Places and Spaces Environments and children's well-being - Innocenti Report Card 17 - Unicef
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Innocenti Report Card 17
Places and Spaces
Environments
and children’s well-being
The Innocenti Report Card series is designed to monitor and compare the performance of economically advanced countries in securing the rights of their children. Innocenti Report Card 17 was written by Eszter Timar, Anna Gromada, Gwyther Rees and Alessandro Carraro with contributions from Dominic Richardson, Gunilla Olsson, Celine Little, Dagna Rams, Gro Dehli Villanger, Nicole Quattrini, Tim Huijts, Mirza Balaj and Terje Eikemo. The United Nations Children’s Fund Office of Research – Innocenti (UNICEF Innocenti) would like to acknowledge the generous support for Innocenti Report Card 17 provided by the Government of Italy. Any part of this Innocenti Report Card may be freely reproduced using the following reference: UNICEF Office of Research (2022). Places and Spaces: Environments and children’s well-being, Innocenti Report Card 17, UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti, Florence. About the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti In 1988, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) established a research centre to support its advocacy for children worldwide and to identify and research current and future areas of UNICEF work. The prime objectives of the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children’s rights, to help facilitate full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and to support advocacy worldwide. The Office aims to set out a comprehensive framework for research and knowledge within the organization, in support of its global policies and programmes. Through strengthening research partnerships with leading academic institutions and development networks in both the North and the South, UNICEF Innocenti seeks to leverage additional resources and influence in support of efforts towards policy reform, in favour of children. The Office of Research – Innocenti receives financial support from the Government of Italy, while funding for specific projects is also provided by other governments, international institutions and private sources, including UNICEF National Committees. Publications produced by the Office are contributions to a global debate on children and may not necessarily reflect UNICEF policies or approaches. The views expressed are those of the authors. The designations employed in this publication and the presentation of the material do not imply on the part of UNICEF the expression of any opinion whatsoever concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities or the delimitations of its frontiers. Cover photo © Yukiko Noritake - garance illustration llc ©United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2022 ISBN: 9788865220641 UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti Via degli Alfani 58 - 50121 Florence, Italy Tel: +39 055 2033 0 Fax: +39 055 2033 220 researchpublications@unicef.org www.unicef-irc.org @UNICEFInnocenti on Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram and YouTube Graphic design: Art&Design Srl, Rome Editorial production: Sarah Marchant, UNICEF Innocenti
Innocenti Report Card 17
Places and Spaces
Environments
and children’s well-being
2 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7
FOREWORD
Home. In a good childhood, home children and our planet. The level making children’s journeys to
is a safe and stable place, with of consumption in most rich school safer – and can reduce
healthy food to eat, clean water to countries would require at least carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Or
drink and a loving family. three planet earths if replicated in transitioning towards sustainable
all countries. E-waste – the fastest- agriculture can improve children’s
Yet, many children – even in the
growing type of domestic waste diets and reduce the environmental
world’s richer countries – lack
– contains hazardous substances damage of current food
these necessities of life. They are
that damage bodies and brains, production. These synergies are
surrounded by toxic air, lead
and it takes its highest toll on well recognized in the Sustainable
pollution, loud noise or mouldy
children. Development Goals, where
walls. Others live in homes that are
meeting one goal is essential to
too dark, too cold or too crowded. Through global efforts to achieve
meeting another.
sustainable development and
Unhealthy living conditions
a more equitable world, the Conversely, if we, as a global
irretrievably harm children’s mental
international community has community, do not improve the
and physical well-being, their
for decades been calling on environments in which children live
cognitive development, and their
governments, the private sector, and develop, what hope is there for
prospects for a happy and healthy
civil society and individuals to a better future? We can do better,
life. For a child living with high
protect our planet. Children and and we must. How? By listening
levels of road traffic or without
young people have also sounded to children and young people; by
enough green space in which to
the alarm, with millions globally making discerning choices about
play, the options to escape or
participating in climate strikes how we consume and how we
offset these dangers are few.
and demanding transformative dispose of what we discard; by
Environmental risks are also action to save their own future on designing our neighbourhoods and
unequally distributed. Children the planet. The United Nations homes with children in mind; by
from poorer families and Secretary-General’s report Our supporting children’s involvement
marginalized groups face greater Common Agenda presents “a in environmental debates and
exposure to severe housing stark and urgent choice: a decisions; by ensuring that the
deprivation, which deepens breakdown or a breakthrough”. distinct needs of children are built
disadvantage and perpetuates The first option is characterized into environmental policies; and
cycles of poverty. by “a perpetual crisis”, while the by pursuing policies and practices
second offers the “prospect of a that safeguard the natural
Beyond the doorstep of children’s
greener, safer, better future”.1 environment, on which children
homes, schools and communities,
and young people depend.
our collective home – the planet The good news is that, by tackling
– is also in jeopardy. Rising one challenge, we improve the
temperatures, loss of biodiversity chances of solving another. Put
and extreme weather events differently, what provides a child
threaten both livelihoods and with a safe and healthy home Gunilla Olsson
lives themselves. The pressure also protects the environment.
Director
that our natural resources are Reducing motorized traffic,
UNICEF Office of Research –
coming under and the mounting for example, can have a positive
Innocenti
waste are harmful to both our impact on road safety –
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 3
4 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
© Séverine Assous - garance illustration llc
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 5
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Environmental changes taking hygiene or chemicals.2 Children Rich countries, and rich people,
place around the world find their are especially vulnerable – partly can often try to buy their way out
way into the bodies and minds of because their bodies and immune of a crisis; but an environmental
children. Through polluted air, water systems are still developing, but crisis is different. Buying an air
and food, we each inadvertently also because of their behaviour purifier does not obviate the need
consume a quarter of a kilogram (for example, they are more likely to breathe public air. Even
of plastic per year – equivalent to to put their fingers in their mouths if countries reduce their own
eating a credit card every week. than adults). The consequences carbon footprint, they still face
In nine of the world’s richest of climate change will persist the problems created by those
countries, more than 1 child in 20 throughout the lives of today’s that do not.
have elevated levels of lead in their children, requiring them to
In October 2021, the United
blood. The environmental ‘problem’ adapt to, and mitigate, the risks
Nations Human Rights Council
is not an abstract concept about associated with a warming planet.
recognized the right to a
a distant future: it is affecting
Yet, the environment influences not clean, healthy and sustainable
children – right here, right now.
only whether today’s children grow environment,5 while the United
The results of climate change up to be healthy and happy adults, Nations Committee on the
are already clear and present. but also their current mental Rights of the Child decided that a
Rising temperatures, higher sea well-being. A survey covering six country can be held responsible
levels, air and soil pollution and high-income countries3 reported for the impact of its emissions on
extraordinary-turned-ordinary that nearly half of all young children both within and beyond
weather events affect not only people feel distressed about the its territory.6 Yet, more effort is
the world we leave for future environment to an extent that is needed to avert the most dire
generations, but also the brains, affecting their daily functioning.4 consequences of environmental
lungs and hearts of us all today. Some 6 in 10 believe that their neglect. The importance of having
governments have failed them, as all countries work towards the
Globally, one death in four among
regards the environment. Two in goals set out in the 2030 Agenda
children aged under 5 years
five have doubts about becoming for Sustainable Development is
could be averted by improving
a parent in the future, due to the becoming ever more apparent.
environmental factors, such as
climate crisis.
air pollution, water, sanitation,
6 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7
S E C T I O N 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Definitions and scope and outside UNICEF; and focus to the planet as a whole. Some
In English, the word ‘environment’ group discussions with young participants also mentioned that
can be linked to many concepts – people aged 10–17 years from culture and religion shape what
e.g., the ‘economic environment’ Canada, Chile, Mexico, Spain and the environment is and how we
or the ‘digital environment’. For Sweden. When asked to define see it.
the purposes of this report, we the environment, young people
This report covers the 43
adopt a narrower focus on ‘the tended to list both natural and
countries that are members of
environment’ and use the term man-made elements; and to
the Organisation for Economic
to cover the physical aspects of agree that nature, the landscape
Co-operation and Development
natural and built environments that and all living things are part
(OECD) and/or the European Union
children experience and that affect of the environment. Children
(EU), because their harmonized
their well-being. highlighted the connections
data infrastructures allow for a
between all living things – flora,
This definition, and the conceptual comparative analysis of children’s
fauna and humans – and the need
framework that is presented environmental well-being. There
for a balance between humans
below, were developed on the are some data limitations relating
and nature. Other definitions
basis of a literature review; to countries that have recently
of the environment included
consultations with research and joined the OECD, particularly
“everything that surrounds us”,
policy professionals both within Colombia and Costa Rica.
from the home that we live in
AIMS
The report focuses on the following questions:
1. How do environmental factors affect children’s well-being?
2. How are many of the world’s richest countries faring in terms of providing a healthy
environment in which children can live, develop and thrive?
3. What actions can these countries take to improve the environments in which children live?
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 7S E C T I O N 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Figure 1: Broad conceptual framework Our framework
Over the past two decades,
UNICEF Innocenti Report Cards
have led the way in comparing
world at large children’s well-being across rich
The countries. Innocenti Report Card 16
introduced a multi-level framework
that put the child at the centre.
Child outcomes – physical health,
around th mental well-being and skills – are
world ec
e hi affected by the world of the child,
h l
the world around the child and the
T
d
world at large. Innocenti Report
Card 17 takes this approach a
rld of the
wo c step further (see Figure 1). As the
e current state of the environment
hi
Th
ld
is shaped by past actions, and is
already shaping what lies ahead,
The child we add a time perspective to the
model: the world we inherit and
the world we leave behind. And
because the environmental actions
The world of one country can affect children
The world
we will leave in others, we also consider the
we inherit
behind impact that countries have beyond
their own borders.
Three crosscutting themes run
through our framework:
interlinkages, inequalities and
children’s influence. Interlinkages
mean that many factors that cause
climate change in the long run
are also harming children now.
For example, cars emit CO2, but
also cause noise and air pollution,
take up space, create risks and
limit children’s activities, such as
playing outside.
8 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Inequalities mean that Children, often the worst affected Yet, young people are aware and
environmental factors affect by environmental problems, will are calling for action. In 2019,
people in different ways, not only inherit them in the future, at the World Economic Forum
depending on their resources – but are also the least able to in Davos, Greta Thunberg told
as we have seen during the influence the course of events. delegates: “I want you to act as
COVID-19 pandemic. Some Choices that affect their lives are you would in a crisis. I want you
countries and individuals are better taken by parents, governments to act as if our house is on fire.
able to protect themselves than and businesses. Many of the Because it is.”8
are others. Environmental risks are national climate plans submitted
also spread both geographically ahead of the 26th United Nations
– from rich countries to poor Climate Change Conference of
countries – and temporally, the Parties (COP26) were neither
with today’s choices causing child sensitive nor created with
tomorrow’s disasters. children’s participation.7
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IS APPLIED IN THIS REPORT AS FOLLOWS:
1. Child outcomes are grouped into three broad categories – physical health, mental well-being
and skills – as in Innocenti Report Card 16.
2. The world of the child focuses on children’s direct experiences of the environment, in terms
of their consumption of air, water and food, and their exposure to light, noise, heat, cold and
hazardous substances.
3. The world around the child covers the physical aspects of the environments that the child
encounters directly, such as housing, green space, schools, traffic and environmental hazards.
4. The world at large refers to the broader context within which these physical environments are
created and maintained. This can include the impact of government policy and expenditure.
Here, we include the impact of a country’s actions not only within its borders, but also
externally.
5. The world we inherit refers to a country’s historical environmental record and actions, the
cumulative results of which are still being felt today.
6. The world we leave behind refers to a country’s current actions and progress, which will
influence the environment in the future.
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 9S E C T I O N 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
Figure 2 depicts key topics that are The design of the framework lends Finally, underpinning this analysis,
covered in this report within each itself to exploring interlinkages it is important to consider the
of these parts of the framework. within and between levels, as will potential role of the United Nations
be shown through an example Convention on the Rights of the
later in the report. Two other Child and of the 2030 Agenda
cross-cutting themes – children’s for Sustainable Development in
influence and inequalities – are providing opportunities for strong
relevant in each of the nested advocacy on environmental issues
circles. (see also Spotlight 1).
Figure 2: Topics covered in this Report Card
Management
of natural environment
Housing and Climate change
transport policy and natural disasters
Waste/ Renewable
recycling Basic home services energy
Emissions School Housing quality Space Food
Participation
Inequalities
playgrounds at home policy
Public
Play transport
Heat/cold
facilities
Toxicants Water quality Walkability
Green
Pesticides Air pollution
spaces
Traffic
Light Noise
pollution pollution
Physical health
Mental well-being
Skills
Footprint
Historical
Loss of
pollution
biodiversity
1 0 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7SECTION 2
A LEAGUE TABLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 1 1S E C T I O N 2 A L E A G U E T A B L E O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N D I T I O N S
SECTION 2
A LEAGUE TABLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
Figure 3 presents a league table Spain is at the top of the league The picture in Romania and Costa
based on the best available table – despite not being at the Rica is remarkably different from
indicators to represent the aspects top position in any of the individual that in the United States. In the
of environmental conditions set dimensions (it is ranked 8th for first two, children’s immediate
out in Figures 1 and 2. It contains the ‘world of the child’, and 13th environments are lacking (visible
three indicators in each of three for both the ‘world around the from their low scores in the ‘world
groupings – the world of the child, child’ and the ‘world at large’). of the child’ and ‘world around the
the world around the child and the This is illustrative of the pattern child’), but the countries are among
world at large. Box 1 describes that no country does consistently the least responsible for harming
the criteria we used in selecting well or consistently badly across the environment at large. The
the indicators for the league all dimensions. Spain is followed United States, in contrast, performs
table. Table 1 provides details of by Ireland, a country with good poorly in the ‘world at large’, while
the definition and source of each performance in the indicators there is also room for improvement
indicator, and also refers to the closest to the child but an average in the ‘world of the child’ and the
figure in the report that shows record at the macro-level. Romania ‘world around the child’.
country statistics for the indicator. lies at the bottom of the table,
where it is preceded by Costa Rica
and the United States of America.
BOX 1: HOW INDICATORS WERE SELECTED FOR THE LEAGUE TABLE
League table indicators were chosen to reflect different aspects of the framework presented in
Figure 1. The following criteria were used to select indicators.
Quality: Data had to meet high standards of quality, drawn either from national and internationally
recognized data sources, or from peer-reviewed publications.
Coverage: Data should be available for all, or the great majority, of the Innocenti Report Card 17
countries.
Recency: Data should be available for 2018 or later.
Relevance: Data should be relevant to cross-national comparisons.
Variability: There should be enough cross-national variability to be informative.
Comparability: The indicators should have comparable meanings across cultures.
1 2 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 2 A L E A G U E T A B L E O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N D I T I O N S
Figure 3: A league table of environmental conditions that affect children’s well-being
Overall ranking Country World of the child World around the child World at large
1 Spain 8 13 13
2 Ireland 6 4 20
3 Portugal 25 9 9
4 Cyprus 15 17 10
5 Finland 1 2 30
6 Italy 7 16 14
7 Iceland 3 1 32
8 Slovenia 19 14 16
9 Germany 13 6 22
10 Sweden 4 10 26
11 United Kingdom 11 12 23
12 Netherlands 12 8 27
13 Japan 2 21 25
14 Norway 5 5 35
15 New Zealand 24 15 17
16 France 14 27 18
17 Switzerland 21 3 33
18 Hungary 34 22 6
19 Austria 9 19 29
20 Czechia 26 23 21
21 Estonia 27 11 28
22 Lithuania 32 24 15
23 Croatia 29 33 5
24 Denmark 18 26 34
25 Slovakia 31 29 11
26 Greece 22 35 8
27 Poland 30 31 7
28 Canada 17 7 38
29 Malta 33 18 24
30 Australia 10 20 37
31 Latvia 36 30 12
32 Republic of Korea 16 32 31
33 Chile 35 37 3
34 Israel 23 36 19
35 Bulgaria 37 34 4
36 Belgium 28 25 36
37 United States 20 28 39
38 Costa Rica 38 38 1
39 Romania 39 39 2
Note: The ranking is calculated as follows: (1) a z-score for each indicator was calculated (reversed where necessary so that a higher score represents a
more positive condition); (2) the mean of the z-scores within each dimension was calculated; (3) the z-score for each mean was calculated and served as a
basis for ranking a given dimension; (4) the mean of the three ranks was calculated and served as a basis for the final ranking. If two countries had the same
average of three ranks, the average of z-scores was used to determine their position. Countries are ranked on a dimension if they have data for at least two
of the three indicators. Four OECD/EU countries are not included in the ranking: Colombia is excluded due to missing data on the ‘world around the child’
dimension, while Turkey, Mexico and Luxembourg are excluded as they are extreme outliers on at least one indicator (z-scores below -4.0).
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 1 3S E C T I O N 2 A L E A G U E T A B L E O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N D I T I O N S
Many countries perform quite prosperity is no guarantee The league table therefore
differently across the three that children will grow up in a presents a complex and multi-
dimensions, and not one nation healthy environment. In Canada faceted picture, which will be
shows consistently high or and Australia, present-day explored more fully in the following
low scores across them. The environments appear relatively sections. Overall, no country does
presence of wealthy countries child friendly, but the countries’ well across the board. There is
in some of the bottom positions unsustainable consumption substantial room for improvement,
(such as the United States and patterns threaten the future. even among those at the top of
Belgium) indicates that national the table.
Table 1: Details of indicators included in the league table
Dimension Figure Indicator Indicator definition Source
Global Burden of Disease Collaborative
Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) Network (2021). The Global Burden of
6 Air pollution lost to unsafe air per 1,000 children Disease Study 2019. Seattle, Institute
(S E C T I O N 2 A L E A G U E T A B L E O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N D I T I O N S
Spotlight 1 Children’s environments, children’s
rights and sustainable development
The United Nations Convention A very important development in terms of the
on the Rights of the Child environment and children’s rights is the decision
by the United Nations Committee on the Rights
There is a strong connection between the question
of the Child to draft a general comment (No.
of how the natural and the built environments
26) on children’s rights and the environment,
affect children and the promotion of children’s
with a special focus on climate change. The
rights under the United Nations Convention on the
general comment has the objective of providing
Rights of the Child (CRC).
“authoritative guidance on how children’s rights
1. First, there are clear direct links with article 6 of are impacted by the environmental crisis and what
the CRC (right to life, survival and development) governments must do to uphold these rights”. This
and article 24 (health), which references “a is a “major step to hold governments accountable
clean environment”. for ensuring children live in a clean, green, healthy
and sustainable world”.9 At the time of writing
2. In a broader sense, article 3 of the Convention
(January 2022), the consultation on this general
requires all actions “concerning children” to
comment is under way.
consider the best interests of the child. Many
Report Card countries have implemented
this broadly, in requiring child rights impact
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
assessments for legislation, while others
Development
have incorporated the CRC into law. These are
important measures that can be used to ensure A second global instrument that is highly relevant
that the impact of environment on children is to the content of this report is the 2030 Agenda
fully considered in decision making and policy. for Sustainable Development. A majority of the
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have
3. Another link with the CRC is the non-
an environmental focus. While many aspects on
discrimination principle embedded in article 2.
the agenda that focus on environment relate to all
This report has highlighted how environmental
age groups, sustainable development will naturally
risks are distributed unequally and weigh most
benefit children, and it provides a framework by
heavily on children living in poverty and other
which progress on reducing the adverse effects of
already disadvantaged groups.
environmental risks on children can be monitored.
4. This report has also highlighted the need and A relevant example from the list of SDG indicators
potential to involve children in environmental is the level of air pollution. As discussed in Section
debates and decisions. Article 12 requires 3, children are more vulnerable than adults to the
that a child “who is capable of forming his or negative impacts of air pollution.
her own views” has the right to express them,
and for these views to be given due weight
“in all matters affecting the child”. Children have
amply demonstrated their ability to form and
express their views on environmental issues,
and these are certainly matters that affect
them.
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 1 5S E C T I O N 2 A L E A G U E T A B L E O F E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N D I T I O N S
Spotlight 1 Children’s environments, children’s
rights and sustainable development
Figure 4 shows how much improvement there has Rica, Japan, the Republic of Korea and Turkey.
been in air quality over the past three decades While Australia, New Zealand and Iceland have
in Report Card countries. Countries are ordered comparatively low levels of air pollution, they have
according to their most recent level of air pollution. made only small improvements in recent decades.
While many countries have made substantial The chart illustrates how much has still to be done
progress, the chart shows that there is still much to ensure healthy air for all children (and adults) to
to do. Compared to 1990, air quality has remained breathe.
broadly the same or worsened in Chile, Costa
Figure 4: Over the last decades, air quality has improved in 38 out of 43 OECD/EU countries
Mean population exposure to fine particulate matter PM2.5 (1990–2019)
35
30
PM2.5 micrograms per cubic metre
25
20
15
10
5
0
Finland
Sweden
Estonia
New Zealand
Iceland
Australia
Norway
Canada
United States
Ireland
Portugal
Denmark
Spain
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Luxembourg
Lithuania
France
Germany
Netherlands
Austria
Belgium
Latvia
Malta
Japan
Greece
Romania
Italy
Cyprus
Hungary
Czechia
Slovenia
Costa Rica
Slovakia
Israel
Bulgaria
Mexico
Colombia
Croatia
Poland
Chile
Turkey
Republic of Korea
2019 1990
Source: OECD, ,
accessed 16 February 2022.
1 6 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7SECTION 3
THE WORLD
OF THE CHILD
© Lainey Molnar
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
SECTION 3
THE WORLD OF THE CHILD
Children’s well-being and considering children’s
development are directly and consumption of air, water and
tangibly affected by their interface food, and their exposure to heat/
with the environments around cold, light, noise and hazardous
them. This section presents substances.
evidence on those pathways –
world at large
The
lduant d
waorro lartge
Tohreld he
w ch
he il
T
d
around
orld of the c
w ld the hil
he wor c
e
T
d
hi
Th
ld
rld of the
wo c
e
hi
The child
Th
ld
The child
The world
The world
we will leave
we inherit
behind
1 8 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Air Figure 5: Many children in OECD/EU countries live with high levels of
air pollution
Air pollution from chemicals and
gases released through energy Mean population exposure to PM2.5 (2019)
use and production directly affects
our health. In Europe, polluted air Finland 5.6
contributes to more deaths than Sweden 5.7
Estonia 5.9
tobacco.10
New Zealand 6.1
Children are more vulnerable to air Iceland 6.4
pollution than are adults, because Australia 6.7
they have a smaller lung capacity Norway 6.7
and a less-developed immune Canada 7.1
system. Being shorter than adults, United States 7.7
they are also closer to ground Ireland 7.8
level, where pollution typically Portugal 8.2
Denmark 9.8
accumulates. Air pollution starts
Spain 10.0
to harm children even before they
Switzerland 10.0
are born – toxic air inhaled by a
United Kingdom 10.0
pregnant woman can lead to faster
Luxembourg 10.1
cell ageing of the foetus.11 Lithuania 10.5
Fine particulate matter in outdoor France 11.4
air is a common indicator of air Germany 11.9
quality: the small diameter of such Netherlands 12.0
Austria 12.2
matter allows it to penetrate deep
Belgium 12.7
into the respiratory tract.
Latvia 12.7
Malta 13.1
Japan 13.6
Greece 14.3
Romania 15.1
Cyprus 15.8
Italy 15.8
Hungary 16.6
Czechia 17.0
Slovenia 17.1
Costa Rica 17.4
Slovakia 18.5
Israel 19.4
Bulgaria 19.9
Mexico 20.1
Colombia 22.5
Croatia 22.5
Poland 22.8
Chile 23.7
Turkey 26.9
Republic of Korea 27.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Micrograms per cubic metre
Source: OECD, ,
accessed 16 February 2022.
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 1 9S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Outdoor air quality is not the Figure 6: In the average country, a child is 10 times more likely to suffer from
only issue. The quality of indoor outdoor than indoor air pollution
air is affected by factors such Air-related morbidity of children under the age of 15 (2019)
as cooking and smoking. This
Finland
presents fundamental risks to Japan
children’s health and survival. Estonia
Child morbidity attributable to Norway
air pollution shows substantial Iceland
variation across Report Card Spain
countries (see Figure 6). We use Portugal
disability adjusted life years Sweden
(DALYs) to account for the number Ireland
of years of ‘healthy’ life lost due Luxembourg
to pollution. Ambient particulate Slovenia
matter and household air pollution Lithuania
from solid fuels (used for heating Australia
Italy
or cooking) are jointly responsible
New Zealand
for a substantial loss of years of
Belgium
healthy life among children under
Austria
the age of 15. Overall, Colombia
France
(3.7) and Mexico (3.7) had the Germany
highest number of years of ‘healthy Czechia
life’ lost due to air pollution, while Republic of Korea
Japan (0.2) and Finland (0.2) Cyprus
have the lowest values. Switzerland
Netherlands
Latvia
Water Denmark
Water is one of the essential United Kingdom
building blocks of human life, Greece
but universal access to safe and Canada
clean water is not yet a reality in Hungary
all Report Card countries. This is Israel
Croatia
reflected in years of healthy life
United States
lost per per 1,000 children (aged
Poland
0-14) attributable to an unsafe
Slovakia
water source, unsafe sanitation,
Malta
or no handwashing facilities in
Chile
the home (see Figure 7). Safe Costa Rica
water, sanitation and handwashing Bulgaria
facilities are far from being fully Romania
implemented in 13 countries. Most Turkey
years of healthy life lost are in Mexico
Mexico (3.8 years lost per 1,000 Colombia
children), Colombia (3.7) and Turkey
0,0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 3,5 4,0
(2.7). The quality of essential
services in these countries remains Outdoor air pollution Indoor air pollution
an important threat to children’s DALYs per 1,000 children
health and survival.
Source: OECD Environment Database, ‘Mortality, morbidity and welfare cost from exposure to
environment-related risks’ accessed
on 20 March 2022
2 0 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Figure 7: Children lose more years of life from unsafe water than from inadequate sanitation and handwashing
facilities put together
Water-related morbidity of children under the age of 15 (2019)
Republic of Korea
Japan
Norway
Netherlands
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Finland
Germany
Sweden
Iceland
Spain
Denmark
Luxembourg
Ireland
Malta
Greece
Belgium
France
Italy
United States
Israel
Cyprus
Austria
Canada
Australia
Portugal
New Zealand
Slovenia
Czechia
Chile
Slovakia
Poland
Croatia
Hungary
Estonia
Bulgaria
Latvia
Lithuania
Costa Rica
Romania
Turkey
Colombia
Mexico
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Unsafe water source Unsafe sanitation No access to handwashing facility
DALYs per 1,000 children
Source: OECD Environment Database, ‘Mortality, morbidity and welfare cost from exposure to environment-related risks’ accessed on 20 March 2022
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 2 1S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Heat and cold Figure 8: In six countries, at least 1 family in 10 with children finds it difficult
to heat their home
The ability to control the indoor
temperature is important in Percentage of households with children that have difficulty heating their
homes (2019)
maintaining safe temperatures in
locations with cold winters and/ Switzerland
or hot summers. There are also
Iceland
safety issues: burning solid fuels
like wood may generate adequate Norway
warmth but can also pollute the air Estonia
indoors. Slovenia
Many households in high-income Finland
countries struggle to keep the Austria
house warm in winter, and this
Sweden
issue is strongly linked to socio-
economic inequalities. Among Germany
31 European countries, poor Luxembourg
households with children were Czechia
more than twice as likely to have
Netherlands
difficulties keeping their home
warm as non-poor households with Poland
children (see Figure 8). Denmark
Belgium
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
France
United Kingdom
Malta
Slovakia
Latvia
Spain
Romania
Italy
Portugal
Greece
Lithuania
Cyprus
Bulgaria
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
All households (%) Poor households (%)
Percentage of households with children
Note: Chart refers to 2019, except Iceland and United Kingdom (2018). Poor households defined as below
60 per cent of median equivalized income.
Source: European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) (indicator ilc_mdes01).
2 2 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Light Figure 9: In nine countries, over a tenth of poor children live without
sufficient light
A bright home, with plenty of
daylight, can support the mood Percentage of children living in homes that are too dark, by poverty status
(2019)
of children.12 Outdoor spaces
at home, such as gardens or
Italy
balconies, make it easier for
children to enjoy direct sunlight, Norway
which improves their immune Iceland
systems (via the production
Netherlands
of vitamin D) and reduces the
Slovakia
likelihood of chronic conditions,
such as multiple sclerosis, in Denmark
adulthood.13 Czechia
However, nocturnal light pollution Estonia
(exposure to artificial light at night)
Finland
has adverse effects on children’s
Cyprus
sleep.14 Sleep quality and duration
are key predictors of the three Slovenia
child outcomes at the heart of Germany
our model: well-being, health and
Croatia
skills. Therefore, sleep disruption
should not be taken lightly. The Poland
combination of nocturnal light Greece
pollution and underexposure
Austria
to daylight is associated with
higher risks of cancer and other Romania
diseases.15 Switzerland
In European countries, many Sweden
homes do not have adequate Spain
lighting (see Figure 9). The
Luxembourg
proportion of children living in such
conditions ranges from less than Lithuania
3 per cent in Italy, Norway, Iceland, Bulgaria
the Netherlands and Slovakia, France
to almost 20 per cent in Turkey.
Belgium
In almost all countries, children
living in relative household income Ireland
poverty are noticeably more likely Portugal
to be living in homes that are too
Latvia
dark.
Hungary
Malta
Turkey
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Children in all households Children in poor households
Percentage of children
Note: Chart refers to 2019 (2018 for Iceland and Turkey). The United Kingdom is excluded as data was
marked as ‘unreliable’. Poor defined as below 60 per cent of median equivalized income.
Source: EU-SILC (indicator ilc_mdho04c).
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 2 3S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Noise Figure 10: In many European countries, over a tenth of families with children
are affected by noise
Noise – both indoor and outdoor
– is an environmental hazard that Percentage of households with children affected by noise, by poverty status
(2019)
can have serious consequences for
children. Noise pollution is linked
to various adverse health effects, Croatia
including poor birth outcomes, Estonia
stress, cognitive functioning and Ireland
school performance. Traffic and
Bulgaria
aircraft noise increases stress
responses in children.16 There is Iceland
also a relationship between noise Hungary
and cardiovascular disease in Finland
both children and adults.17 Figure
Slovakia
10 shows the percentage of
households in European countries Norway
that are affected by noise. In most Poland
countries, the rate is higher among
Italy
poorer households.
Slovenia
Latvia
Lithuania
Spain
Czechia
Cyprus
Belgium
Sweden
Denmark
Switzerland
Austria
Romania
France
Greece
Luxembourg
United Kingdom
Germany
Portugal
Netherlands
Malta
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
All households (%) Poor households (%)
Percentage of households with children
Note: Chart refers to 2019, except Iceland and United Kingdom (2018). Poor defined as below 60 pr cent
of median equivalized income.
Source: EU-SILC (indicator ilc_mddw01).
2 4 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Hazardous substances Children can encounter lead at
Hazardous substances can affect home from various sources –
children before they are even born cosmetics, paints and pigments,
(see Spotlight 2). toys, clothing, jewellery, dishes
and cookware, and even water
While there are many hazardous pipes and fixtures may all contain
and toxic substances, suitable, lead.25 Lead can even enter our
comparative data on health food supplies through the soil
impacts for Report Card countries or water.26 Historical pollution
are only available for lead and from leaded petrol can still be
pesticide pollution. found in soils around the world.27
Lead pollution In the past, lead was present
in children’s products, such as
Lead poisoning affects hundreds
painted toys. Today, it can still
of millions of children globally.18
feature in lead-glazed ceramics
Lead is a neurological and
(e.g., in Mexico), lead pellets used
cardiovascular toxicant, which
in hunting (a major source of lead
is globally responsible for more
among children who eat wild game
deaths than malaria, war and
in Norway), new paint, and in
terrorism, or natural disasters.19
spices that are mixed with lead to
Not only does it affect children’s
increase the weight or add colour
bodily functions, but it also has
(often produced in South Asia, but
adverse effects on attention
imported around the world).28
span, memory (both long and
short term) and the ability to plan There are no safe levels of lead
and solve problems.20 It can also – the detrimental effects of lead
increase aggression and antisocial exposure appear even at very low
behaviour.21 Boys are especially levels of lead concentration in the
vulnerable to brain damage and bloodstream.29 In all Report Card
cognitive impairment due to lead countries, at least 1 child in a 100
poisoning,22 probably because had elevated levels of lead in the
higher levels of oestrogen blood (see Figure 12). In most
and oestradiol in girls act as countries, the proportion is more
neuroprotectants.23 The exposure than 1 in 50; and in Costa Rica
of girls to lead early on in life, or and Mexico, 13 per cent and 31
even in the womb, may disrupt per cent of children, respectively,
their hormonal patterns and has have elevated levels of lead in
been associated with delayed their blood. Explanations for the
puberty.24 high figure in Mexico could include
the use of lead-glazed ceramic
tableware and the less-stringent
regulation of lead content in paints
used in the home.30
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 2 5S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Figure 11: In nine OECD/EU countries, more than 1 child in 20 is being Pesticide pollution
poisoned by lead
Agricultural activities interact
Percentage of children with levels of lead in the blood of over 5 μg/decilitre with the environment in a myriad
(2019)
of ways. First, and perhaps most
obviously, agricultural activities
Finland 1.0%
require land: according to recent
Iceland 1.1%
Sweden 1.2%
estimates, 37 per cent of the
Luxembourg 1.3% global land surface is used for
United Kingdom 1.4% agriculture.31 The clearing of
Japan 1.5% land for crops and grazing, and
Italy 1.5% poor agricultural practices, are
United States 1.5% major drivers of environment
Austria 1.5% degradation.32 Moreover,
Netherlands 1.6% agriculture, forestry and other
Canada 1.6%
land use are responsible for 24
Norway 1.8%
per cent of global greenhouse gas
Australia 1.8%
emissions.33
Cyprus 1.9%
Slovenia 2.0% Agricultural activities can also
Ireland 2.0% release toxic materials that
Germany 2.1%
have a direct impact on physical
France 2.2%
health. Children are at higher risk
Denmark 2.2%
than adults of suffering serious
Turkey 2.4%
Republic of Korea 2.5%
health effects from exposure
Israel 2.8% to pesticides. Such pollution
Spain 2.8% has been linked to damage to
Chile 2.9% children’s nervous, cardiovascular,
Switzerland 3.2% genitourinary, digestive,
Czechia 3.2% reproductive, endocrine, blood and
Greece 3.4% immune systems. It has also been
Slovakia 3.6% associated with cancer, including
Poland 3.6% childhood leukaemia. And it can
Croatia 3.6%
cause harm to skin and eyes, as
Colombia 3.8%
well as developmental delays.34
Estonia 3.8%
3.8%
Early exposure to pesticides may
New Zealand
Lithuania 3.9% likewise be linked to attention
Bulgaria 5.0% deficit disorder and autism
Portugal 5.3% spectrum disorder, although more
Hungary 5.4% research is needed on this topic.35
Latvia 5.6%
Malta 7.6%
Belgium 7.8%
Romania 10.1%
Costa Rica 13.4%
Mexico 31.1%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Percentage of children with elevated lead blood levels
Source: Own calculations based on number of children with elevated levels of lead in the blood from
Rees and Fuller (2021) and United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2021) population
projections.
2 6 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Figure 12: In most OECD/EU countries, more than 1 child in 20 lives in an
area of high pesticide risk
Percentage of children under 18 living in areas with high pesticide pollution
risk (2019)
Denmark 0%
Estonia 0%
Finland 0%
Iceland 0%
Latvia 0%
Malta 0%
Slovakia 0%
Slovenia 0%
Sweden 0%
Austria 0.1%
Croatia 0.1%
Germany 0.1%
Lithuania 0.1%
Luxembourg 0.1%
Romania 0.2%
Bulgaria 0.3%
Australia 1.0%
New Zealand 1.7%
Ireland 1.8%
United States 2.7%
Norway 2.9%
Mexico 4.2%
Hungary 4.7%
Chile 5.4%
Greece 5.4%
Japan 5.4%
France 5.8%
United Kingdom 6.2%
Canada 6.3%
Cyprus 6.7%
Spain 6.7%
Portugal 7.6%
Republic of Korea 7.7%
Italy 7.8%
Turkey 7.8%
Colombia 8.1%
Costa Rica 8.3%
Switzerland 8.4%
Netherlands 8.6%
Belgium 8.9%
Israel 8.9%
Poland 9.1%
Czechia 9.7%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percentage of children living in areas with high pesticide pollution risk
Source: UNICEF (2021).
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 2 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Spotlight 2 Child brain development in the
womb is particularly sensitive to environmental
chemicals – results from the NeuroTox study
Chemical pollution is a continuously increasing pregnant women’s blood and urine, and the later
problem and among the largest threats to child risks to their children of ADHD, ASD and cognitive
health and development worldwide. Since the impairment.
1950s, over 140,000 chemicals and pesticides
The findings show a number of connections:
have been produced, 36 most of which have never
been tested for child safety or for any toxic effect 1. Elevated maternal levels of some phthalates 40
on the developing brain. Meanwhile, since the and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
1980s, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (PFASs) 41 were associated with a reduction in
(ADHD) and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) have cognitive functions (such as working memory)
come to be diagnosed increasingly frequently in the child (see Figure 13).
in developed countries, leading to concerns
2. Elevated maternal levels of several toxic
that hazardous substances in the environment
metals (cadmium, lead and arsenic) 42 and of
may be among the causes of these disorders.37
PFASs (e.g. perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and
Environmental toxicants in our food and drinking
perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS)) 43 were
water, in appliances, cosmetics and the air may
associated with increased risk of ADHD and/or
adversely affect child brain development, even as
ASD in the child.
the foetus grows in the womb.
3. Some plastic toxicants (organophosphate esters
Expectant mothers are exposed to chemicals
(OPEs) and phthalates) were associated with
daily, and some of them are stored in the body
increased risk of ADHD.44
for long periods of time. During pregnancy and
breastfeeding, toxicants can pass from mother These toxic chemicals are found in food, drinking
to child. Infants are also exposed to toxicants water as well as in everyday items that we cook
through the food, water and consumer products with and store our food in, put on our bodies and
they come into contact with. Young children’s consume: packaging, utensils, pots and pans,
bodies are less able than those of adults to cosmetics, fabrics and even medical products.
protect themselves from toxic chemicals, and The burden of mental health conditions
their brains are particularly sensitive to the attributable to pollution, and in particular
impact of these. Levels that would be considered hazardous chemicals in the environment, is hugely
tolerable for adults may be harmful for children, 38 underestimated.45 The results from the NeuroTox
and may cause irreversible effects that emerge study indicate the need for stronger global action
in later childhood and adolescence, including to increase knowledge of the harmful impact
mental health and behavioural problems, learning of chemical exposure, and to prevent early life
disabilities and cognitive impairments.39 exposure to toxicants.
The NeuroTox study investigated pregnant
women’s exposure to toxins and the subsequent
development of their children, using 3,500
mother–child pairs from the Norwegian Mother,
Father and Child Cohort study. On the basis of
these data, the study explored the potential link
between the levels of environmental toxicants in
2 8 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
Figure 13: Impact of hazardous chemicals in the environment on child brain development
Metals Organophosphate Phthalates Per- and polyfluoroalkyl
esters substances
Cognitive
function
ASD
ADHD
Cadmium Lead BDCIPP DEHP MBzP PFOS PFOA
Arsenic DPHP DiNP DBPs PFAS Carboxylate
mixture PFAS
Toxicants
Note: Toxicants are colour-coded by group: metals in green; OPEs in orange; phthalates in navy blue; and PFASs in turquoise. Darker filled
boxes denote an adverse effect, while a lighter shade indicates no finding or not yet investigated. Grey boxes indicate that the relationship
was not tested.
DPHD = diphenyl phosphate; BDCIPP = bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate; DiNP = diisononyl phthalate; DEHP = di(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate; DBP = Dibutyl phthalate (including mono-n-butyl phthalate and mono-iso-butyl phthalate); MBzP = mono-benzyl phthalate.
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 2 9S E C T I O N 3 T
H E W O R L D O F T H E C H I L D
3 0 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7SECTION 4
THE WORLD AROUND THE CHILD
© Kari Moden
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 3 1SECTION 4
THE WORLD AROUND THE CHILD
This section looks at the aspects
of the natural and built
world at large
The
environment with which children
interact directly. The quality,
enjoyability and safety of homes
and surrounding public spaces
influence children’s daily lives.
They have implications for the
lduant d
waorro lartge
Tohreld he children’s physical and mental
w ch health, as well as for their
he il
cognitive, emotional and social
T
d
development. Interactions
between housing quality and
around
orld of the c the quality of local surroundings
w ld the hil
he wor c further shape children’s well-
e
T
d
being. Issues to do with transport
hi
Th
ld
systems and mobility likewise
rld of the have many implications for
wo c children’s well-being and
e
hi
The child
Th
development. Our focus is on the
ld
links between these factors and
children’s outcomes: mental
The child well-being, physical health
and skills.
The world
The world
we will leave
we inherit
behind
3 2 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 4 T H E W O R L D A R O U N D T H E C H I L D
The home Figure 14: In 22 countries, over a tenth of children live in a damp house
Children, especially in the early Percentage of children living in a dwelling with damp or mould (2019)
years, spend much of their time
indoors at home.46 They are Finland 4.2%
particularly susceptible to the
Slovakia 5.6%
effects of the home environment
– not only because of the amount Malta 7.1%
of time they spend in it, but Norway 8.0%
also because of their unique Sweden 8.3%
physiological, biological and social
Czechia 8.4%
characteristics. Their immune
systems are still developing, they Croatia 9.5%
tend to breathe more rapidly and Austria 10.1%
have more hand-to-mouth activity
Poland 11%
than adults, rendering them more
Romania 11%
exposed to pollutants.47 Therefore,
better conditions inside the home Greece 11.5%
can go a long way in promoting France 12.8%
children’s health and development.
Italy 12.8%
Section 3 discussed the way in Bulgaria 12.9%
which the presence and quality of
Estonia 13.5%
facilities in the home can affect
children’s well-being. For example, Ireland 13.8%
a lack of safe cooking or heating Switzerland 13.8%
facilities forces families to burn
Germany 14.6%
solid fuels, which pollute indoor air.
Lithuania 15.2%
Similarly, even if the infrastructure
of water is adequate, basic Spain 15.5%
facilities need to be present in the Netherlands 15.9%
home for children to benefit fully
Denmark 17.6%
from them.
Luxembourg 18.4%
Damp
Belgium 18.8%
Damp and mould are major
Slovenia 19.3%
environmental risk factors within
the home. Upper respiratory Latvia 20.5%
infections, asthma and bronchitis United Kingdom 21.7%
are substantially and significantly
Iceland 23.9%
associated with mould and damp
in the dwelling.48 For instance, Portugal 24.7%
estimates of the proportion of Cyprus 25.7%
asthma cases attributable to these Hungary 28.3%
factors ranges from 6 per cent in
Turkey 39.8%
one study in the Netherlands to
20 per cent in another study in 0 10 20 30 40 50
the United States.49 According to
Percentage of children living in a dwelling with damp or mould
European data, even in Finland –
the highest-ranked country –
Notes: Indicator refers to the child population living in a dwelling with a leaking roof, damp walls, floors or
more than 1 child in 25 lives in foundation, or rot in window frames or doors. Data refer to 2019 (2018 for Iceland and Turkey).
Source: EU-SILC (indicator ilc_mdho01c).
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 3 3S E C T I O N 4 T H E W O R L D A R O U N D T H E C H I L D
a home with wet walls, mould or Figure 15: In the average country, one household in nine is overcrowded
rotting doors or window frames. Percentage of households living in an overcrowded dwelling (2019)
In Turkey, Hungary, Cyprus,
Portugal, Iceland, the United
Canada 0.7%
Kingdom and Latvia, more than
New Zealand 0.8%
one child in five is exposed to
Malta 1.6%
damp and mould.
Japan 1.6%
Space in the home can affect Cyprus 1.7%
various aspects of children’s lives,
Ireland 1.8%
including their health, social
Spain 3.0%
relationships, privacy and
United States 4.2%
academic performance.
Overcrowding in the home creates Netherlands 4.3%
social tension (including between Portugal 5.0%
adult members and children) and Switzerland 5.1%
has a negative effect on the quality Republic of Korea 5.2%
of parent–child relationships and Belgium 5.9%
household members’ physical United Kingdom 5.9%
and mental health. Surveys have Germany 6.1%
found overcrowding to be related
France 6.5%
to socio-economic status, meaning
Luxembourg 7.2%
that lower-income households are
Norway 7.3%
more likely to have inadequate
living space.50 Insufficient space Slovenia 8.7%
at home can contribute to the Finland 8.9%
intergenerational transmission of Denmark 9.1%
social inequalities. Iceland 9.2%
Chile 9.3%
The home environment also plays
an important role in children’s Estonia 9.9%
education – particularly since Hungary 11.3%
the COVID-19 pandemic forced Czechia 11.6%
schools to close and students to Austria 12.4%
study at home. Overcrowding has Sweden 14.4%
strong adverse effects on learning Lithuania 14.7%
outcomes.51,52 In Latvia and Greece 18.1%
Mexico, more than one household
Italy 18.9%
in three, and in Slovakia, Bulgaria,
Slovakia 25.7%
Croatia, Romania and Poland,
Bulgaria 27.0%
more than one in four, suffers
Croatia 28.1%
from overcrowding (see Figure
15). Households in Canada and Romania 29.2%
New Zealand have the most space Poland 29.4%
available at home, with less than Latvia 33.1%
1 per cent of them experiencing Mexico 33.2%
overcrowding.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Percentage of households living in an overcrowded dwelling
Source: OECD Affordable Housing Database, , accessed 16 February 2022.
3 4 I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7S E C T I O N 4 T H E W O R L D A R O U N D T H E C H I L D
Having a quiet space of one’s own Figure 16: In an average country, one in seven 15-year-olds lacks facilities
provides both privacy and a good for studying
environment in which to study. Percentage of schoolchildren aged 15 with their own desk and a quiet place
On average, almost 9 adolescents to study (2018)
in 10 (86 per cent, unweighted
average) in Report Card countries Lithuania 94%
said they had their own desk and Switzerland 93%
a quiet place to study in 2018 (see Romania 93%
Figure 16). However, more than Austria 92%
30 per cent of 15-year-olds in Norway 92%
Chile, Mexico and Colombia did Poland 92%
not have these facilities. In all the Slovenia 92%
countries included in the OECD Germany 92%
Programme for International Portugal 92%
France 92%
Student Assessment (PISA),
Hungary 92%
children who had a quiet place
Latvia 91%
to study at home registered
Netherlands 91%
higher science test scores than
Iceland 91%
children who did not. However,
Luxembourg 91%
this difference in test scores is
Israel 91%
probably not caused solely by Estonia 91%
having a quiet place to study. Belgium 91%
The socio-economic position of Spain 91%
the family, for instance, could Finland 90%
affect both student performance Czechia 89%
and the space available in the Italy 89%
home. In other words, some of Denmark 88%
the relationship between test Sweden 87%
scores and private space could Greece 86%
be explained away by household Slovakia 84%
socio-economic status. Malta 84%
Croatia 83%
This issue of educational Ireland 83%
inequalities related to the home Japan 83%
learning environment has come Republic of Korea 83%
to the fore during the lockdowns Canada 82%
triggered by the COVID-19 United Kingdom 82%
pandemic. Children have been Australia 82%
educated at a distance for lengthy Turkey 81%
periods of time, and many New Zealand 79%
households, particularly poorer Bulgaria 77%
ones, have lacked the space and United States 73%
equipment for this to happen Costa Rica 73%
effectively. Chile 69%
Mexico 66%
Colombia 57%
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of adolescents with a desk and a quiet place to study
Source: PISA 2018.
I N N O C E N T I R E P O R T C A R D 1 7 3 5You can also read
