori in his drawings25 and described them in great should be examined critically, these events promoted a Recent Safeguarding Initiatives
promising as it shows that within the framework of a detail in his personal journal.26 community who typically lived within the margins into a
tangible site, intangible elements can be appreciated. space of appreciation. Conventions and Clubs
What is needed moving forward is creativity to inspire Historic drawings and writings provide a window into the
new ways of thinking when it comes to educating and time of their creation; however, they are also painted Since the 1950s, conventions and clubs provided spaces
protecting ICH within the UK. with bias and often were altered when reproduced. Tattooing Guides for promotion and transmission of tattooing practices.
It certainly gives insights into who was observing, but In 1953, the Bristol Tattoo Club was established as an
should be viewed sceptically when analysing who was In 1896, D.W. Purdy authored Tattooing: How to Tattoo, organisation that promoted the tattoo culture beyond
Safeguarding Tattooing Practices being perceived. While they can be problematic, at times What to Use and How to Use Them. Purdy was one the common misconception of the tattooed community
they offer some of the little evidence available of the of the first professional tattooists in London in the 19th being comprised of only criminals or military members.33
The safeguarding of tattooing practices already exists historic nature of tattooing. century who had a wide offering of designs, including This was an early attempt at promoting tattooing in
outside of mainstream heritage mechanisms and has the Tower Bridge, battleships or even the House of both an active and positive manner. The founder of
been fostered by the communities who practice tattooing Parliament.29 His book was divided into three chapters, the Bristol Tattoo Club, Les Skuse, created a tattoo
and/or have tattoos. While some of the recent measures Receptions and Performances which covered the topics of what to use; sketching; and convention, which connected the best tattooists of
fall within institutionalised cultural spaces, there is no pricking in, sponging.30 In his preface he declares: the time.34 These conventions continued to grow in
systematic safeguarding of tattooing that covers the In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, travelling shows attendance and even influenced American tattoo culture.
Tattoo Taboo
whole of the United Kingdom. Going back to the ICH of tattooed men and women were once a popular ‘This book is printed chiefly to enlighten the Today, tattoo conventions can be found throughout the
Convention’s definition of safeguarding, the following pastime. In Victorian London, one could find tattooed public more about the Arts of Tattooing. And United Kingdom. World Tattoo Events listed 26 UK
examples showcase partial elements of safeguarding, women, often the wife or partner of the tattooist, heavily it is absurd for a person to try and Tattoo his conventions happening over a period of 12 months.35
but lack overly comprehensive and dynamic ways of covered with designs, and they were quite the popular or herself, as it is impossible and it would Depending on the convention, an attendee can get
safeguarding the practice. The majority are directly spectacle to see.27 Not only did this showcase the be disfiguring the Flesh … if you turn to the tattooed, but also find tattoo parlour suppliers, tattoo art
linked to tattooing, however, recent developments within tattooist’s designs and artistic abilities, but it created a instructions, you will be reading them carefully, competitions, entertainment, art exhibitions and general
ICOMOS UK are worth noting even though they currently space of awe and amazement for tattooed people. It and studying them mentally, all that is necessary shopping vendors. These conventions lean towards
have not addressed the topics of tattooing. was a place to be entertained and enjoy the art of tattoo. to become an expert.’ 31 the entertainment side of the spectrum and mirror the
Other events could venture on the intimate side, where concept of a music festival, but for the tattoo community
the performer wore a costume that concealed areas of Other historic guides of a similar nature include instead. They offer a space to celebrate everything
Historic Safeguarding Mechanisms the body that were historically deemed sensitive while George Burchett’s The Art of Tattooing: How to Tattoo associated with tattoo culture. Conventions facilitate the
displaying the tattooed spaces in a tasteful manner for by Hand or Electricity (n.d.) and Louis Morgan’s The employment of tattoo artists and provide the opportunity
Drawings and Writings the time. In 1882, The New York Times published a Modern Tattooist (1912). A contemporary guide used by to get tattooed, which supports the practice continuing.
review of Irene Woodward’s reception in New York City’s beginner tattooists is entitled Tattooing A to Z: A Guide These are large events and often are publicised in large
One of the earliest forms of safeguarding comes in Sinclair House describing her outfit, background and to Successful Tattooing by Huck Spaulding.32 metropolitan areas, meaning even people outside of the
the form of documentation through engravings and tattoos.28 tattoo community are aware of its presence.
16 17
Tattoo clubs offer support for their communities. Their between ICH communities and the museums.38 A large recognise the importance of UK ICH. They understand the lack of moderation. Presently, there are clear spam
nature allows them to cater to the needs specific to their component of the project was to raise awareness about that the concept of ICH is currently misunderstood or entries in the registry that have yet to be removed
region, which may differ from national or global trends in ICH in museum collections with both the museum staff not even known and this must be addressed in order for and distract from the legitimate ICH entries. The site
the tattoo world. If one searches online for tattoo clubs and the surrounding communities. progress to be made. Currently their initiatives have been is currently managed by Museum Galleries Scotland
within the UK, the search returns local groups and clubs limited to heritage professionals and with museums. (MGS).42 MGS has been an accredited expert NGO
that have chapters. The diversity of options showcases The project revolved around a workshop for each While this is a place to start, education must continue to advisor to UNESCO and the ICH Convention since 2012
how people have banded together to foster meaningful participating museum. The museum would hire a local spread awareness to ICH communities and the general and has facilitated ICH programming for museums and
tattoo communities across the UK. artist who would enable communities to curate their public. Recognition outside of the professional heritage galleries throughout Scotland.43 In its present form the
ICH and facilitate participation in the workshop. The field is key to ensure more resources and legislative ICH Scotland Wiki could be improved through better
Conventions are a space that gather like-minded people participating museums explored ICH through singing, protections for ICH, as well as for the adoption of the maintenance, but it does provide an accessible tool that
and provide desired services for tattoo communities. poetry, visual arts and oral history. The communities ICH Convention. England and the rest of the United Kingdom could utilise
Kelsey Maas
However, the convention space is highly commercialised determined where the workshop would be hosted and for identifying, documenting and promoting UK ICH.
and has grown in scale. This runs the risk of becoming the means of evaluation for the event with the end goal
overly commercialised, where the focus is on buying of disseminating what was learned to other museums, Scottish Initiatives
products, and less importance is placed on the values other ICH communities, and the broader culture field. A Case Study: SKIN DEEP at the
surrounding tattooing. A written report was created outlining the methodology Scotland has made efforts to recognise the importance National Maritime Museum
and findings, which was presented at the 2019 ICH of ICH and has been the most active within the UK
conference referenced in the next section. in how it attempts to safeguard it. In 2008, Museum In several of the recent safeguarding measures listed
ICOMOS UK Galleries Scotland and Edingburgh Napier University’s above (ICOMOS UK and in Scotland), museums
Centre for Cultural and Creative Industries authored a played an important role. In 2002, the National Maritime
The Intangible Cultural Heritage Committee (ICHC) 2) Intangible Cultural Heritage Conferences: study entitled Scoping and Mapping Intangible Cultural Museum in Greenwich hosted the Skin Deep exhibition,
was formed within ICOMOS UK in November 2012 and Heritage in Scotland Final Report. This report extensively which pioneered the history of tattooing within the UK.44
meets four times in the year with the goal of creating ICOMOS UK has hosted two conferences on the topic outlined the context of ICH through the ICH Convention This was the first time tattooing was given the primary
a three-year strategic plan and annual work program.36 of ICH since the formation of the ICHC. The first was and common terminology surrounding it. It specifically focus for an exhibition.
This committee states their mission is: held in 2014 and entitled Intangible Cultural Heritage in analysed ICH within Scotland and included relevant
the UK: promoting and safeguarding our diverse living case studies. One of their recommendations from the The exhibition was open for six months and focused
‘to create an awareness and understanding cultures, followed by Passing on Our Cultural Traditions data they collected was to create a wiki specifically of on Captain Cook’s exposure to Indigenous tattooing
of the 2003 UNESCO Convention and ICH to Future Generations in 2019.39 Both events targeted Scottish ICH.41 practices in the Pacific, how the practice was adapted
Guidelines among ICOMOS-UK and its ICH specific to the UK with a range of presenters from through maritime culture, and ended with tattooing in
membership, heritage partners engaged throughout the country focusing on a diverse range of The concept of wikis allow for open editing rights in an contemporary contexts.45 The exhibition was framed
directly or indirectly in the understanding and ICH topics. The first conference stated: attempt to pool knowledge from a range of authors. in a narrative that took the visitor from early Pacific
Tattoo Taboo
safeguarding and promotion of heritage across With the ICH Scotland Wiki (http://ichscotland.org/), encounters with specific case studies from the different
the UK.’ 37 ‘The primary aim of the conference is to raise only registered users with the site can edit entries and cultures and the impacts Christianity had on tattooing
awareness about the different types of ICH, areas outside of the registry are accessible only by practices. It then examined mariners’ tattoos through
The ICHC has implemented two large projects both rural and urban, as practised by the UK’s site administrators for editing. The wiki is designed in a sailors, tattoo technology and the spaces tattooing
surrounding ICH outlined in greater detail here: culturally diverse groups of people.’ 40 manner that makes the site simple and intuitive. There is could be found (tattoo parlours, fairs, navy, etc.). The
a section that explains the concept of ICH in both English final section examined tattooing in the present culture
The conference has been a one-day event hosted in and Scottish Gaelic. One can search for Scottish ICH via through revival movements, how it is seen and used
1) Exploring Intangible Cultural Heritage in Museum London thus far and has prompted attendees to consider category (crafts, festivals, know how, storytelling, etc.), in the Pacific today and the general conceptions of
Contexts Pilot Project: the values of ICH, the challenges of safeguarding region on an interactive map of all the Scottish local tattooing of the present time.
it, issues of transmission and inclusivity, and overall authorities or through a general search.
The project had five aims: explore the museum’s idea recognition of ICH. The exhibition faced challenges, some of which are
of ICH, discover ICH within the museum and find By being in a wiki format, the site is accessible to wider still factors today. The exhibition was hosted in a small
ways to engage this with audiences, create spaces ICOMOS UK is currently leading the way for a nationwide audiences for both submitting and viewing. It allows for space, which restricted access to the exhibition as well
of collaboration for ICH communities and museum discussion of ICH within the UK. They are recognised the communities of ICH to add meaningful ICH to the as how much they could fit within the space. Museum
staff, research ways of using ICH to engage with the as a prominent heritage organisation and have used registry without going through an intensive or restrictive staff noted they had little in their collection regarding
greater community, and foster sustainable relationships their authority to foster conversations and projects that process. However, a current flaw with the system is tattoo culture, the material culture for this topic in general
18 19was sparse, the topic proved to be ethically challenging legitimate heritage. The movement towards accepting ENDNOTES 21 Edinburgh Napier University. (n.d.) Scope and Map Intangible
for the time, and they had to be mindful of being ICH in the UK has started, but it is a process that Cultural Heritage in Scotland [Online].
culturally sensitive.46 Access to tattoo related materials requires cultural institutions, heritage organisations and Available at: https://www.napier.ac.uk/research-and-innovation/
can be especially challenging, as the majority are within professionals, and the UK people to work together to research-search/projects/scope--map-intangible-cultural-
1 Stewart, J. (2017) ‘Amazing Photos Reveal the Work of Britain’s
private collections and it can be hard for museums to solidify its legitimacy. heritage-in-scotland.
First Tattoo Artist in Victorian Times’, My Modern Met [Online].
gain access.47 Even with the challenges, the exhibition 22 Hill et al., ‘At the Limits of Cultural Heritage Rights?’, 2018.
Available at: https://mymodernmet.com/sutherland-macdonald-
proved to be highly successful. It revised the perceptions In the meantime, the museum offers a realistic and 23 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (n.d.) ‘The Criteria
tattoo-history/.
of the National Maritime Museum, brought in a more approachable place to start with the promotion of for Selection’, World Heritage Centre [Online].
2 UNESCO. (2003) The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding
diverse and younger audience, received positive guest tattooing as a piece of the UK’s ICH and a mechanism for Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/.
of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO.
feedback, provided the museum with large amounts of its safeguarding. The museum is a recognised institution 24 Konrad, J. (2011) ‘“Barbarous Gallants”: Fashion, Morality,
3 Ibid.
positive press and enabled the museum to foster new that can lend legitimacy to the practice of tattooing as and the Marked Body in English Culture, 1590–1660’, Fashion
Kelsey Maas
4 Ibid, Art 2 §1.
collaborations with the Maori Cultural Group of London ICH. However, it must overcome the Western notions Theory, 15 (1), pp. 29–48.
5 UNESCO. (2009) Implementing the Convention for the
and the Pacific Islands Society.48 In further discussion of monumentality and tangibility that dominate within 25 Parkinson, S. (1769) Portrait of a Maori [Wash drawing]. Polynesia
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO.
with Kris Martin, one of the curators, he summarised the England and the greater UK. This has started already (New Zealand). Available at: https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy-f.
6 UNESCO, ICH Convention, 2003, Art. 2 §3.
show as being surprisingly successful for a topic that through tattoo themed exhibitions and tattoo related deakin.edu.au/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000266518.
7 UNESCO, Implementing the Convention for the Safeguarding of
was still slightly taboo, and he said the tattoo community items in museums’ permanent collections. They have 26 Salmond, A. (2012) ‘Back to the Future: First Encounters in Te
Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2009, p. 6.
was overly positive and commented that it was about established positive results from the visitors that have Tai Rawhiti’, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 42(2),
8 UNESCO, Implementing the Convention for the Safeguarding of
time that the practice was given serious attention in a engaged with them and have prompted the museum pp. 69–77.
Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2009.
legitimised cultural space.49 to explore new concepts within their institutions. 27 O’Neill, A. (2007) London After A Fashion. London: Reaktion
9 Blake, J. (2014) ‘Seven Years of Implementing UNESCO’s
The museum has created a space for tattooing to be Books, p. 45.
2003 Intangible Heritage Convention-Honeymoon Period or the
Overall, the National Maritime Museum chartered new legitimised, celebrated, and for aspects of the practice 28 The New York Times. (1882) ‘The Tattooed Woman’, The New
“Seven-Year Itch”?’, International Journal of Cultural Property,
territory for tattoo representation in the museum. They to be safeguarded. York Times, 10 March [Online]. Available at: https://timesmachine.
21, pp. 291–301.
opened the door for it to be not only an acceptable nytimes.com/timesmachine/1882/03/19/102772175.pdf.
10 Ibid.
topic to discuss, but showcased how the topic was a By its nature, ICH is constantly adapting and being 29 O’Neill, London After A Fashion, 2007, p. 37.
11 Hill, E. C., Craith, M. N., and Clopot, C. (2018) ‘At the Limits
fresh subject for museums and could engage new and recreated by its community to fit their needs as it is 30 Purdy, D. W. (1896) Tattooing: How to Tattoo, What to Use and
of Cultural Heritage Rights? The Glasgow Bajuni Campaign and
diverse audiences compared to the traditional museum transmitted from one generation to the next. Because How to Use Them. London.
the UK Immigration System: A Case Study’, International Journal
visitor. Since Skin Deep’s initial opening, the National of this, ICH is challenging to safeguard. It cannot be 31 Ibid, pp. vi–viii.
of Cultural Property, 25, pp. 35–58.
Maritime Museum Cornwall opened the British Tattoo frozen in time, for this restricts the organic evolution of its 32 Spaulding (2000), from personal communication with Dr. Gemma
12 Smith, L. and Waterton, E. (2008) ‘“The Envy of the World?”:
Art Revealed exhibition, which is currently travelling to nature. Museums can help recognise and institutionalise Angel.
Intangible Heritage in England’, in: Smith, L. and Akagawa, N.
multiple locations in the UK.50 The exhibition placed the the practice of tattooing, but care must be taken that 33 Skuse, J. (n.d.) ‘Bristol Tattoo Club - History - 1953 to Present
(eds.) Intangible Heritage. New York: Routledge, pp. 289–302.
art of tattooing and the communities who get them in the museum does not stifle the practice by immobilising Day’, Bristol Tattoo Club [Online].
13 Smith, L. (2006) ‘The Discourse of Heritage’, in: Smith, L. (aut.)
Tattoo Taboo
a culturally recognised space, which affords them the the ICH’s flexibility and adaptability. Tattooing is more Available at: http://www.bristoltattooclub.co.uk/history.htm.
The Uses of Heritage, London: Routledge, pp. 1–7.
opportunity to correct misconceptions about the practice than fixed pigment on the skin and the efforts to 34 Ibid.
14 Connolly, I. (2007) ‘Can the World Heritage Convention Be
and highlight the diversity of this ICH practice. safeguard it within the museum must be creative and 35 World Tattoo Events. (n.d.) ‘United Kingdom Tattoo Conventions
Adequately Implemented in Australia Without Australia Becoming
innovative. If this is achieved, the tattoo community will Calendar 2019’, World Tattoo Events [Online]. Available at:
a Party to the Intangible Heritage Convention?’, Environmental
be enabled to applaud their tattooing practices and in https://www.worldtattooevents.com/united-kingdom-tattoo-
and Planning Law Journal, 24(3), pp. 198–209.
turn be celebrated by the broader UK community, future conventions-calendar/.
15 UNESCO, ICH Convention, 2003.
Utilising the Museum — generations will be able to learn of its importance to the 36 Arokiasamy, C. (2018) Exploring Intangible Cultural Heritage in
16 Smith, L. and Waterton, E. (2008) ‘“The Envy of the World?”:
Conclusions UK, and overall it will help safeguard the practice for its Museum Contexts – A Pilot Project [Report] Intangible Cultural
Intangible Heritage in England’, in: Smith, L. and Akagawa, N.
practicing communities, the UK and the wider world. Heritage Committee, ICOMOS UK.
(eds.) Intangible Heritage. New York: Routledge, pp. 289–302.
What does this mean for the future? At present, the UK 37 Ibid, p. 5.
17 Ibid.
is not a State Party to the ICH Convention and while 38 Arokiasamy, 2018.
18 United Kingdom Parliament. (n.d.) Preserving Historic Sites and
some safeguarding mechanisms surrounding ICH have 39 ICOMOS UK (n.d.) ‘Events’, ICOMOS UK [Online]. Available at:
Buildings [Online]. Available at: https://www.parliament.uk/about/
emerged in the recent past, they still have not escalated http://www.icomos-uk.org/events/.
living-heritage/transformingsocietytowncountry/landscape/
to a nationally recognised platform. In order for tattooing 40 ICOMOS UK. (2014) Intangible Cultural Heritage in the UK:
overview/historicsites/.
to be recognised as national cultural heritage within Promoting and Safeguarding Our Diverse Living Cultures [Press
19 Smith and Waterton, ‘The Envy of the World?’, 2008.
the UK, ICH first must be understood and accepted as Release]. Available at: http://www.icomos-uk.org/committees/
20 Ibid.
20 21intangible-cultural-heritage-committee/, para. 4. Bibliography Museums Galleries Scotland. (n.d.) ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage UNESCO. (2009) Implementing the Convention for the Safeguarding
41 McCleery, A., McCleery, A., Gunn, L. and Hill, D. (2008) Scoping (ICH)’, Museum Galleries Scotland [Online]. of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Paris: UNESCO.
and Mapping Intangible Cultural Heritage in Scotland Final Available at: http://www.museumsgalleriesscotland.org.uk/ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (n.d.) ‘The Criteria for Selection’,
Report. Napier University - Centre for Cultural and Creative Angel, G. (2019) Personal communication per email, 28 January 2019. projects/intangible-cultural-heritage/(Accessed: 31 March 2019). World Heritage Centre [Online]. Available at: https://whc.unesco.
Industries & Museum Galleries Scotland. Arokiasamy, C. (2018) Exploring Intangible Cultural Heritage in National Maritime Museum Cornwall. (n.d.) ‘Tattoo: British Tattoo org/en/criteria/ (Accessed: 17 February 2019).
42 ICH Scotland. (n.d.) ‘What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?’, ICH Museum Contexts – A Pilot Project [Report] Intangible Cultural Art Revealed’, National Maritime Museum Cornwall [Online]. United Kingdom Parliament. (n.d.) Preserving Historic Sites and
Scotland [Online]. Available at: ichscotland.org/about. Heritage Committee, ICOMOS UK. Available at: https://nmmc.co.uk/tattoo-british-tattoo-art- Buildings [Online]. Available at: https://www.parliament.uk/about/
43 Museums Galleries Scotland. (n.d.) ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage Blake, J. (2014) ‘Seven Years of Implementing UNESCO’s 2003 revealed/ (Accessed: 31 March 2019). living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/landscape/
(ICH)’, Museum Galleries Scotland [Online]. Intangible Heritage Convention-Honeymoon Period or the The New York Times. (1882) ‘The Tattooed Woman’, The New York overview/historicsites/ (Accessed 31 March 2019).
Available at: http://www.museumsgalleriesscotland.org.uk/ “Seven-Year Itch”?’, International Journal of Cultural Property, Times, 10 March [Online]. Available at: https://timesmachine. World Tattoo Events. (n.d.) ‘United Kingdom Tattoo Conventions
projects/intangible-cultural-heritage/. nytimes.com/timesmachine/1882/03/19/102772175.pdf Calendar 2019’, World Tattoo Events [Online]. Available at:
Kelsey Maas
21, pp. 291–301.
44 Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d.) Skin Deep – The Tattoo Connolly, I. (2007) ‘Can the World Heritage Convention Be Adequately (Accessed: 15 January 2019). https://www.worldtattooevents.com/united-kingdom-tattoo-
Exhibition, 2002 [Online description of past exhibition]. Implemented in Australia Without Australia Becoming a Party O’Neill, A. (2007) London After A Fashion. London: Reaktion Books. conventions-calendar/ (Accessed: 5 April 2019).
Available at: https://www.rmg.co.uk/see-do/exhibitions-events/ to the Intangible Heritage Convention?’, Environmental and Parkinson, S. (1769) Portrait of a Maori [Wash drawing]. Polynesia
past/skin-deep-tattoo-exhibition-2002. Planning Law Journal, 24(3), pp. 198–209. (New Zealand). Available at: https://library-artstor-org.ezproxy-f.
45 Ibid. Edinburgh Napier University. (n.d.) Scope and Map Intangible deakin.edu.au/asset/ARTSTOR_103_41822000266518
46 Richards, S. and Martin, K. (2019) Curators Discussion of Skin Cultural Heritage in Scotland [Online]. (Accessed: 2 April 2019).
Deep Exhibition [Presentation]. National Maritime Museum, 11 Available at: https://www.napier.ac.uk/research-and-innovation/ Purdy, D. W. (1896) Tattooing: How to Tattoo, What to Use and How
January 2019. research-search/projects/scope--map-intangible-cultural- to Use Them. London.
47 Lodder, Matt. Senior Lecturer in Art History and Theory, and heritage-in-scotland (Accessed: 31 March 2019). Richards, S. and Martin, K. (2019) Curators Discussion of Skin Deep
Director of American Studies at the University of Essex. (Personal Hill, E.C., Craith, M.N., and Clopot, C. (2018) ‘At the Limits of Cultural Exhibition [Presentation]. National Maritime Museum, 11 January
communication, 10 January 2019). Heritage Rights? The Glasgow Bajuni Campaign and the UK 2019.
48 Richards and Martin, Curators Discussion of Skin Deep Immigration System: A Case Study’, International Journal of Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d.) Skin Deep – The Tattoo Exhibition,
Exhibition, 2019. Cultural Property, 25, pp. 35–58. 2002 [Online description of past exhibition].
49 Ibid. ICH Scotland. (n.d.) ‘What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?’, ICH Available at: https://www.rmg.co.uk/see-do/exhibitions-events/
50 National Maritime Museum Cornwall. (n.d.) ‘Tattoo: British Tattoo Scotland [Online]. Available at: ichscotland.org/about (Accessed: past/skin-deep-tattoo-exhibition-2002 (Accessed 21 January
Art Revealed’, National Maritime Museum Cornwall [Online]. 21 January 2019). 2019).
Available at: ICOMOS UK. (n.d.) ‘Events’, ICOMOS UK [Online]. Salmond, A. (2012) ‘Back to the Future: First Encounters in Te Tai
https://nmmc.co.uk/tattoo-british-tattoo-art-revealed/. Available at: http://www.icomos-uk.org/events/ (Accessed: 21 Rawhiti’, Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 42(2),
January 2019). pp. 69–77.
ICOMOS UK. (2014) Intangible Cultural Heritage in the UK: Promoting Skuse, J. (n.d.) ‘Bristol Tattoo Club - History - 1953 To Present Day’,
Tattoo Taboo
and Safeguarding Our Diverse Living Cultures [Press Release]. Bristol Tattoo Club [Online].
Available at: http://www.icomos-uk.org/committees/intangible- Available at: http://www.bristoltattooclub.co.uk/history.htm
cultural-heritage-committee/. (Accessed: 5 April 2019).
Konrad, J. (2011) ‘“Barbarous Gallants”: Fashion, Morality, and the Smith, L. (2006) ‘The Discourse of Heritage’, in: Smith, L. (ed.) The
Marked Body in English Culture, 1590–1660’, Fashion Theory, Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge, pp. 1–7.
15(1), pp. 29–48. Smith, L. and Waterton, E. (2008) ‘“The Envy of the World?”: Intangible
Lodder, Matt. Senior Lecturer in Art History and Theory, and Director Heritage in England’, in: Smith, L. & Akagawa, N. (eds.) Intangible
of American Studies at the University of Essex. (Personal Heritage. New York: Routledge, pp. 289–302.
communication, 10 January 2019). Spaulding, H. (2000). Tattooing A to Z: A Guide to Successful Tattooing.
McCleery, A., McCleery, A., Gunn, L. and Hill, D. (2008) Scoping and Huck Spaulding Enterprises.
Mapping Intangible Cultural Heritage in Scotland Final Report. Stewart, J. (2017) ‘Amazing Photos Reveal the Work of Britain’s
Napier University - Centre for Cultural and Creative Industries First Tattoo Artist in Victorian Times’, My Modern Met [Online].
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