Roadblocks Hindering a Fossil-Free Stockholm - Research of the Impact of Food Delivery Technology - Kth Diva ...

EXAMENSARBETE INOM TEKNIK,
GRUNDNIVÅ, 15 HP
STOCKHOLM, SVERIGE 2021

Roadblocks Hindering a
Fossil-Free Stockholm
Research of the Impact of Food Delivery
Technology

AMEL BJÖRKBOM

KIMBERLY NGUYEN

KTH
SKOLAN FÖR ELEKTROTEKNIK OCH DATAVETENSKAP

Roadblocks Hindering a Fossil-Free Stockholm: Research
 of the Impact of Food Delivery Technology
 Amel Björkbom Kimberly Nguyen
 KTH, Royal Institute of Technology KTH, Royal Institute of Technology
 EECS School of Electrical Engineering and EECS School of Electrical Engineering and
 Computer Science Computer Science
 amelb@kth.se ktqng@kth.se

ABSTRACT hållbarhetschef på PostNord, och sekundära data publicerade på
English nätet. Resultaten visar att det finns en avvikelse mellan hur maten
Online food delivery (OFD) services have become increasingly levererades till kunden och vilken leveransmetod respektive
popular and accessible, allowing customers to choose between a matleverans-plattform angav i sin applikation. Visualiseringen i
wide range of restaurants conveniently, compare meals and prices applikationen visade att cykel var vanligast för matleveranser i
effectively, and arrange the delivery of the meal immediately. Stockholm, men deltagarna i undersökningen indikerade att
Thus, the number of last-mile online food deliveries has fossila fordon som bilar och mopeder används oftare än cykel.
increased, creating challenges for urban cities. Based on the goal Resultaten tyder också på att det till viss del finns en medvetenhet
that the City Council of Stockholm has set up regarding becoming och närvaro av hållbarhetsarbete i förhållande till
fossil-free by 2040, this report examines the effects of the koldioxidutsläpp, men arbetet är begränsat i relation till vad som
last-mile deliveries in the food delivery sector, particularly how behövs göras för att uppnå målet om att bli en fossilfri stad.
the food is delivered to consumers today, and what challenges the Därför behövs ett stort åtagande från både matleverans-företagen
OFD companies are facing in relation to lowering emissions from och Stockholms Stad för att påskynda övergången från
last-mile deliveries in the urban area. The study consists of fossildrivna till elektriska leveransflottor för att minska
empirical data collected from a quantitative survey answered by växthusgasutsläppen från sista milen leveranser inom sektorn.
food delivery consumers in Stockholm, a qualitative interview
with Sofia Leffler Moberg, Head of Sustainable Transformation at Keywords
PostNord, and secondary data published online. The results show Last-Mile; OFD; Fossil-Free transport
that there is a discrepancy between how the food was delivered to
the customer and what the respective OFD platform recounted in 1. INTRODUCTION
their application to be the delivery method. The in-app More than half of the world’s population live in cities, making
visualization shows that the predominant vehicle used for delivery them accountable for 70% of global carbon dioxide emissions and
was bicycle, however, the answers from the participants in the around two-thirds of global energy demand. If current trends
investigation indicate that fossil-driven vehicles such as cars and continue, global urban primary energy use would grow by about
mopeds are used for delivering. The findings also indicate that 70% and global urban 2 emissions by about 50% between 2013
there is, to a certain extent, an awareness and a presence of and 2050 [13]. Thus, it is of high importance that the cities break
sustainability work in relation to carbon dioxide emissions, the trend and become part of the solution to addressing climate
however, the work is argued to be limited in relation to what is change.
actually needed in order to contribute to becoming a fossil-free
city. Therefore, a large commitment by both the OFD companies The Paris Agreement, a legally binding international treaty on
and the City Council of Stockholm is needed to accelerate the climate change, has set out a global framework for avoiding
transition from fossil-driven to fossil-free delivery fleets in order dangerous climate change by limiting the increase in temperature
to reduce the GHG emissions from the last-mile deliveries within to well below 2 degrees and aiming for 1.5 degrees [7][8]. Cities
the sector. play an important role in adapting to this framework to address
 climate change and its impacts. Urban policies have a critical role
Svenska to play in both adaptation and mitigation of climate action by
Matleveranstjänster har blivit alltmer populära och tillgängliga, strategically improving urban form, lifestyles, mobility, and
vilket gör att kunderna enkelt kan välja mellan ett brett utbud av energy sources that influence greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
restauranger, jämföra måltider och priser effektivt och ordna [13].
leveransen av maten direkt. Således har antalet sista mil
matleveranser ökat och skapat utmaningar för städerna. Baserat på In this thesis, we will examine the relationship between online
det mål som Stockholms Stad har satt upp om att bli fossilfritt till food delivery (OFD) applications and sustainable urban mobility
år 2040, undersöker denna rapport effekterna av leveranserna i in Stockholm. To take action and stay consistent with the Paris
sista milen inom matleveranssektorn, särskilt hur maten levereras Agreement ambition, Stockholm as a city aims to be fossil-free
till konsumenterna idag och vilka utmaningar and climate positive by 2040. One of the most important building
matleveransföretagen står inför i förhållande till att minska blocks in their strategy is: environmentally efficient transportation
utsläppen från sista milen leveranser i stadsområdet. Studien [1]. Transport-related GHG emissions are responsible for 50% of
består av empirisk data insamlad från en kvantitativ undersökning the GHG emissions in Stockholm and road traffic alone accounts
besvarad av personer som konsumerar matleveranstjänster i for 80% [15]. In relation to transports, the explosive expansion of
Stockholm, en kvalitativ intervju med Sofia Leffler Moberg, home-delivery services of all types of products is of particular

concern. Several studies discuss the increased demand for home choices of restaurants, offering product customization, real-time
delivery. The growth of the sector has inevitably affected the interactive communication, and fast delivery [18]. While ICT
demand for freight transport within the last mile [9]. “Last-mile” platforms such as UberEats, Foodora, BoltFood, and Wolt enable
refers to the final stages in the supply chain between production, the customer to shop conveniently, compare products and prices
terminals, and end consumers [2], for example, the distance effectively, and arrange the delivery of the meal immediately, they
between a restaurant and consumer. also enable the restaurant industry to improve order accuracy,
 increase productivity, enhance customer relationships and extend
This study looks at the OFD sector in relation to Stockholm their market [16].
becoming a fossil-free sustainable city by 2040. Specifically, we
studied how the food is delivered from restaurants to customers, In a survey by UberEats published before the Covid-19 pandemic,
in order to understand last-mile food delivery in relation to the it is reported that the overall increase in sales after joining the
goal of attaining a fossil-free sustainable urban area. Quantitative platform was above 50% in four of the largest capitals in Europe
studies with online food delivery customers in Stockholm were [4]. Further, already in 2016, it was reported by DeliveryHero, a
expected to reveal somewhat detailed information about how the European multinational online food delivery service which
food is delivered to its customers. We have also examined acquired Foodora in 2016, that Sweden was growing considerably
challenges that OFD companies face if they are to reduce more strongly than the Eurozone countries [24]. The high usage of
emissions from last-mile deliveries in urban areas. ICT platforms in Sweden is explained to be a consequence of the
 extensive internet user penetration [36]. Accordingly, the
Understanding last-mile deliveries, including last-mile online food development of applications for OFD has become increasingly
deliveries, is of strategic importance to the City Council of popular, prevalent, and accessible for all [23].
Stockholm in order to be able to develop policies that meet its
citizens’ demands while simultaneously staying within the planet's The deliveries executed through the OFD services, i.e., the
limits. deliveries from the restaurant to the customer, are realized by a
 courier. In order to be able to sign up as a courier in any of the
The questions we intend on investigating are: OFD platforms present in the city of Stockholm, it is generally
 required that the individual is at least 18 years old, owns a
 1. To what extent are delivery methods of current online smartphone, has registered a sole proprietorship or a limited
 food delivery services in line with the city of company and in turn also does a VAT registration, since they are
 Stockholm’s action plan to become fossil-free 2040? selling services through the OFD platform [19][27][30][33].
 Further, the individual must own a vehicle for delivery, which can
 2. What challenges are online food delivery companies be a bicycle, moped, or a car. If the courier chooses to use a car as
 facing in relation to lowering GHG emissions released a delivery vehicle, the car must be registered at the Swedish
 by transport? Transport Agency and be registered for freight traffic. In addition,
 some companies require that the courier wears clothes and has a
 delivery bag with the company’s logo on it [19][27][30][33].
2. BACKGROUND
 2.2 Last mile deliveries
2.1 ICT platforms and OFD services 2.2.1 The impact of last mile deliveries
2.1.1 Information and Communication Technology Due to the growth of e-commerce over the last few decades, the
Information and communication technology (ICT) is in a demand for last-mile deliveries has increased [2]. The last mile is
simplified sense described as “all of the technologies that referred to as “the final link in the supply chain between
facilitate communications.”[5]. Since ICT platforms are, production, terminals, and end consumers” [2]. Trends in
according to the European Commission (2016), major drivers of e-commerce have changed urban freight patterns and vehicle
social and economic change, it is presently one of the prioritized movements in cities, which create challenges for urban cities. The
thematic objectives in the European Digital Agenda as part of a increased number of last-mile deliveries challenges partly traffic
strategy for smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth in the flows, the environment, and road safety [2]. Likewise, in the
European Union. Accordingly, ICT is important as a sector in business-to-consumer environment, the last mile is regarded as
itself but it is also an integral part of emerging related sectors, as it one of the more expensive, least efficient, and most polluting
is also a means to enable other products, services, and activities sections of the entire logistics chain [2]. Thus, analyzing the
such as e-commerce [5] and the rise of online food delivery. functioning of the transport and distribution of goods in urban
 areas is of further importance both in favor of leading companies
 and urban cities. However, due to the lack of data, it is
2.1.2 Online food delivery services challenging to analyze the implementation of last mile deliveries.
The advance in ICT, which facilitates e-commerce activities, has Research indicates that the difficulties in obtaining this data are
transformed the behaviors of both consumers and companies due to the transports in the cities being owned by private
[16]del. Specifically, as in many sectors today, the rise of companies [11]. These companies are unable to share data on their
technology is reshaping the food industry. While food delivery is services with their competitors and the public sector [11] due to
not a new concept for either restaurants or consumers, online food the different methods of measuring data. Companies choose not to
delivery (OFD) services enable more restaurants to deliver and disclose these numbers to prevent misinterpretation. Further, lack
provide customers more choices [4]. Within one single of standardized study methods in urban freight transport
application, the customer can find a wide range of unlimited contributes to the challenge of analyzing last mile deliveries [11].

2.2.2 Last mile online food deliveries a change of vehicle technology to electric vehicles and vehicles
Most research that has been conducted in regards to last mile food powered by renewable fuels is crucial, since a change of fuel
deliveries is aimed towards e-grocery businesses, meaning benefits the mitigation of GHG emissions [17]. Specifically, as the
companies that deliver groceries or deliver pre-planned meal kits. increase in population automatically generates a greater demand
A report indicates that the energy efficiency of freight transports for the supply of goods it is of further importance to consider how
is influenced by several indicators: drivers, vehicle route, degree consumption patterns might affect delivery traffic. It has been
of utilization packaging (the level of optimization and reduction discussed that delivery traffic could be optimized through
of air in each package and the number of packages stacked in for last-mile initiatives to make use of small electric vehicles and
example a container), traffic types, coordination, regulations, and bicycles as distributors, as the Climate Action Plan pinpoints the
driving forces [10]. A conclusion could be drawn that most of the aspiration to achieve an emission-free inner city [17].
difficulties regarding the last-mile investigation remain for the
entire food delivery sector. However, groceries that have been The distinction of sustainable urban mobility in the transport
purchased through e-commerce are usually delivered in bulk to sector must be part of a broader strategy. By recognizing the
many different households, while pre-made food from restaurants challenges of traffic growth in relation to infrastructure, the city of
preferably needs to be delivered warm. Therefore, the challenge Stockholm can actively work to develop a smart and sustainable
of time sensitivity, due to temperature maintenance, creates the urban city. The 2040 goal requires Stockholm to take action in
inability to distribute orders to an extensive amount of areas such as: expansion of public transport and the expansion of
households. Similarly, there might be differences in regard to cycle paths. They must also advocate for new fossil-free mobility
vehicle types, considering the distances from the restaurant to the solutions and promote increased electrification as well as
consumer might differ significantly. For shorter distances, expanded charging infrastructure [17]. Further, the city should
bicycles might be more convenient than for longer travel allow for more sustainable delivery patterns through improved
distances. infrastructure [17].

If deliveries are not efficiently distributed, an increased number of
purchases through the internet is most likely to increase the 3. METHOD
number of deliveries and thus, freight transportation. Therefore it The empirical material that was collected consisted of responses
is crucial to consider new strategies for transport and distribution. from a quantitative survey. The initial survey (Appendix 1) was
Food delivery services must address the challenges of reconciling executed in order to collect participants. Further, through a review
the growing demand for home food delivery along with of the survey, potential participants were assembled to participate
sustainability-related issues. Studies show that the adoption of in the second survey (Appendix 2). Accordingly, two quantitative
electric vehicles could be of strategic importance in improving air surveys were completed. The data from the second quantitative
quality and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions [10]. survey was analyzed in conjunction with secondary data that was
However, infrastructure problems, for example, lack of collected from articles published online, documents published by
availability of charging stations must be addressed in partnership organizations, and from the companies’ websites, to identify
with politicians and governments [7][14]. patterns in the delivery methods of OFD services. Further, a
 qualitative interview was held with the Head of Sustainable
 Transformation at PostNord.

2.3 Fossil-Free Stockholm 2040 3.1 Quantitative surveys
2.3.1 Climate ambition The first quantitative survey (Appendix 1) aiming at collecting
 participants, consisted of 6 questions. It was shared on social
The city of Stockholm has the ambition of becoming fossil-free in
 media platforms and within KTH. The title of the survey was
2040. In addition, the aim is to be climate-positive by 2040.
 formed to attract as many as possible, especially those familiar
Greenhouse gas emissions are declining nationally but not at the
 with food delivery services and interested in sustainability.
rate required by the latest research results from research and
expert authorities. The city has therefore raised its ambition for
 The survey (Appendix 1) was initially shared by the authors of
climate work, partly with a higher target for emission reduction,
 this paper on their personal Facebook and LinkedIn platforms.
and partly by introducing measures aimed at reducing the climate
 Further, it was also shared in several Facebook groups. Alongside
impact of consumption and transport. The Swedish Climate Policy
 the shared survey, a text was inserted describing the theme of the
Council points out the transport sector as particularly critical for
 investigation and a specification of the requirements for further
achieving the Swedish goals since transports account for about
 participation. The target sample was a user group consisting of
half of the estimated GHG emissions in Stockholm. Of these
 participants that work, study and/or live in Stockholm and use
emissions, road traffic accounts for about 80% [15].
 online food delivery services at least once a month. In total,
2.3.2 Climate action plan thirty-five participants were collected for further participation.
In order to achieve a 70% reduction of transport-related GHG
emissions by 2030, and become fossil-free by 2040, the city of After the assembly of the user group, a following 5 question
Stockholm has developed a Climate Action Plan. The Climate survey (Appendix 2) was sent out to the participants to gather
Action Plan indicates that vehicular traffic within the city limits quantitative data regarding the deliveries from OFD services.
has grown by 1.15 % per year in recent years and unless this trend Their participation lasted for two weeks. On the first day of the
is broken, emissions throughout the whole transport sector will period, an email was sent to the participant describing when and
increase with 40 000 tonnes of 2 by 2023 and a further 150 000 how they should fill out the short survey. After one week the
 participants received a second email reminding them to fill out the
tonnes by 2050. In order to break the trend, traffic must decrease survey whenever they had ordered food from OFD services. A
and a transition to other fuels must be realized [17]. In particular, third and last email was sent out when the two-week period ended,

thanking them for their participation. The questions were designed for deliveries 46% of the time and cars 10 %. Unknown represents
to be fast and easy to answer whenever the participant ordered mainly one OFD application that did not recount the vehicle type
food. Once the food had been ordered and delivered from an being used for the delivery.
OFD, the participants filled out the survey recounting the delivery
method shown in the app, meaning which vehicle the food ought
to be delivered with, how the food was actually delivered, why
they ordered food from a food delivery service and the distance
between the restaurant and the delivery point. Finally, 60 answers
were gathered which were used to understand how pre-made
foods in Stockholm are delivered in regards to vehicle type.

Both surveys were provided in both Swedish and English since
Stockholm is an international city and the surveys were shared on
platforms containing non-Swedish speakers. Approximately 15%
of our participants chose to receive information in English.

3.2 Qualitative interview
A qualitative interview was held with Sofia Leffler Moberg, Head Figure 2. The delivery method is shown in-app.
of Sustainable Transformation at PostNord. The aim of the
interview was to achieve a more nuanced analysis regarding last Question 4 (Appendix 2) discusses the driving factors behind the
mile deliveries in Stockholm. Five questions (Appendix 3) were customer’s choice of OFD application. A large majority (56 %)
formulated to work as an interview guide. The interview was held recounted that the major driving factor behind the choice of the
in Swedish and was recorded through Zoom. The duration of the application was the price of the delivery. Further, 27% valued
interview was approximately 1 hour. mostly a fast delivery, and 17% did not recount any specific
 requirements behind their choice of food delivery application. The
 survey also offered a fourth alternative: “fossil-free delivery”.
4. RESULTS However, this option was never chosen.
This section presents what was learned from the survey in which
the user group participated and from the interview with Sofia Figure 3 shows the distances from the restaurant to the delivery
Leffler Moberg. point, meaning the travel distance from the restaurant to the
 customer order. The majority of the orders, which represented
 54%, were within a distance of 2-4 kilometers from the restaurant
4.1 Results from survey to the delivery point. Moreover, 30% of the orders were within
These are the collected answers from the survey (Appendix 2) the 0-2 km from the restaurant, 15% were deliveries within 4-6 km
test group was handed. From thirty-five different participants, 60 and 2% were deliveries of a distance between 6-10 km, which
answers were collected in total. The period the survey was represents the longest distance for deliveries recounted in the
answered was between the 22nd of March and the 12th of April survey. The option “longer than 10 km” was not chosen once.
2021. All answers were anonymous.

Figure 1 shows that 36% of the orders from online food delivery
services were delivered by moped, 32% were delivered by car,
22% by bicycle, and 10% were not recounted. Concluding from
this figure, moped and car are the most common delivery vehicle
types in Stockholm for OFD services. The 10% of “unknown”
answers represent those who could not depict the delivery method,
for example by looking out the window.

 Figure 3. Distance from restaurant to the delivery point.

 In addition to the survey, several participants discovered some
 further discrepancies regarding the couriers. Besides the vehicle
 type, certain OFD applications also disclose a picture of who was
 going to distribute the customer’s order (Image 1). One participant
 recounted that the courier shown in the application differed from
 reality.

 Figure 1. Delivery method
Figure 2 presents the delivery method shown in the app when
having completed the food order. It shows that bicycles are used

respective OFD platform recounted in their application to be the
 delivery method. An accumulated number of all companies shows
 that the predominant vehicle type shown in the application was
 deliveries by bicycle. However, in reality, mopeds and cars were
 the predominant vehicles used for delivery.

 Both Uber Eats and Bolt Food showed discrepancies between
 in-app visualization and reality. UberEats states that bicycles,
 mopeds, and motorbikes are the vehicles allowed for delivery in
 Stockholm [30]. From the results, it is depicted that whenever the
 order was delivered by car the OFD service recounted it in the
 applications as being delivered by moped or bicycle. Other OFD
 companies allow the drivers to register whichever vehicle they
 find the most comfortable for safe and effective delivery
 [19][27][33]. The results for Bolt Food show that approximately
 50% by moped, 25% by car, and 13% of the orders were delivered
 by bicycle, with the rest unknown. Due to inconclusive data
 regarding the delivery method shown in the application, we
 cannot draw any conclusions if this particular OFD service had
 any discrepancies between distribution in-app versus reality.
 However, public data that was shared by the company through
 email, conveys that approximately 70% of their orders are
 distributed by bicycle, 15% by moped, and 15% by car [35].
 Although the data retrieved from the survey about Bolt Food may
 not be representative, since only 13% of all orders were made
 through this particular service, it could be argued that at least a
 larger segment of all orders should have been delivered by bicycle
 since the company’s last-mile data states that orders 7 out of 10
 times are distributed by bicycle. However, the data from the
 Image 1. Screen capture from OFD application, containing survey would oppose their statement. This would mean that the
 delivery vehicle, picture, and name of the courier. companies are not saving the correct data about their used
 delivery vehicles. It may also mean that the companies are not
 aware of how the food is being delivered. A bicycle or a moped
4.2 Results from qualitative interview may have been registered as a vehicle of choice by the employee,
Leffler Moberg shared the challenges the delivery companies face however, this person might have used a car instead.
in relation to efficiency, carbon dioxide emissions, and overall
sustainability. She explains that there is an extensive number of Foodora did not share an in-app visualization with the customer
home delivery companies competing to deliver the consumers’ regarding the delivery method. Thus, no conclusions regarding the
packages, which results in half-filled distribution vehicles discrepancy between reality and the company’s saved vehicle data
circulating the urban area of Stockholm. Here she depicts that could be drawn. Further, since Wolt corresponded to a
there are some logistical challenges that the delivery sector has to significantly low number of the answers in the survey, no
tackle. Further, she mentioned that throughout the industry there is conclusions could be drawn regarding any discrepancies.
a lack of transparency in regards to the calculations of the carbon
dioxide emissions emitted by a company since all companies use In general, users recounted that when cars delivered the food, it
different calculation methods. In order to avoid misinterpretation, was hard to distinguish that these cars belonged to online food
companies are therefore careful about sharing data. delivery companies since these were not wrapped with company
 logos, and the drivers did not have any working attire that could
5. ANALYSIS be linked to each company. Therefore, a general perception might
In the next section, we will present an in-depth analysis of the be that cars are not a common vehicle for delivering food in the
results. The analysis is based on the following material: i) public city of Stockholm since these might be hidden at a first glance.
information retrieved from open sources about the four companies However, as the results present, there is a considerable number of
(Foodora, Uber Eats, Bolt Food, Wolt), ii) a survey answered by cars used for the distribution of restaurant-made foods. The results
customers of at least one of the noted companies. iii) interview also showed that when the customer was asked why they chose
with Sofia Leffler Moberg, iiii) information retrieved from the the chosen OFD service, the “fossil-free delivery” alternative was
background in this paper. The analysis includes comparisons never chosen. This could be speculated to be a result of the
between the different OFD service platforms. It should be noted customers' unawareness about the wide presence of fossil-driven
that none of the OFD companies contacted by us shared any vehicles as cars, and the belief that most deliveries are executed
information regarding delivery data or sustainability challenges by fossil-free alternatives as bicycles, electrical scooters, and
within the company. sometimes fossil-driven mopeds.

5.1 Delivery method 5.2 Traveled distance and vehicle type
The results (Figures 1 and 2) point out that there is a discrepancy Figure 4 is an integrated analysis from Figures 1 and 3, which
between how the food was delivered to the customer and what the shows that for the shortest traveled distance (0 - 2 km), bicycles
 and mopeds were the most common vehicle types. However, for

the majority of orders located between 2 and 4 kilometers from deliveries. Thus, the OFD companies may argue that using
the restaurant to the delivery point, the orders were delivered by fossil-driven vehicles is more economical for the company, the
moped or car. In addition, for distances longer than 4 km, moped driver, and its customers since more deliveries per employee
and car were also the most common vehicles. In conclusion, cars enhance revenue for the company and the driver while reducing
and mopeds were shown to be the most predominant vehicle types delivery costs for the customer [10]. However, these options do
used by OFD services for delivering food in the city of emit GHG emissions and do not aid in lowering the 2
Stockholm. emissions and becoming a fossil-free Stockholm.

 5.4 Couriers
 As discovered in the results, there were distinctions regarding the
 courier distributing orders and the courier visualized in the
 application. It should be noted that this had only been observed by
 one participant on one particular OFD application. This aspect
 was not further investigated. However, it can be discussed that
 this might indicate a correlation with the aspect regarding the
 discrepancy between the vehicle visualized in the application and
 the actual vehicle used for delivering the order. A phenomenon
 that has been depicted by us when making use of other delivery
 services within the gig economy, is that there is one registered
 employee in the company who then distributes incoming orders to
 a few different couriers of their own. From the results, it could be
 Figure 4. Distance and vehicle type. argued that the phenomenon of using so-called “middlemen”
 might occur in the OFD service sector as well. However, this is
Considering the shorter distances in the central parts of only up for speculation since no investigation has been done
Stockholm, from restaurant to delivery point of the customer, one regarding this topic.
could conclude that shorter distances might indicate ease of
delivering without a car. We anticipated a result where bicycles Henriksson et al. (2018) mention that the drivers and vehicle
would dominate for the shorter distances since we assumed the routes are some of the factors that directly influence the last mile
passability between each delivery point would be better than deliveries. For the OFD companies to be able to have control over
distributing by car. However, when looking at the travel distances the effectiveness of the deliveries, data regarding the type of
between 2 and 4 kilometers, the most common vehicle types were vehicle the couriers use for delivery must be saved correctly. The
cars and mopeds. Further, we assumed that longer travel effectiveness of the deliveries is partly affected by driver
distances, 4 to 6 kilometers, would consist of a higher number of efficiency and vehicle efficiency [10], therefore, if the food
moped deliveries since these enable a faster delivery than bicycles deliveries are delivered by middlemen, the OFD services might
but also greater passability than cars. The assumption was not be able to save correct data regarding the deliveries executed
affirmed by the results. In addition, the results also show that a through the platform.
wide part of the deliveries are executed by car.
 6. DISCUSSION
5.3 Customer demand The study’s original purpose was to investigate how the food is
The results indicate that the majority of all orders from OFD delivered from restaurant to customer to understand to what extent
services were driven by the price of the delivery, meaning that the the deliveries are in line with Stockholm’s action plan to lower its
customer chose the service with the cheapest delivery. Further, GHG emissions and become fossil-free in 2040. Whilst doing the
27% of the customers prioritized fast delivery and the rest did not investigation and gathering data from the survey about the
have any specific requirements when choosing a service. deliveries, we depicted that the range of fuel vehicles was wider
Therefore, the results of our investigation show that the majority than we first had estimated and that the transparency regarding the
of the participants prioritized cheap and fast deliveries over deliveries was relatively small. This opens up for discussion
fossil-free delivery options. Our data may not be representative regarding transparency, solutions for more sustainable deliveries
due to the low number of participants. However, research in line with Stockholm’s Climate Action Plan, method discussion,
indicates that a company in a highly competitive OFD market and suggestions for further investigation in the future.
driven by revenue prioritizes to satisfy the customer and its
demands with their services, to keep its customers [16]. Thus, to 6.1 Sustainability work within the sector
meet the customer’s expectations, using cars and mopeds for
delivering fast and cheap orders seems to be an effective method. 6.1.1 Access to data
Further, the challenge of distributing warm pre-made foods does Our aim with this research was partly to investigate the different
also contribute to the need of delivering by car and moped, types of vehicles that OFD services make use of when
especially for longer distances, since customers most likely prefer transporting food, by conducting a survey answered by OFD
their food warm. A courier will have difficulties in waiting for customers. We wanted to take part in the company’s distribution
multiple orders since the challenge of delivering food quickly, patterns, i.e. the different types of vehicles used during delivery,
both in favor of temperature maintenance and for the customer’s the number of deliveries realized during a day, and also
sake of valuing fast deliveries. Moreover, even though one could investigate the challenges food delivery companies face in
distribute multiple orders from the same restaurant at once, it becoming fossil-free. However, in email conversations with Bolt
could be argued that the distances between each delivery point Food, Wolt, and Foodora, it was communicated that since they are
could differ substantially and therefore lose the aspect of fast operating in a highly competitive market they are not able to share

any information or data with us. As a result, they did not and mopeds, and not cars. An absence of transparency regarding
participate in a qualitative survey to discuss their stance in their the presence of fossil-driven vehicles for delivery can be argued to
sustainability-related work in relation to the city of Stockholm’s be greenwashing, a term used for describing when a company is
Climate Action Plan. A common denominator delivery companies misleading their consumers about their sustainable performance or
generally seem to share is being cautious regarding the sharing of the environmental benefits of a product or service [12]. For
data concerning carbon dioxide emissions from their deliveries. example, when the in-app visualization shows a fossil-free vehicle
All companies are measuring and reporting these numbers used for delivery, while in reality, the food is delivered by a
differently [11], therefore, in order to avoid misinterpretation, the fossil-driven vehicle. If the companies do make statements of their
companies can choose not to disclose the numbers. delivery fleets that do not correspond to reality it is interpreted as
 greenwashing. Therefore, if there are any uncertainties regarding
As depicted from the results, the participants expect fast and their used vehicles, the food delivery companies should refrain
cheap deliveries. Reports argue that the internet is causing price from making statements about their delivery methods in order to
wars due to accessibility of comparing prices, thus consumers will avoid greenwashing. Further, making false statements or giving
most likely buy the cheaper product when comparing between two misleading information about the vehicles used for delivery may
platforms [18]. A conclusion could therefore be drawn that be considered and reported as a violation of the Marketing Act.
customers will choose the OFD service that offers the cheapest
and fastest delivery. Further, if the customer is informed that their
order is going to be delivered by bicycle, although in reality, it is 6.2 Becoming fossil-free Stockholm 2040
not, the customer will believe that what the application says
 6.2.1 Last mile deliveries in general
corresponds to reality. In cases where the customer does not look
 To investigate to what extent the OFD services are in line with the
out the window to control what vehicle was used, one will not
 city of Stockholm’s Climate Action Plan and what challenges are
know that reality differs from theory. This possibly results in an
 faced in relation to lowering and mitigating emissions from the
absence of requirements and demands from the customer to have
 last-mile online food deliveries, it is interesting to understand both
their order delivered in a sustainable and trustworthy manner
 initiatives and challenges for the last-mile deliveries in general.
since they already think the deliveries are fossil-free. Thus, if the
 Besides restaurant-made food delivered by online food delivery
OFD customers’ main priority is fast and cheap delivery, the
 services, there is an extensive number of deliveries being executed
companies’ uninterest in sharing data could be due to low
 within the last mile in Stockholm. Among those are the e-retailers
prioritization of facing and handling sustainability-related issues.
 delivering directly to households and larger deliveries to stores,
 for instance, daily food deliveries to grocery stores or weekly
6.1.2 Calculate and compensate 2 deliveries to retail stores. These deliveries together have a
While discussing to what extent the OFD companies seem to be collective impact on the GHG emissions released in the city.
interested in taking responsibility for their ecological footprint, it However, the existing solutions for lowering greenhouse gas
is of high importance to take into consideration and discuss what emissions differ. Within the market of home deliveries related to
they are sharing with the public about their climate activity. Even e-retail and e-commerce, there is customer demand for fast and
though none of the OFD companies, recounted in our survey, were effective home delivery [37]. As a result, new companies are
interested in sharing country-specific data with us, there is some emerging, challenging the traditional delivery firms by offering
information shared about general sustainability work on the not only fast and effective but also sustainable deliveries, which is
respective website. Despite that the different OFD companies pushing the market to move toward emission-free solutions [28].
show different levels of engagement, Foodora and Wolt have Nonetheless, it is important to highlight that a high number of
presented a method for carbon emission compensation [25][34]. different delivery services competing for the packages is resulting
First, they calculate the carbon dioxide emissions from their in half-filled vehicles circulating the city [37]. Unlike home
offices and deliveries. Second, they offset the emissions by distributions, large deliveries to warehouses are mostly delivered
supporting internationally recognized projects, which reduce in large trucks that are not fossil-free. Altogether, these last-mile
carbon emissions elsewhere in the world [25][34]. Measuring and deliveries do all contribute to releasing GHG emissions and
offsetting their carbon footprint may reduce the overall climate creating logistical challenges in the urban area. Putting this into
impact on their activities. However, compensating for this perspective, the online food delivery sector probably stands for a
elsewhere does not lower the released GHG emissions in the city smaller amount of the GHG emissions within the last-mile
of Stockholm. In turn, it does not necessarily contribute to deliveries in Stockholm. However, the OFD sector must also
Stockholm becoming a fossil-free city in 2040. Further, a potential address their emissions released through deliveries, since a
discrepancy between the vehicle registered for delivery and the fossil-free city requires an integrated approach of all
actual vehicle used for delivery may result in a miscalculation stakeholders.
between the carbon dioxide emissions being compensated for and
the actual emissions released. 6.2.2 Fossil-free delivery alternatives
 In the Climate Action Plan for a fossil-free Stockholm 2040, it is
6.1.3 Greenwashing discussed that last-mile deliveries should make use of small
The investigation revealed that deliveries by car are at first glance electric vehicles and bicycles as distributors to achieve an
normally hard to distinguish since the cars used by the couriers emission-free inner city [17]. A city that allows and enables
are privately owned and are not marked with the company’s logo. sustainable transport alternatives encourages emission-free
In comparison, when the food is delivered by bicycle or moped, deliveries [9]. An example of how the city of Stockholm enables
the customer is able to depict the courier delivering the food since deliveries by bicycle is the public bicycle storage in the city center
they are wearing a backpack or similarly marked with the where OFD employees store their bicycles. Further, enhanced
company’s logo. Generally, this gives an impression that the encouragement for electrical vehicles creates incentives for use of
delivery vehicles used by the couriers do mainly include bicycles electric scooters and mopeds for deliveries. Even though the use

of shared electrical scooters as an OFD method is not depicted in Stockholm’s Climate Action Plan. The Netherlands is an example
our presented results, the OFD company Foodora presented on of how governments help municipalities encourage transport
their website in 2020 that they had signed a contract with Voi, an services to go carbon-free in urban areas. To only have
electrical scooter-sharing platform, to provide their employees zero-emission deliveries by 2025 in Dutch cities, the government
with an electrical option for delivering. Also, a collaboration with is offering grants to help businesses buy or lease electric vehicles
the electrical moped company Bzzt was established by Foodora [21]. Moreover, a transition to fossil-free delivery methods could
and Bolt Food to create a “better urban environment” through also be accelerated through regulations set up by the City Council.
fossil-free deliveries [27][32]. In addition, future electrical An example of regulations the City Council could implement in
alternatives for delivery are being investigated. “Doora'' is the urban areas of Stockholm in order to create the incentive to
Foodora’s new robot which has been developed to deliver food to transform to a carbon-free fleet is to create “Low emission areas”,
its customers. The company plans to see hundreds of “Doora’s” where petrol vehicles older than a certain year are banned. This
on the streets of Stockholm [22]. This robot drives 6 km/h, which already exists in many European countries for example Italy,
means that it can be a complement for short delivery orders. Germany, Spain, UK, and the Netherlands [21]. This approach
However, the results show that the distances up to 2 km do not could possibly trigger a change to fossil-free vehicles when it
stand for the most carbon dioxide emissions since bicycles are the comes to the shorter (2 - 4 km) last-mile deliveries within the food
most common vehicle used for delivery, compared to the 2 - 4 km delivery market, now executed by car and moped.
where mopeds and cars are the most common delivery vehicles.
Thus, the changes the companies need to realize are the slightly If no regulations or investments are determined by the City
further distances (2 - 4 km), but also consider the whole delivery Council, the OFD service companies could create a possibility for
fleet. Having hundreds of robots roaming the streets will possibly the customer to choose a fossil-free delivery. This phenomenon
have to result in a reduction of other vehicles. The infrastructure does exist when it comes to the taxi services offered by Uber and
of Stockholm city might not be able to accommodate all OFD Bolt [20][31]. In order to create an incentive for the couriers to
companies and their delivery fleets with hundreds of bicycles, transition to an electrical vehicle, the customer could pay a
mopeds, scooters, cars, and in the future, robots. Thus, when slightly higher price for the fossil-free delivery. Here, the
introducing a new vehicle, these should replace another, customer could be notified about how much carbon dioxide
preferably a fossil-driven vehicle if the companies wish to lower emissions they have saved. However, in the case of the OFD
their carbon dioxide emissions and move towards a more deliveries, it might be slightly more complex, since a fossil-free
sustainable future. Even though Foodora is an example of how an delivery could be equal to a bicycle or an electrical car. This
OFD company can incorporate fossil-free delivery solutions to would result in a conflict of interest when having to pay extra for
accelerate towards the net-zero ambition, this is not the present the order being delivered by bicycle. This could eventually result
reality for the OFD sector in general. in a decrease in bicycle deliveries. However, coming up with
 some solutions where the customer can choose to lower its
6.2.3 Taking action ecological footprint could contribute to a lowering of 2
In the Climate Action Plan, it is expressed that the city of emissions released by the OFD services.
Stockholm can not achieve the ambitious goal of becoming
fossil-free by 2040 by itself and that it, therefore, needs to join
forces, not only with the national government and the EU but also
 6.3 Method discussion
 To get an idea of how pre-made foods are distributed in
with enterprises within all industries [17]. The change of fuels is a
 Stockholm we gathered a user group of online food delivery
concrete example that is presented in order to achieve the goal,
 consumers to investigate the phenomenon. However, we had
specifically within the transport sector. In addition, expansion of
 difficulties finding participants to partake in our survey. Even
cycle lanes and various measures to improve mobility services
 though the survey was shared throughout platforms of thousands
such as carpools, bicycle borrowing pools, and free-floating
 of people, we still had difficulties accumulating participants to
sharing services is suggested. However, the Climate Action Plan
 participate in our survey, since our posts did not manage to work
does not present any specific measurements regarding the
 in favor of the algorithms. Thus, it was difficult to draw any
collaboration with trade, industry, and private businesses. In order
 general conclusions from our results. In order to get a realistic
to reach the goal of a fossil-free city, the City Council must create
 picture, we would have needed a larger number of participants. In
an incentive for the companies causing the GHG emissions, to be
 particular, we had difficulties achieving our initial aim of
willing to mitigate their emissions and take further responsibility.
 approximately calculating carbon dioxide emissions that are
To take action towards net-zero emissions, we believe that it is
 released in Stockholm based on our results of how many orders
crucial to support innovation and build a private sector that
 are delivered by car and moped. The anticipation was to either
produces climate-compatible goods and services. In the Coalition
 gather enough participants to be able to make approximations
for Urban Transitions, a global initiative supporting national
 regarding the number of orders delivered during a day/a week or
governments in transforming cities to accelerate economic
 find data on the internet on how many orders are delivered in
development and tackle dangerous climate change (2019), it is
 Stockholm during a certain time period. However, we did not
presented that a significant amount of national and local research
 manage to gather enough participants to make valid
and development budgets should aim at enhancing economic
 approximations and the potentially useful data on the internet was
competitiveness by “ (...) bolstering local entrepreneurs,
 classified. Therefore, our aim to estimate carbon dioxide
leveraging private research and development investments and
 emissions emitted from delivery vehicles of OFD services could
strengthening regional innovation clusters to support the
 not be completed. Further, when we first started sharing the initial
advancement and adoption of technologies, products, and
 survey (Appendix 1) to find participants we had a requirement
processes that accelerate the zero-carbon urban transition”. This
 that read: “I Use Bolt Food, Foodora, UberEats, Wolt, or similar
approach of investing and supporting companies to accelerate
 applications at least two times a week.” With this requirement we
zero-carbon urban transition could encourage the OFD companies
 had difficulties gathering participants, thus we changed the
to commit to prioritizing a fossil-free delivery fleet in line with

requirement to: “I Use Bolt Food, Foodora, UberEats, Wolt, or that Foodora has designed in regards to the robot ‘Doora’, and
similar applications at least once a month.” When this change was investigating what actual effect it has on the overall emissions
implemented we had a higher number of participants signing up. from the industry. For this to be well-executed, retrieving a lot of
We speculate that the ones signing up were mostly people of our data regarding vehicle types, amount of deliveries, and delivery
own age, possibly students. Generally, they have less money than distances should be highly empathized.
working individuals which results in them ordering more rarely. In
turn, this results in a lower answering frequency per participant 7. CONCLUSION
compared to if we would have had a wider range of participants of The study’s purpose was to investigate how the food is delivered
all ages and professions, that order food from OFD services more from restaurant to customer in order to understand to what extent
often. online food deliveries are in line with the city of Stockholm’s
 Climate Action Plan to lower its GHG emissions and become
For a better understanding of the results regarding delivery fossil-free in 2040. Further, we aimed at studying what challenges
methods both in the application and reality, the survey should OFD companies might face in relation to lowering their emissions
have contained a question asking the participants “why” they did released through deliveries.
not know an answer whenever they picked the option “unknown”. Our study shows that there is a wide presence of fossil-driven
These answers could have been due to for example the vehicles, i.e., cars and mopeds, used for online food deliveries in
participants’ inability to see the vehicles from their windows. the city of Stockholm. Even though there are examples of certain
Also, given that the survey was conducted throughout Stockholm, companies taking measures for carbon dioxide compensation and
both in the inner city as well as adjacent areas, we should have the use of electrical vehicles, the study demonstrates that
considered the possibility of making the participants account for encouragement of the use of fossil-free vehicles for instance
where they ordered their food from. This information would have bicycles and e-scooters is in general not fully prioritized. Further,
allowed a more in-depth analysis regarding the different types of the lack of transparency in the OFD sector contributes to the
vehicles used for different travel distances. In addition, qualitative incertitude of how the deliveries are actually executed and the
interviews could have been done with the participants to better continued use of fossil-driven vehicles for deliveries. Therefore,
understand how much they knew about the delivery method to accelerate the shift to a fossil-free Stockholm 2040, the Climate
before they took part in the investigation, and also how important Action Plan concludes that collaboration between the City
it is for them as customers to have control over how their order is Council, the national government, and the European Union, but
delivered. Moreover, in survey question 4 (Appendix 2), asking also with enterprises within all industries is crucial. Thus, we
why the participant chose the particular OFD service, “fossil-free argue that the City Council must work in close collaboration with
delivery” was an alternative. Based on the results, this alternative companies to encourage them to accelerate a zero-carbon
was never chosen. Perhaps this alternative could have been transition by investing in transitioning to fossil-free fleets.
explained more in detail, by giving an example e.g. bicycle or
scooter. Since a fossil-free city requires an integrated approach of all
 stakeholders, the online food delivery sector must address their
6.4 Future work deliveries and secure net-zero emissions.
When the survey period had been completed it was surprising to
see that the results showed that there was a discrepancy between 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
what the OFD applications recounted as the delivery method for We would like to thank our supervisor Daniel Pargman for
the food from restaurant to customer, and what the customer guidance throughout the work process and Sofia Leffler Moberg
recounted as the reality. In addition to the survey, it was for contributing valuable insights. We would also like to extend
mentioned that there was a discrepancy between the person our thanks to those who participated in our survey, and our peer
delivering the food according to the application and the actual reviewing group members for helping and inspiring us.
person delivering it. These events may be of further interest for
future investigations. Thus, with more resources further
investigation could be done within the field to understand what
the real delivery methods are and the reason behind the potential
discrepancy.

To be able to draw any conclusions from the results, it should
preferably be prioritized to gather a large number of participants
of all ages and professions. We would suggest not only
accumulate many OFD customers but also find people that deliver
the food through the food delivery companies and interview them.
The employees for each company might have an approximate
number of how many orders are delivered per day. Data could also
be gathered from several restaurant owners, as they could also
have an idea of how many orders they receive. With these
statistics, one could calculate more accurately how much
emissions are released from deliveries by fossil-driven vehicles
and draw further conclusions regarding last-mile food deliveries.
It could also be interesting to investigate what further possibilities
there are for effective and sustainable food deliveries in
Stockholm. By looking at examples of the innovative solutions

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