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TIME FOR A NEW PARADIGM IN EDUCATION:
STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING
Student-Centered
Learning
SCL Toolkit
You cannot teach a man anything. You can only help him discover it with-
in himself.
Galileo Galilei
It is important that students bring a certain ragamuffin, barefoot irrev-
erence to their studies; they are not here to worship what is known, but to
question it.
Jacob Bronowski
The European
Students’ Union
Imprint
Student-Centered Learning Toolkit
Content Design & Typesetting
Angele Attard, Emma Di Iorio, Koen Geven, Linus Rowedda
Robert Santa
Image credits
Editing and Proofreading
Angele Attard
Printing
Supported by the T4SCL Project Steering
#
Group
Printed on …
Ligia Deca, European Students’ Union
Monique Fouilhoux, Education Interna-
tional
Olav Øye, European Students’ Union
Milica Popovic, Education International
Robert Santa, European Students’ Union
Natalia Tarachiu, European Students’ Union
Bert Vandenkendelaere, European
Students’ Union
Milica Popovic, Education International
With the guidance of the International
Advisory Board
Prof. Lee Harvey, Copenhagen Business
School, Denmark
Dr. Sybille Reichert, Ph.D, Higher Education
Consultant
Prof. Jussi Välimaa, Institute for Educational
Research, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Prof. Kirsten Hofgaard Lycke, Faculty of
Education, University of Oslo, Norway
This publication is part of the project »Time
for a New Paradigm in Education: Student
Centered Learning«, funded with support
from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of
the authors, and the Commission cannot be
held responsible for any use which may be
made of the information contained therein.
Table of Content 1 Principles and Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 The Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3 An SCL Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4 Changing the Mindset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5 Implementation by Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 6 Implementation by Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 7 Maintaining a Culture of SCL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 8 Common Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 9 SCL and the Bologna Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 10 Source: Dublin College University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 11 Sources for further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
ABBREVIATIONS
EACEA Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency
ECTS European Credit Transfer System
EI Education International
ESU European Students’ Union
LLL Lifelong Learning
LLP Lifelong Learning Programme (European Commission)
PBL Problem-Based Learning
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SCL Student-Centred Learning
T4SCL Time for a New Paradigm in Education: Student-Centred Learning
(Joint EI-ESU Project)1 Principles and Definition
1.1 Introduction
This Toolkit forms part of the project to provide concrete policy input—dur-
entitled Time for a New Paradigm in ing and beyond the project lifetime—
Education: Student-Centred Learning to ongoing discussions as to the future
(t4scl), jointly led by the European Stu- of the EU Education & Training Pro-
dents’ Union (esu) and Education In- gramme and the next phase of the Bolo-
ternational (ei).This is an EU-fund- gna Process.
ed project under the Lifelong Learning Following on from the initial desk re-
Programme (llp) administered by the search and survey undertaken with both
Education, Audiovisual and Culture Ex- ei and esu member organisations (high-
ecutive Agency (eacea). er education staff unions and national
t4scl, as a pioneer student unions respectively), published
SLC is practical and initiative, aims to as- in May 2010, this toolkit is one of the
achievable, as well as sist policy makers in de- last initiatives, marking the end phase of
being highly beneficial signing sound student- the project. It represents a key outcome
for learners. centred learning (scl) of the project. This toolkit follows ex-
strategies and approach- tensive research and a series of events at
es and to increase the capacity of stu- both European and national levels, com-
dent and staff representative organisa- bined with trainings on the subject-mat-
tions to be active partners in spreading a ter.
culture of scl in higher education insti- This toolkit is designed for effective,
tutions across Europe. The project aims practical implementation of scl by teach-
to provide comprehensive insight into ing staff, students and institutional leaders.
the necessary tools, challenges and suc- It aims to show how practical and achiev-
cess stories of scl as a fundamental basis able scl is, as well as being highly benefi-
for lifelong learning (lll). It also aims cial for learners.
Principles and Definition 11.2 The Concept of SCL
scl was credited to Hayward as ear- Mutual respect within the learner-
qq
ly as 1905 and to Dewey’s work in 1956. teacher relationship; and
Carl Rogers was then associated with ex- A reflexive approach to the teaching
qq
panding this approach into a theory of and learning process on the part of
education in the 1980s and this learning both the teacher and the learner.
approach has also been associated with
the work of Piaget (developmental learn- scl is broadly based on constructiv-
ing) and Malcolm Knowles (self-direct- ism as a theory of learning, which is built
ed learning). Some of the scl literature on the idea that learners must construct
can be summarised into the following el- and reconstruct knowledge in order to
ements (cf. Lea et al, 2003): learn effectively, with learning being
most effective when, as part of an activi-
The reliance on active rather than pas-
qq ty, the learner experiences constructing
sive learning; a meaningful product. scl is also akin
An emphasis on deep learning and un-
qq to transformative learning which contem-
derstanding; plates a process of qualitative change
Increased responsibility and accounta-
qq in the learner as an ongoing process of
bility on the part of the student; transformation which focuses on en-
An increased sense of autonomy in the
qq hancing and empowering the learner,
learner; developing their critical ability.
An interdependence between teacher
qq
and learner;
1.3 Principles Underlying SCL
On the basis of an examination of the put forward a clearer understanding and
theory behind scl and following an in- debate about the topic.
tensive discussion with teachers and stu-
dents on what they consider scl to be, Principle I: scl requires an Ongoing
which took place at the launching con- Reflexive Process. Part of the underlying
ference of the t4scl Project—Time for philosophy of scl is that no one context
a New Paradigm in Education: Student- can have one scl style that can remain
Centred Learning—in Bucharest, Roma- applicable through time. The philoso-
nia in May 2010, below is a list of general phy of scl is such that teachers, students
principles underlying scl. These princi- and institutions need to continuously re-
ples do not aim to form a comprehensive flect of their teaching, learning and in-
picture of what scl is about. Rather they frastructural systems in such a way that
2
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changewould continuously improve the learn- of choice. Learning can be organised in
ing experience of students and ensure liberal formats, such as at colleges of lib-
that the intended learning outcomes of a eral arts or choice can be offered in a
given course or programme component more traditional, disciplinary style.
are achieved in a way that stimulates Principle VI: Students have Dif-
learners’ critical thinking and transfer- ferent Experiences and Background
able skills. Knowledge. Learning needs to be adapt-
Principle II: scl does not have a ed to the life and professional experi-
›One-Size-Fits-All‹ Solution. A key ence of the individual concerned. For
concept underlying scl is the realisa- instance, if students already have con-
tion that all higher education institu- siderable experience in using itc, there
tions are different, all teachers are differ- is no point in trying to teach them the
ent and all students are different. These same thing again; if they already have
all operate in very diverse contexts and considerable research skills, perhaps it
deal with various subject-disciplines. would be better to help them in theo-
Therefore scl is a learning approach that ry. Personal experience can also be used
requires learning support structures to motivate students, for instance, by al-
which are appropriate to each given con- lowing students to share a personal story
text and teaching and learning styles ap- to illustrate a point.
propriate to those undertaking them. Principle VII: Students should have
Principle III: Students have Dif- Control Over their Learning. Students
ferent Learning Styles. scl recognises should be given the opportunity to be
that students have different pedagogical involved in the design of courses, cur-
needs. Some learn better through tri- ricula and their evaluation. Students
al and error, others learn through practi- should be seen as active partners who
cal experience. For some learners much have a stake in the way that higher edu-
is learned by reading literature, others cation functions. The best way to ensure
need to debate and discuss theory in or- that learning focuses more on students
der to understand it. is by engaging students themselves in
Principle IV: Students have Differ- how their learning should be shaped.
ent Needs and Interests. All students Principle VIII: scl is about ›Ena-
have needs that extend beyond the class- bling‹ not ›Telling‹. In simply impart-
room. Some are interested in cultural ac- ing facts and knowledge to students
tivities, others in sports or in represent- (telling) the initiative, preparation and
ative organisations. Students can have content comes mainly from the teach-
children or can be faced with psycholog- er. The scl approach aims to give the
ical conditions, illness or disability. student greater responsibility enabling
Principle V: Choice is Central to Ef- the student to think, process, analyse,
fective Learning in scl. Students like to synthesise, criticise, apply, solve prob-
learn different things and hence any of- lems, etc.
fer should involve a reasonable amount
Principles and Definition 3Principle IX: Learning needs Coop- might work for both groups. In the class-
eration between Students and Staff. It room, such cooperation will have a posi-
is important that students and staff co- tive effect as the two groups increasingly
operate to develop a shared understand- come to consider each other as partners.
ing both of the problems experienced Such a partnership is central to the phi-
in learning, as well as their problems as losophy of scl which sees learning as
stakeholders within their given insti- taking place in a constructive interac-
tution, jointly proposing solutions that tion between the two groups.
1.4 A Workable Definition of SCL
scl remains a debated concept with A relationship of mutual assertive-
qq
no one clear definition available, since ness between students and teach-
multiple interpretations co-exist which ers; and
exclude each other. Nonetheless, this A focus on learning outcomes which
qq
section will try to circumvent this is- enable genuine learning and deep un-
sue by arriving at a workable definition derstanding.
of scl.
It is interesting first to consider what On the basis of all of the above and of
participants at the launching conference the practical suggestions put forward be-
of the t4scl Project considered as be- low, this toolkit is proposing the follow-
ing integral components of scl. These ing definition of scl:
include:
»Student-Centred Learning represents
Flexibility and freedom in terms of
qq both a mindset and a culture within a
the time and structure of learning; given higher education institution and
More and better quality teachers who
qq is a learning approach which is broadly
strive to share their knowledge; related to, and supported by, construc-
A clear understanding of students by
qq tivist theories of learning. It is charac-
teachers; terised by innovative methods of teach-
A flat hierarchy within higher educa-
qq ing which aim to promote learning in
tion institutions; communication with teachers and other
Teacher responsibility for student
qq learners and which take students seri-
empowerment; ously as active participants in their own
A continuous ongoing improvement
qq learning, fostering transferable skills
process; such as problem-solving, critical think-
A positive attitude by teachers and
qq ing and reflective thinking.«
students with the aim of improving
the learning experience;
4
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changeWith this definition serving as a use- the benefits that this learning approach ful starting point, this toolkit will now produces and the key characteristics move on to suggest practical ways in which are necessary in order for an in- which scl can be implemented in a stitution to assess whether the scl ap- meaningful manner, keeping in mind proach is being applied by it. Principles and Definition 5
2 The Benefits
2.1 Introduction
scl, if implemented properly, offers Europe—the financial situation, massi-
benefits to all, including the institution, fication of higher education and a high
students and staff involved, higher ed- workload for teaching staff—there are
ucation staff unions, students’ unions many benefits to be reaped by imple-
and society as a whole. Given the cur- menting the scl approach.
rent context of higher education across
2.2 Benefits For Students
The benefits of scl for the students lier on. In this context, research-led
involved are many and varied. Com- teaching becomes all the more possi-
ing into an academic community possi- ble. Teachers are able to discuss their re-
bly for the first time can shape the way search and hear the views of students on
students think for the rest of their lives. the matter. Increased cooperation and a
scl provides skills for life, creates inde- feeling of having one’s views valued can
pendent learners and responds to the further increase the interaction and en-
changing and differing needs of individ- gagement of students. This can lead to
ual students. Below is a list of what such participation in the development of re-
benefits can include: search and also to help develop a giv-
en course, due to the sense of ownership
Making Students an Integral Part that students feel. Lastly, it may also en-
of the Academic Community: Students courage more students to enter the aca-
are said to be part of the academic com- demic community as members. We must
munity, but in practice this can be diffi- not forget that students are the teachers
cult to achieve due to varied practices of of the future!
rigid teaching structures. Via scl, stu- An Increased Motivation to Learn:
dents can become part of that commu- scl can encourage deeper learning, as
nity much earlier, given that the teach- shown in the Learning Pyramid below.
er acts as a facilitator, rather than an Knowledge retention differs depending
instructor. In encouraging students to on the way in which material is learned,
think for themselves, analytical skills but all types of active learning show a
and critical thinking are gained ear- higher retention rate than traditional
6
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changefig. 1 Learning Pyramid
Source: National Training Laboratories, Bethel, Maine
average student
retention rates Lecturing
10% Reading
20% Audiovisual
30% Demonstration
50% Discussion
75% Practical doing
90% Teach others
forms of learning. The student is also of- tion, prioritisation of tasks and critical
ten more motivated to learn through scl, analysis. In turn, students can devel-
because the tasks set require original op transferable skills and would be able
thought and increase interest in the sub- to work more effectively in their careers
ject-matter. As the Learning Pyramid and lives in general.
below suggests, students retain more of Due Consideration for Student
the information they learn where there Needs: Massification of higher educa-
is an aspect of active learning and active tion has had the effect of diversifying the
participation. student body. Inevitably students have
Independence and Responsibili- differing needs that are wider than ever
ty in Learning: Within scl, students before. scl can enable students to study
must engage with the course material in a flexible manner, through the use of
and are in control of their learning. This part-time study, distance learning and
makes the student more independent e-learning. The scl approach demon-
and adaptable to life after higher educa- strates that learning is not limited to a
tion. The independence of students en- given time or place in the way that tradi-
ables them to learn more effectively and tional learning has been. Different learn-
to gain other skills such as teamwork, ef- ing needs of students can also be met
fective written and verbal communica- because students can engage with ma-
The Benefits 7terials in different ways. For example, reading. Furthermore, by experiencing a
some students engage more with audi- range of teaching methods students are
ovisual materials whereas others prefer further challenged academically.
2.3 Benefits for Teachers
Whilst the benefits of scl for stu- Continuous Self-Improvement: scl
dents seem obvious, some may question can enable teachers to review and de-
whether this is also the case for teach- velop their courses and teaching meth-
ing staff. Indeed, teachers can benefit ods so as to improve both the content of
from scl as much as the students in their their courses and their method of deliv-
classes. Below is a list of what such bene- ery as teachers. The confidence gained
fits can include: from implementing the scl approach is
also measurable in that teachers obtain
A More Interesting Role for the relevant and constructive feedback from
Teacher: scl, as stated above, puts the more highly-engaged students.
onus on the student to learn. The teach- Increased Learner Motivation and
er is there to facilitate and enable this. Engagement: Increased engagement by
Whilst this might be seen by some as students and a higher level of student
negative, it is a good opportunity to aca- participation makes the job of teach-
demically challenge students, in order to ing more interesting. The ability to bring
enhance their learning. new research into tutorials or classes be-
Solutions to Tackling Massification comes a reality in scl. This sounding
and Diversity: In a reality of massifica- board of ideas can contribute to the re-
tion in higher education and a more di- search of the teacher and introduces stu-
versified student body, it is likely that dents to research and the academic com-
scl will have to be used in many cas- munity at an early stage in their learning
es because of the increased demands process.
of quality from students, the increased Professional Development for
costs of higher education associated Academia: scl can offer a much higher
with this and the diversity of the student level of professional development with
body, meaning student needs are varied. regards to the development of knowl-
Positive Impact on Working Condi- edge, skills and competences relevant
tions: Given that scl provides the op- both for personal development and ca-
portunity for learning to take place in reer advancement. It also enhances
different ways, the work of a teacher can teachers’ flexibility in designing ways of
be more interesting and the negative as- running a course or a programme com-
pects of the working conditions normal- ponent and in applying new ways of
ly associated with teaching can be allevi- teaching or research.
ated by scl.
8
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change2.4 The Wider Benefits of SCL
Collectively both teaching staff and reflective thinkers and who are able to
students have an interest in, and benefit drive development forward in their giv-
from, scl. This produces cross-over and en society. Below is a list of what such
benefits for their representative organi- benefits can include:
sations. Below is a list of what such bene-
fits can include: Better Retention Rates in Higher Ed-
ucation: Where institutions employ the
Quality Enhancement: Any increase scl approach, there tends to be a low-
in the quality of both working condi- er number of students who choose not
tions and the student academic experi- to complete their studies. This may be
ence is to be welcomed by both teachers’ due to the flexibility within such courses
and students’ unions. and may also be due to the fact that, via
The Status of the Teaching Profes- scl, students engage with their studies
sion: Given the trend in institutions more than within traditional methods of
to focus on research, the status of the instruction. Indeed, students feel more
teaching profession can only be im- valued when learning within an scl en-
proved with the adoption of the scl ap- vironment because their learning needs
proach. scl takes into account innova- are paramount. In a climate of massifi-
tion and allows teachers to develop their cation, formalisation and anonymisa-
courses in the way they wish, whilst al- tion of higher education, this can only
lowing students the flexibility to develop be welcomed.
in their own ways. Attracting Students: Where students’
Increased Representation in Govern- learning needs are carefully considered,
ance Structures: Given that scl in and teaching will be seen as being of high-
of itself requires a higher level of coop- er quality. Meeting student expectations
eration between all institutional levels, and managing them is of paramount im-
it pre-supposes that the hierarchy with- portance. Furthermore, many aspects of
in higher education institutions is rather scl can be implemented without cost-
flat. scl therefore favours a more collab- ly measures and can make institutions
orative approach within institutions, al- which apply this approach much more
lowing for more representation of both attractive to potential students, also at-
students and staff within the relevant tracting more mobility into the region in
governance structures. which the institution is found, thus ben-
efitting also the development of society.
scl also produces benefits both to An Ongoing Improvement Proc-
institutions in which the learning ap- ess: The ability of institutions to eval-
proach is being applied as well as to so- uate their courses and the student aca-
ciety, which is a key beneficiary of grad- demic experience as a whole mean that
uates who are innovative, critical and they produce better graduates. The main
The Benefits 9benefit to society as a whole is that such themselves and are likely to be more
graduates are more analytical and bet- practical and logical, with an ability to
ter citizens as a result of them having to tackle all sorts of problems as an when
think for themselves throughout their they arise, turning this into a learning
higher education studies. experience. scl can give graduates skills
for lifelong learning, making them more
Fostering a Lifelong Learning Cul- effective in their place of work and ena-
ture: Students who have experienced bling them to contribute extensively to
scl are likely to learn more lessons by the society in which they live.
10
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change3 An SCL Checklist
This chapter of the toolkit provides change happen in order to move to-
an indicative checklist of what may be wards applying the scl approach.
required in terms of successful imple- If, on the other hand, one finds that
mentation of the scl approach: many of the elements mentioned be-
low are present in their home insti-
If one finds that in their home institu- tution, it is an indication that the in-
tion none or few of the elements men- stitution is on the right track, but it
tioned below are present, then the would be useful to consult the subse-
subsequent chapters will be useful quent chapters in any case, being that
in helping to identify the manner in scl in and of itself teaches us to keep
which scl can be applied. In partic- seeking to improve on current appli-
ular, Chapter 4 looks at how to make cable methods.
1. Consultation with Students [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are there transparent procedures in place for students to be
1.1 ❍ ❍
able give feedback on the quality of the educational process?
1.2 Are students consulted on curriculum content? ❍ ❍
Are students consulted on the teaching and evaluation meth-
1.3 ❍ ❍
ods used?
1.4 Are students involved in periodic programme quality reviews? ❍ ❍
Are students involved as full and equal members in commit-
1.5 tees where issues relating to the student experience are dis- ❍ ❍
cussed at all levels (e.g. department, faculty, university, etc.)?
Are straightforward procedures in place for students to ap-
1.6 peal decisions regarding their academic attainment or pro- ❍ ❍
gression?
An SCL Checklist 112. ECTS (European Credit Transfer System) and Learning Out-
Yes No
comes [Tick as Appropriate]
Are students consulted when learning outcomes are de-
2.1 ❍ ❍
signed?
Are student needs and the diversity of the relevant student
2.2 ❍ ❍
group considered when designing learning outcomes?
Are students informed on the intended learning outcomes
2.3 ❍ ❍
before they start a course or programme component?
Are ECTS credits used co-related with defined learning out-
2.4 ❍ ❍
comes?
2.5 Are credits transferable between courses and institutions? ❍ ❍
Are credits measured based on student workload, independ-
2.6 ❍ ❍
ent of contact hours?
Are students awarded credits for activities that help them at-
2.7 tain intended learning outcomes if conducted outside the in- ❍ ❍
stitution?
Does your institution refer its qualifications to a Qualifications
2.8 ❍ ❍
Framework?
3. Quality Assurance [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are both staff and students consulted during the institutional
3.1 ❍ ❍
quality assurance process?
Are both representatives of teachers and students involved as
3.2 full and equal members in the panels undertaking institution- ❍ ❍
al quality assurance reviews?
Do institutional quality assurance reviews and guidelines take
3.3 ❍ ❍
into account the overall elements of teaching and learning?
Do programme quality reviews take into account the use of
3.4 ❍ ❍
learning outcomes?
Do programme quality reviews take into account the assess-
3.5 ❍ ❍
ment methods used?
Do external quality assurance evaluations refer to the teach-
3.6 ❍ ❍
ing and learning process?
12
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change4. Mobility, Recognition and Prior Learning [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are study periods conducted by students in other institutions
4.1 within various mobility schemes recognised by your institu- ❍ ❍
tion?
Do incoming mobile students at your institution benefit from
4.2 support in order to be able to cope with their new cultural ❍ ❍
and linguistic environment?
Are examples of good practice in teaching and learning that
4.3 mobile staff come into contact with discussed and dissemi- ❍ ❍
nated at the institutional level?
Is prior learning (in non-formal learning environments) recog-
4.4 nised by your institution for the purpose of access into educa- ❍ ❍
tional programmes?
4.5 Is the process of recognition of prior learning difficult? ❍ ❍
Does the recognition of prior learning involve significant
4.6 ❍ ❍
costs or bureaucracy?
5. The Social Dimension [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are special support measures in place in order to help stu-
5.1 ❍ ❍
dents from disadvantaged backgrounds?
Are learning paths flexible enough so as to permit combining
5.2 ❍ ❍
work/family-life and studies?
6. Teaching and Learning Methods [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
6.1 Does your institution use peer assessment and peer learning? ❍ ❍
Does your institution have programmes for which it uses ac-
6.2 ❍ ❍
tivity-based learning?
Is group-work used in the learning process within your insti-
6.3 ❍ ❍
tution?
Are extra-curricular activities of students accepted and recog-
6.4 ❍ ❍
nised as an essential part of the learning experience?
Is the development of transversal skills by students one of the
6.5 ❍ ❍
objectives of the learning process in your institution?
An SCL Checklist 137. Student Assessment Methods [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Are the goals of the learning process agreed upon between
7.1 ❍ ❍
teachers and students?
Are peer- and self-assessment used as a method in the stu-
7.2 ❍ ❍
dent assessment process?
7.3 Are projects used in the assessment of students? ❍ ❍
Are simulations of tasks and ›real life‹ situations used in the
7.4 ❍ ❍
assessment of students?
8. Learning Environment [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Do students have access to appropriate research and study
8.1 ❍ ❍
facilities both on and off campus?
8.2 Is information technology used within the learning process? ❍ ❍
Do librarians collaborate with teachers in order to enhance
8.3 ❍ ❍
students’ learning experience?
Does you institution contribute to promoting a national/re-
8.4 ❍ ❍
gional culture of SCL?
9. Professional Academic Development [Tick as Appropriate] Yes No
Does your institution have any guidelines on teaching and
9.1 ❍ ❍
learning?
Does your institution have a regular professional develop-
9.2 ❍ ❍
ment programme for teaching staff?
If yes, does this programme include a constructive discussion
9.3 ❍ ❍
on the application of teaching methods?
Does this programme use an SCL approach in providing train-
9.4 ing on the use of innovative teaching methods and student- ❍ ❍
centred curriculum development?
14
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change4 Changing the Mindset
4.1 Introduction
Where none or few of the items listed should always be based on values such
in the above checklist are present with- as academic freedom and professional-
in a given higher education institution, a ism if they are to achieve tangible results.
change process would need to be initiat- The challenge is therefore to forge a co-
ed in order to move a higher education alition with those who want to change
institution or system towards applying and to persuade others who are sceptical.
the scl approach. In order for change to Below, some guidance is given on elabo-
take place in a given higher education rating reform plans. The chapter will run
setting, a strategy is needed with the through six steps in a creative policy cy-
aim of cooperating with and convinc- cle, starting with planning and ending
ing others. Collegiality is a central value with an evaluation of the change process,
in higher education. A strategy based on with the aim of implementing reforms
coercion and power will not only fail but leading to the successful application of
also raise active opposition. Strategies the scl approach.
4.2 The Policy Cycle
Much debate exists in higher educa- of the bottom-up approach argue that
tion policy on whether change happens no change is carried through if it is not
more effectively in a top-down or a bot- supported by those who will do the ac-
tom-up manner. There are strong argu- tual teaching, with this being more ef-
ments on both sides of the debate. Sup- fective if initiatives start with individu-
porters of the top-down approach argue als themselves and are spread by means
that democratically-elected leaders in of a process of inspiration and sharing of
higher education should control re- best practices.
sources to implement a consistent pol- In trying to make change happen to
icy at all levels of the higher education lead towards the adoption of the scl ap-
system. Top-down methods such as laws, proach, it is advisable to be pragmat-
regulations, ministerial decrees, insti- ic and acknowledge a more iterative way
tutional missions and reform agendas of policy-making. In a pragmatic vision,
can guarantee consistency across a giv- both the top and the bottom levels have
en higher education setting. Proponents different roles to play and neither should
Changing the Mindset 15be over-emphasised. Higher education The policy cycle acknowledges that
leaders are needed because they have ac- policy is made in iterative steps that can-
cess to resources and to personnel and not be fully-planned from the outset. If
a good overview of the system. On the presented in a model, it can look as fol-
other hand, lower levels have expertise lows:
on the ground. They also have innova- In the coming paragraphs, the six
tive ideas and provide the motivation to steps referred to above are elaborated
implement any given policy. A good pol- in turn one by one, in order to provide
icy cycle acknowledges a role for both some ideas on how to make change hap-
levels and aims to enable them to work pen.
together.
fig. 2 The policy cycle in six steps
Analysis of
problem
Evaluate the impact Identify roles for
of the change different actors
Implement Identify drivers
the change for change
Identify strategies
to overcome
barriers to change
16
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change4.3 Step One: Analysis of the Problem
Many strategies fail at the basic lev- Analysing the problem is very much
el, as reformers do not really know what linked to thinking about solutions. This
it is that they want to change. The first stage thus includes thinking of crea-
step always needs to be a full analysis tive solutions and strategies to address
of the current situation and a mapping- the problem pro-actively. In order not
out of the existing problem. Although to get stuck in simple solutions, it is best
the extent and detail to which the latter to generate many different ideas to deal
can be done will differ from one situa- with the problem and to weigh them up
tion to another, it is useful to think clear- against each other only after coming up
ly about what the main problem is and if with several possibilities for action. This
an understanding of the will not hamper creativity in developing
A useful tool at this problem is shared with solutions. This is especially important
first stage is the SWOT colleagues and other for scl as it is such a broad concept. So-
analysis, including a stakeholders in a given lutions can include considerations relat-
list of: higher education com- ed to pedagogy, student participation or
Strengths munity. Even if it is clear broader social issues linked to the stu-
Weaknesses that not everything can dent experience.
Opportunities and be planned, clear out- At an early stage, it is important to
Threats comes and a timeline be aware that the current trend in pol-
of the current situation, should be set in order icy-making is evidence-based-policy. In
as a basis for chang- to achieve the intended short, this means that arguments and
ing it. change. ideas need to be backed-up by scientif-
ically undertaken policy-research. This
You can also try to ask a number of is because policy-makers prefer to see
questions: academic literature that discusses the
problem at hand and tried-and-tested
How many of the checklist-items
qq solutions to it. Although this may sti-
mentioned above are present? fle creativity in identifying solutions, it
How do you define scl?
qq is relevant to consider that the audience
How is your higher education envi-
qq is likely to be academic and that it will
ronment not student-centred? judge the arguments put forward in a sci-
What has already been done to solve
qq entific way. In order to improve the sci-
the problem? entific basis of such arguments, the fol-
To what extent have these attempts
qq lowing journals and other sources can
been successful or why have they not prove to be useful sources to consult:
been successful?
Who and what needs to change?
qq Active Learning in Higher Education
qq
Which competences and resources
qq journal;
are needed to solve the problem? The Journal of Higher Education;
qq
Changing the Mindset 17The International Journal of Academic
qq Student-Centred Learning. An In-
qq
Development; sight into Theory and Practice (ei, esu,
Teaching in Higher Education journal;
qq 2010).
Scholarship Reconsidered. Priorities of
qq
the Professoriate (Boyer,1990); and
4.4 Step Two: Identifying Roles for Different Actors
After taking the decision that change change process and the interests which
is indeed necessary, it is imperative to they may have:
identify the other persons who also want
the same change. Change is often initi- Students’ Unions: Not surprising-
ated by a ›coalition of the willing‹ or a ly, students are often the staunchest sup-
small grouping of those who agree on porters of the scl approach. The joint
the problem and the need to change. esu-ei survey (2010) undertaken dur-
To make higher education more stu- ing the initial stages of the t4scl project
dent-centred, it is useful to connect with shows that attitudes of students’ unions
lecturers, professional associations and are most positive towards the idea. Gen-
student organisations that can support erally, their priority is to promote it as a
the change project and increase its im- political issue, arguing for a more sup-
portance. A number of considerations portive learning environment. In many
can be made in choosing such change cases, students’ unions are also ready to
partners effectively. These include: develop projects in institutions, to iden-
tify experienced student representatives
The type of support they can provide
qq for project-work or to carry out reviews
(moral, financial, expertise, time, in- of learning processes at the institutional
fluence); or faculty level. In some situations, stu-
The type of relationship you have with
qq dents’ unions may be focused on non-
them (trust, personal, hierarchical); academic issues. Therefore, it will be
The type of resistance their involve-
qq helpful to clearly identify the broader
ment is likely to pre-empt (as involve- benefits of the scl approach.
ment typically leads to participation Higher Education Teachers’ Unions:
instead of opposition); and Similarly to students’ unions, teachers’
The legitimacy that they will bring to
qq unions are concerned with profession-
reforms (on the premise that a smart- al issues such as teaching and research as
ly constructed partnership sounds well with more traditional union issues
more convincing). such as working conditions of higher ed-
ucation teaching staff. They can provide
Below is a list of the potential differ- experienced teachers and researchers
ent actors that may be involved in such a and an all-important reality-check of the
18
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changeconditions necessary for change to be many different initiatives at the same
implemented. Teachers’ unions are im- time and often change rather slowly.
portant allies as teachers are often seen Having a clear plan and a scientific basis
as having a negative attitude towards the for argumentation will help to involve
scl approach. If their voice is involved them in the change project.
at an early stage, enthusiasm for change Employer Organisations: Business
can grow on the ground as well. organisations play an increasingly im-
Rectors’ Conferences or Associ- portant role in higher education gov-
ations of Higher Education Institu- ernance. Although their knowledge on
tions: The modernisation of higher edu- higher education is usually not very high,
cation and of teaching is a clear priority they usually know the problems of grad-
for most associations of higher educa- uate employment quite well. Therefore,
tion institutions. Although often con- they are generally in favour of a more
cerned with issues such as research and student-centred approach that is aimed
funding, these organisations can be very at personal independence and more ef-
important for the successful implemen- fective learning. They can provide exper-
tation of change. They actively influ- tise on employment issues, as well as re-
ence the priorities of the higher educa- sources for projects to which they see a
tion system, they provide resources and clear beneficial outcome.
have networks of influential thinkers in The Media: The press is probably not
higher education. By mobilising some very interested in writing about making
of these resources, a change project can higher education more student-centred.
be enhanced by means of better visibili- Nonetheless, different media can be im-
ty and resources. When engaging these portant with respect to the public image
associations, it is important to be aware of the higher education system. By pub-
that they require a clear plan and vision lishing selected facts and examples of
of the problem a hand before engaging in TIP
the change project. Once you have gathered a
Leadership of Higher Education In- number of people around the table,
stitutions: Like their umbrella organisa- you can use Responsibility Charting
tions, leaders of individual institutions to distribute tasks effectively. Here
can provide resources and expertise and you try to map out who is involved
can influence priorities. Usually there in your project and what their role is
are specific structures within institu- in every stage or activity. You can as-
tions to deal with educational matters, sign four different roles to a person
such as a vice-rector for academic affairs, in each situation: Responsibility (R);
a quality assurance unit or a profession- Approval or Right to Veto (A-V); Sup-
al development unit. In more decentral- port or Consult (S-C); or Inform (I).
ised institutions, they exist at faculty or Be sure to assign a role to everyone
departmental level. These structures are for every activity!
not easily mobilised, as they deal with
Changing the Mindset 19problems encountered by students in the both motivated and capable in imple-
system, arguments can be put forward menting change projects to lead towards
publicly for need for more attention and the implementation of the scl approach.
resources to be assigned to scl. For example, educational researchers
Individuals: Experts, individual stu- working on the topic of scl would be
dents, colleagues or friends can be useful able to give evidence-based technical ad-
to provide extra people as members of a vice about implementing scl in a man-
change team. By gathering the right mix ner suitable to the given institution’s
of participants, each with their own area profile.
of expertise, a team can be set up that is
fig. 3 Example of Responsibility Charting for a Project Involving Four Actors
Responsi- Approval or Support or
Actor Inform
bility Veto Consult
Students’ Union R V . .
Teachers’ Union R V . .
Rectors’ Conference . A C .
Minister . . . I
20
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change4.5 Step Three: Identifying the Drivers for Change
In order to convince people to ity education may give access to higher-
change, it is important to know what level jobs in the labour market
motivates them. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to identify ›drivers‹, ›catalysts‹ or It is possible to assess whether or not
›incentives‹ for change. A lesson from people are ready to change. An adapt-
theories about reform is that individuals ed version of Gleicher’s formula can be
need to see a benefit in changing. This a useful tool. It is necessary to fill in the
benefit can take multiple forms (such as formula with respect to the main ac-
monetary rewards, quality improvement tors involved in a given reform and as-
and higher motivation) and it needs to sess whether all the factors outweigh
be identified explicitly. Benefits need to the costs of such change. If they do, the
be integrated into concrete and explicit readiness to change will be positive. In
policy in order for them to become driv- this formula, factors D, B, V and C can
ers for change. Following on the bene- be influenced in order to enhance the
fits of scl identified above in Chapter 2, readiness for change.
possible drivers for change could be: Incentives to change are often al-
ready part of the culture in higher edu-
Personal incentives: For teachers, cation institutions. Citation index scores,
teaching becomes more enjoyable, in- the academic career ladder or quality
teractive and rewarding if it is student- evaluation forms are just a few examples
centred. For students, learning becomes of the tools used by institutions to influ-
more interesting if it is interactive; ence academics’ behaviour. It is impor-
Educational incentives: Teaching tant to think about how these existing
can be more effective if it involves con- tools link in with, or work against, the
structive learning. Students will be able aims of the planned change project.
to learn better in such an environment,
making the time they spend in higher R = (D x B x V x F) > C
education more meaningful;
Scholarship incentives: Research Where:
work can be integrated into teaching, R stands for Readiness for change;
producing a closer connection with the D stands for Dissatisfaction with the
research activities of the teacher. For status quo;
students, the link with the academic B stands for the perceived Benefits of
world and opportunities for an academic the change for the actor;
career will also improve; and V is the clarity of the shared Vision of
Economic incentives: If academics what is possible;
improve their teaching, it may be possi- F stands for the Feasibility of the steps
ble for them to access higher levels of the to implement new ideas; and
career ladder. For students, higher-qual- C stands for the Costs of changing.
Changing the Mindset 21fig. 4 Filling in Gleicher’s Formula can Expose the Problems of People who you think
should Change!
Cost of Changing
Drivers of Change
Benefits of
changing
Feasibility of doing
Not knowing something differnt
what to do
Clarity of version
of what to do
More work
Disstisfaction with
the status quo
22
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm change4.6 Step Four: Strategies to Overcome Barriers to
Change
Identifying barriers to change is those who outrightly resist any change
equally important to creating incen- plans. Different types of resistance can
tives. Negative attitudes towards change be tackled by means of different strate-
are probably the most problematic for gies. These may include informing peo-
reform. Reasons for such negative at- ple more, including them in decision-
titudes can be numerous and include making, trying to build competence and
past experience of having been asked to confidence through training or trying to
change in several different directions at persuade them and negotiate with them
the same time, or having experienced to address their needs more directly.
failed attempts at change. In any case, it Opposition to change can prove to
is necessary to plan for a number of neg- be useful if it is mobilised towards a pos-
ative attitudes. itive effect. If opposition is dealt with se-
riously, it will be useful in exposing neg-
Barriers to change are usually diverse and may ative aspects of the change plan, which
include: can then be adapted accordingly. In any
qq Administrative hurdles; case, it is good to plan for the type of
qq Other priorities for higher education; barriers that may arise as well as plan-
qq Lack of financial support; ning how such barriers could be dealt
qq Too centralised (or decentralised) decision- with along the way.
making;
qq Misunderstanding of the concept;
qq Negative attitudes towards the concept; TIP
and A Force Field Analysis can be
qq A different understanding of the vision for a useful tool at this stage. This is
the future. a discussion tool with the aim of
identifying different actors, listing
It is useful to identify different all the different people and organi-
types of negative attitudes towards the sations that may have an influence
planned change project, such as people and mapping their connections and
who give constructive feedback, those levels of influence over the situation.
who are pragmatically sceptical and
Changing the Mindset 23fig. 5 An example of a force-field analysis, using some of the actors presented above.
Students' Union:
qq Provides student
representatives
qq Has effective
mediastrategies
Rectors' Conference Teachers' Union:
qq Provides resources qq Links teachers and
qq Set priorities of researchers
higher education qq Assesses realism
system of reforms
Student
Centered
Learning
4.7 Step Five: Implementing the Change
At this stage, it is imperative to find which lists sources for further reading.
and use the resources to deal with the Many policy manuals also exist which
problem. It is not in the scope of this show that plans can run into a number of
toolkit to present ideas for fund-raising difficulties. As the change project devel-
or to give general suggestions on project ops, the planning tools mentioned above
management. However, an abundance of and below can be used to recalibrate the
literature exists on such issues, some of change project when needed.
which can be found in Chapter X below,
4.8 Step Six: Evaluating the Impact of the Change
It is probably not so easy to evalu- forms do not expose much about an ac-
ate the impact of a change project. Sim- tual change in students’ experiences.
ple quantitative indicators such as the Moreover, as students will probably not
amount of people impacted, the amount have experienced both the situation be-
of teachers trained or the number of fore and after the implementation of the
positive results in student evaluation change project, students themselves will
24
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changealso find it hard to judge the impact of their own experiences and opinions
the change after the implementation of about the project. After this step, a set
Step Five. Standard evaluation models of methods can be used to see if as-
are therefore probably inadequate in as- sumptions about the effectiveness of the
sessing whether or not the change which project were correct, such as by asking
led to the implementation of the scl ap- colleagues or students who have been af-
proach was successful. Luckily, quality fected by the project to judge the team’s
assurance practices in higher education self-evaluation. Similarly students’ un-
provide some tools to evaluate the im- ions, teachers’ unions and the other ac-
pact of the change undertaken. tors mentioned above can be consulted
It is important to realise that the about the impact of the change project.
members of the team responsible for These organisations usually have a more
steering the change are in a position to historical overview over the system and
evaluate the impact of the work them- might judge its impacts more broadly. It
selves. This can be done by means of a is most important to consult with those
self-evaluation which tries to answer a who are involved in the learning proc-
number of questions. These include the ess itself as they will be better placed to
following: judge the ›student-centredness‹ of the
system.
What were the aims of the change
qq
project and the methods in attempt-
ing to reach those aims?
Have these methods been consistent-
qq An integrated model of planning and
ly applied? evaluation is the so-called Plan-Do-
Were the resources for the change
qq Check-Act model or simply the PDCA
project adequate and have they been model. The idea is that all these stages
used responsibly? are explicitly integrated in the change
Have the different partners carried
qq project, making it possible to actually
out their role in the change project to check whether what was planned has
an adequate level? actually been achieved. In the ›check‹
Have the different barriers been suc-
qq phase, it is important to try to find out
cessfully overcome? the differences between what was
Have any negative side-effects of the
qq planned and the results achieved. In
change project arisen? the ›act‹ phase, it is key to find out the
reasons why planned results did not
In self-evaluation of a change project, materialise and to try to apply the ap-
team members could try to spell out propriate changes to the plans.
Changing the Mindset 255 Implementation by Teachers
5.1 Introduction
Learning is often presented in a jux- is to see it as a combination of the two
taposition of either student-centred or which are presented as either ends of a
teacher-centred learning. In the reality continuum, using three concepts regu-
of practice the situation is less black and larly used to describe scl, as follows:
white. A more useful presentation of scl
fig. 6 The Learning Continuum
Teacher–Centred Learning ↔ Student–Centred Learning
Low student choice ↔ High student choice
Passivity of students ↔ Activity of students
Teacher as holder of power ↔ Student empowerment
In examining how this might look in uation. This includes a consideration of
practice, it is worth thinking how far up their subject-discipline, classroom size,
institutional infrastructure and insti-
Talk to me … and I will forget tutional traditions, among other things.
Show me … and I will remember Below are a few elements to be taken
Involve me … and I will understand into consideration by teachers in high-
Step back … and I will act er education within their given class-
Confucius room environment in order to help them
to move up the continuum towards the
the continuum teachers, in their indi- implementation of the scl approach, for
vidual approach, are able to move within the benefit of their students’ learning ex-
the contextual barriers of their given sit- perience.
Implementation by Teachers 275.2 Students Motivation and Teachers’ Knowledge of
Students
Within the different roles that scl Inviting representatives from socie-
qq
envisages for both teachers and stu- ty with specific expertise and experi-
dents, the key factor in implementing a ences regarding a field of study or in-
new approach to learning is the motiva- viting alumni to act as role models,
tion of students. Greater involvement connecting practical and learning ex-
with students by the teacher is central periences in their profession with ex-
to this. Where students are motivated periences gained during their study.
to come to an under-
What are students’ standing of, and engage By making practical experiences
backgrounds? with, the material with more explicit, students as well as profes-
What do they which they are present- sionals will be able to relate theory and
already know? ed, they are more likely knowledge and to share knowledge and
How did they learn in to adopt strategies that skills.
the past? will lead to deeper levels In addition, there is a demonstrable
What brought them to of learning. link between students’ previous experi-
your classroom? The following are ex- ences and their performance as learners.
What are their amples of good practice By tapping into this information, teach-
interests? and ideas for teachers to ers would be in a better position to as-
What are their enhance student moti- sist students by increasing relevance and
aspirations? vation: thereby enriching students’ understand-
ing. Previous experiences influence stu-
Including students in co-creating
qq dents’ views of learning, their motiva-
compelling courses; tion for learning and the way in which
Exposing students to extremes of the
qq they approach learning. Teachers can
subject-matter; connect best with students, and vice ver-
Making students aware of the differ-
qq sa, if they know a bit about who they are,
ent career paths that may be availa- their previous experiences and their un-
ble to them upon completion of their derstanding of the subject matter.
studies; There are various ways in which
Making students aware of the impor-
qq teachers can get to know this informa-
tance of what they are doing and its tion about their students. The following
context in an applied situation which are a few examples:
shows its value to others;
Applying their own research to the
qq In small groups: Teachers can ask stu-
qq
learning experience of students, dents to interview each other, ask-
questioning used methods and ask- ing why they chose the class, what
ing for alternatives; and they hope to get out of it and what
28
Student centered learning
time for a paradigm changethey already know about the subject- In larger lecture groups: The teacher
qq
matter. Each student can then intro- can try using small groups to briefly
duce their interviewee to the rest if summarise each group’s knowledge
the class. of the subject, sharing this with the
whole class.
5.3 Choice of Teaching and Learning Methods
In scl there is an emphasis on skills Within the classroom, practical im-
and competences which demonstrate plementation of an scl approach can in-
responsibility for one’s own learn- clude a number of components. The fol-
ing, independence and lowing are a few examples of these:
Whatever the cooperation, problem-
teaching method used, solving, understanding Problem-based learning (pbl);
qq
the most important is and thinking for one- Group project work;
qq
to ensure an ACTIVE self. There are a number Student-centred active learning;
qq
role for the learner. of strategies used in in- Resource-based learning;
qq
struction in order to en- Use of the case method;
qq
courage this type of learning. These in- Role plays;
qq
clude: Classroom workshops;
qq
Group presentations;
qq
Making students more active in ac- Use of a web-conferencing environ-
qq
quiring knowledge and skills: This can ment, particularly in distance educa-
take the form of activities in class, field- tion; and
work, and the use of computer-assisted Use of learning logs for students to
qq
learning packages, among others; record their educational experience.
Making students more aware of what
they are doing and why they are do- TIP
ing it: This can be done by using learn- Consider reducing the amount
ing logs, analytical presentations and of contact hours, in order to have
the like; more SCL formats where possible.
Focusing on interaction: Such as
by the use of tutorials, buzz groups and Small group work, often used in pbl,
larger discussion groups; and enables students to learn how to work
Focusing on transferable skills: in a team, in the process of which they
Looking beyond the immediate course identify and fill the gaps in their knowl-
requirements to other benefits to stu- edge. This is an effective method of
dents later on in their careers and in life. learning as it activates prior knowledge,
Implementation by Teachers 29You can also read
