Monitoring health misinformation in Nigeria: Africa Check
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Monitoring health misinformation
in Nigeria:
A collection of potentially harmful
claims from May to July 2020
J
January
This study was conducted by a group of researchers from the Department of Mass Communication at
the University of Lagos as part of a health misinformation fact-checking project in Nigeria. It contains a
J
collection of potentially false and harmful health claims that circulated in the public domain during the
May to July 2020 period. It is the third in a series of quarterly reports that will be shared with the
network of journalists, fact-checkers, health experts and policymakers to increase the uptake of
evidence-based health information in Nigeria. The project is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation.
Published under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
August 2020
INTRODUCTION
Misinformation can be described as information that is false, but which the disseminator believes to be
factual (Amobi, Obia, Udodi, & Akinuliola, 2019). This includes false claims surrounding health issues,
shared ignorantly by people who believe them to be true and without the intention to harm the
consumer.
Even though the intent of the creator or purveyor of the misinformation might not be to cause outright
harm, health misinformation has potentially damaging implications for the health of the population. Kim
(2019) argues that widespread health misinformation is a cause for alarm, as it has the possibility to
create public health crises. In agreement, Zielinski (2020) notes that in Nigeria, it is undermining medical
advice, proffering fake cures, and inciting panic.
A prime example from Nigeria is contained in a video which although has been taken down by Facebook,
Twitter and YouTube, is still circulating on WhatsApp. This video contains the unsubstantiated claim by
Dr. Stella Immanuel, a Nigerian trained General Practitioner in the U.S. that she has treated over 350
patients of COVID-19 with a combination of Hydroxychloroquine, Zinc and Zithromax (Moshood, 2020).
Although, the Nigerian Guild of Medical Directors and Clinical Pharmacists Association of Nigeria have
challenged her claim as lacking in scientific evidence (Folorunsho-Francis, 2020), the video continues to
be shared among several groups on the WhatsApp platform.
Health misinformation in Nigeria ranges from rumours, such as claims that bathing with salt water will
cure Ebola, to ethnically based beliefs and superstitions, such as the claim among the Igbos of Southeast
Nigeria that palm oil poured on a red-hot knife can disinfect and cure a cut or nail puncture on the feet,
to misperceptions about causes of diseases and illnesses, their modes of transmission and treatment,
and the herbal concoctions which can treat them. Social media gives people without medical
backgrounds and self-proclaimed “herbal” doctors the ability to disseminate health misinformation to a
wide range of people, and exacerbates the risks posed by it.
The biggest challenge is that misinformation drowns official public health advice, making it difficult for
the voices of healthcare professionals to be heard. The fallout can be dangerous, and can range from a
patient suffering unnecessarily and protractedly from a treatable condition, to outbreaks of an entirely
preventable disease (Kaltwasser, 2019). There is a dire need for rapid verifications of claims and
awareness among consumers about the nature and dangerous implications of health misinformation.
This research sought to identify the prevalent examples of health misinformation in Nigeria, what
motivated their creation and the potential harm to the consumers of such messages. It covers the
circulation of false health claims for the period May to July 2020 and was guided by the following
research questions:
1. What are the prevalent examples of health misinformation in Nigeria?
2. What are the sources and channels of dissemination of health misinformation in Nigeria?
3. What are the motives behind the formulation and spread of health misinformation in Nigeria?
4. What are the potential harms of health misinformation in Nigeria?
2
COMMUNITY BELIEFS
Brief description of claim Origin/Platform circulated on Motivation for Potential harm
dissemination
It is claimed that Neem leaves This belief is increasingly becoming The uncertainty, Reliance on this
(Dogonyaro), Guava leaves, Pawpaw popular among some Nigerians. It is fear and remedy may result
leaves, Lemongrass, Mango leaves and largely circulated via interpersonal desperation in people not
Lime leaves, can be used to prevent and networks and private social media resulting from seeking prompt
cure COVID-19. To process: Put leaves in platforms, such as WhatsApp. the medical help when
water and bring to boil for about 30 unavailability of they are infected
minutes. Remove from heat, cover a preventive with the
yourself with a blanket while leaning vaccine or Coronavirus, thus
towards the pot to inhale the steam from highly effective placing their lives at
the liquid. Do this for about 15 minutes. therapeutics for risk.
COVID-19, may
be driving the
claim.
Neem leaves
Guava leaves
Pawpaw leaves
Lemongrass
Mango leaves
Lime leaves
3
It is claimed that Okra (Abelmoschus This belief is common among the To perhaps This claim could
esculentus) popularly known as Ila Yoruba community in Southwest provide a misinform pregnant
amongst the Yorubas, helps force out Nigeria. It is circulated by traditional traditional women as the claim
babies during childbirth. health practitioners and other method for has not been
interpersonal networks, such as hastening the scientifically
family and friends. It is believed by labor and proven.
the Yorubas to be an effective delivery
assistance for easy child birth process.
amongst pregnant women.
Okra
It is claimed that Ragleaf or Okinawa This belief is common among the To provide Belief in this claim
Spinach, also Gynura crepidioides (Efo Yoruba community in Southwest traditional may negatively
Ebolo in Yoruba) helps in the treatment Nigeria. It is circulated by traditional medicine for drive health seeking
of heart diseases. To process: the health practitioners and other treating heart behaviors, as
vegetable is soaked in water to extract interpersonal networks, such as diseases, and individuals
the juice, which is then taken for two family and friends. promote local confronted with
weeks. alternative heart diseases may
herbal be tempted to
remedies. adopt this herbal
remedy, as
opposed to seeking
treatment from
medical experts.
Ragleaf
It is claimed that adding lime juice to a This is a common belief among the To provide Since this claim is
hot drink called Schnapps is an effective Yoruba community in Southwest traditional not subjected to
remedy against dizziness. Nigeria. It is circulated by traditional medicine for any scientific
health practitioners and other treating laboratory testing,
interpersonal networks, such as dizziness. its potential risks
family and friends. and side effects for
the consumer are
unknown. It may
also prevent people
from seeking
Lime Juice medical treatment
for dizziness from
experts, thus
placing their lives at
risk.
4
A series of claims were made about These claims are held as cultural These claims are Although there are
Yoruba community beliefs. Some of them community beliefs amongst the all related to no serious harms
include the claims that when a pregnant Yorubas. They were culled from an cultural beliefs associated with
woman walks under the sun, she will give article about Yoruba beliefs which that have some of the claims,
birth to a disfigured child; that beating a was published on NG Pulse formed over they could lead to
male child with a broom will render him many not seeking proper
impotent, and that drinking of coconut generations. medical care, or
water will make a person ‘dull’. The motivation cultivate false
for the media beliefs that prevent
platform to optimal health. For
publish it, was example, the
most likely to disfigured child
inform or claim could prevent
provide women from
interesting getting some of the
reading about benefits from the
Coconut Water
traditional sun, like vitamin D;
health beliefs the potency claim
and practices could mislead men
among the into attributing
Yorubas. their impotency to
having been beaten
with a broom in the
past and prevent
them from seeking
medical help; while
the coconut water
claim could wrongly
attribute and
prevent people
from seeking
appropriate care
for children with
developmental
problems.
5
SOCIAL MEDIA HEALTH MISINFORMATION CLAIMS
FACEBOOK
Brief description of claim Source/Platform Motivation for Potential Harm
circulated on dissemination
It is claimed that Wormwood or Artemisia These claims were posted Possibly to promote Believing the claim might
Absinthium, (called Ewe Egbin in Yoruba), on Facebook. Nigerian plants and lead people to ignore the
Guava leaf (Psidium guajava), Paw-paw remedies, and provide safety measures
leaves with Ginger, Turmeric and Garlic, They also circulated on ‘natural’ preventive prescribed by the Nigeria
Coconut oil, all available in Nigeria, can WhatsApp. measures against Centre for Disease
be taken to cure COVID-19. COVID-19. Control (NCDC) and
medical experts.
Wormwood
Guava plant
Ginger
Pawpaw
Turmeric (ata Ile pupa in Yoruba)
6
It is also claimed that three leaves of
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus
Labillardiere) boiled for two minutes, aids
in the cleaning of the lungs. Similarly,
inhaling a pinch of Aboniki balm added to
a cup of boiled water clears the lungs,
thus preventing COVID-19.
Eucalyptus leaves
Aboniki balm
It is claimed that tea made from Guava This claim was posted on To perhaps inform the This might drive people to
leaves helps hair growth, cures Facebook public on the health depend solely on guava
stomachache, coughs and bronchitis, and benefits of guava leaf leaf tea to treat
aids with weight loss through suppressing tea. stomachache, coughs and
appetite. bronchitis, instead of
seeking prompt medical
care.
Guava leaves
7
WHATSAPP
Brief description of claim Source/Platform Motivation for Potential Harm
circulated on dissemination
It is claimed that Scent leaf or Ocimum This claim was Possibly to provide Scholars and fact-checkers
gratissimum (Efinrin in Yoruba, Nchanwu circulated on organic remedies for advise that information
in Igbo, and Daidoya in Hausa) has the WhatsApp. the listed sicknesses. from social media groups
following health benefits: should be viewed with
• Cures coughs scepticism and should be
• Solves indigestion verified as they often lack
scientific evidence. It may
• Prevents heart disease
therefore be dangerous to
• Lowers sugar levels accept such health
• Relieves pains, fever and respiratory information as this may
issues lead to consumers’ sole
• Repels mosquitoes dependence on the plant,
and refusal to seek help
from medical experts when
necessary. This could lead
to health complications.
Scent Leaves
It is claimed that the juice from boiled This claim was widely The lack of a tested This claim is not evidence
Neem leaves or Azadirachta Indica circulated on vaccine or orthodox based and may mislead
(popularly known as Dongoyaro in many WhatsApp. drugs presenting a readers into adopting the
parts of Nigeria), Pawpaw leaves, Lime, definitive cure, remedy without seeking
Orange, Garlic, Ginger, Guava Leaves, especially for proper medical attention,
Mango leaves, lemongrass or vulnerable COVID-19 which could lead to serious
Cymbopogan, (Kooko Oba in Yoruba), patients, such as the health complications.
taken three times per day is elderly, those with
Madagascar’s solution to COVID-19. underlying conditions,
Image below: or patients with
severe symptoms,
appears to be driving
the rapid
development and
spread of herbal
remedies, as well as
speculations and
conspiracies.
8
It is claimed that COVID-19 is not a virus, This was a claim in Researchers do not Consumers of the message
but a bacterium and it is amplified with video format that have enough evidence may be tempted to try out
5G electromagnetic radiations that also circulated on on the motivations antibiotics, anti-
produces inflammation and hypoxia, and WhatsApp. behind conspiracy inflammatories, as well as
can therefore be cured with antibiotics, theories during the the indicated drugs instead
anti-inflammatories and anticoagulants. COVID-19 pandemic, of seeking medical
Furthermore, it is claimed that Italy used but the uncertain attention if infected by
100mg Aspirin, and Apronax to combat context is driving COVID-19.
COVID-19 and it proved effective. many conspirac
It is claimed that sleeping in the dark This claim was The intention behind People who prefer sleeping
enables the body to produce a hormone circulated on the WhatsApp is with the lights on for
called Melatonin which fights diseases. WhatsApp. possibly harmless, and psychological reasons, may
See image below: seems to promote change the habit, and this
better sleep hygiene. may affect them
negatively.
It is claimed that a group of Japanese This claim circulated on This claim may have Although water in itself is
doctors have confirmed that warm WhatsApp. been driven by the not harmful to the body,
water is 100% effective in resolving: high desire to encourage claiming that water is
blood pressure, migraines, low blood It was also published on the regular intake of effective in resolving the
pressure, joint pains, sudden increase Bgnyan, an online water, and may not listed diseases is misleading
and decrease of heartbeat, epilepsy, website. have a direct intent to and may prevent people
high cholesterol levels, coughs, bodily cause harm. from seeking necessary
pains, and asthma, amongst others. medical attention.
9
It is claimed that experts have warned This claim was To sensitize the public, This claim may cause fear
that eating late at night puts people at circulated on perhaps genuinely, on of eating late at night in
the danger of heart attacks and strokes. WhatsApp. the dangers of eating people’s minds and may
See image below: late at night, or there lead them to abstain from
This claim was also could be commercial food, even when ecessary.
posted on Facebook. gains. In general, it also feeds a
culture where old wives
tales are presented as fact.
It is claimed in a video that Ginger offers This claim was made in The widespread belief It might encourage people
innumerate health benefits because it a video which circulated in the efficacy of not to seek prompt medical
contains over 115 highly beneficial on WhatsApp, and went ginger may have attention where and when
chemical ingredients, including: viral on YouTube. motivated the claim. necessary, and instead
• Improves heart health focus on ginger for the
• Powerful anti-inflammatory agent listed ailments.
• Prevents heart diseases
INSTAGRAM
Brief description of claim Source/Platform Motivation for Potential Harm
circulated on dissemination
It is claimed that African Walnut or This claim was posted To perhaps provide It might lead people to rely
Tetracarpidium conophorum (Okhue in by an Instagram user the health benefits of solely on walnuts to cure the
Edo, Asala in Yoruba, Ukpa in Igbo, and with the handle African Walnut and listed ailments rather than
Kaso in Cameroon) prevents cancer, @askdamz available at also gain more seeking appropriate and
helps weight loss and cleanses the this link. followers on prompt medical care.
digestive system. Instagram.
African Walnut
10It is claimed that Lime and Chia Water is This claim was posted To provide a natural No scientific evidence was
great for a gentle daily detox that helps on the Instagram page remedies for daily provided to back up the
shed weight, improves skin, and has @_beautyremedies at detoxing and to claim. The authenticity is
abundance of vitamins and minerals. this link. perhaps gain more therefore questionable.
See image below: followers on
Instagram.
It is claimed that a certain capsule This claim was posted To popularise, The claim appears not to be
known as Maca pills can be used for on the Instagram page: promote and boost evidence based and it is
booty and boobs enlargement. @sexualden here. sales of a quack unclear how safe the
See image below: product and attract capsules are when
more followers. consumed. This is more so
when it has not been
approved by the National
Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control
(NAFDAC), the appropriate
drug control agency in
Nigeria.
It is claimed that the remedy called This claim was posted To promote and boost The claim is not backed up by
Fertileboost below is used in treating on the Instagram page sales of the herbs. any scientific research or
unexplained infertility in women. @fertileboost at this evidence, and the safety of
link. this remedy is unclear. It may
put the lives of users at risk.
11It is claimed that the remedy shown This claim was posted To promote and boost The claim is not backed up by
below can be used to flush and unblock on the Instagram page sales of the herbs. any scientific research or
the tubes in females. See image below: @fertileboost – evidence. Women may rely
see this link. on the drug, when they have
for more serious symptoms
that require science-based
medical treatment.
It is claimed that the herbal concoction This claim was posted To promote and boost It is unclear if the product
called Fertileboost can be used for all on the Instagram page sales of the herbal has been endorsed by
menstrual issues, as well as early @fertileboost – see this concoction. NAFDAC. Also, individuals
menopause. See image below: link. suffering from serious
menstrual issues may
depend solely on the herbal
remedy, when they could
have a life-threatening
underlying medical
condition.
It is claimed that a cup of warm water This claim was posted To provide a natural Such information may lead
and fresh grape juice taken on an empty on the Instagram page remedy for infertility to consumers’ dependence
stomach from cycle day 1 to cycle day 10 @fertilecorner_hq at and perhaps increase on the remedy for curing
helps in producing cervical mucus, and this link. the page’s follower infertility, and may deter
this helps lubricate the floor of the base, which has them from seeking orthodox
womb for the sperm cells to easily swim commercial value. medical attention, when
to and fertilise the egg. needed.
12It is claimed that one leaf of Cyelon This claim was posted To provide a natural Such information may lead
Cinnamon or Cinnamomum verum on the Instagram page remedy to boost to consumers’ dependence
(Oloorun in Yoruba), five bay leaves or @fertilecorner_hq at fertility and increase on the remedy for curing
Bay Bunkum (Laurus nobilis), five Guava this link. the page’s follower infertility, and may deter
leaves or Psidium guajava, boiled in base, which has them from seeking orthodox
three cups of water for five to ten commercial value. medical attention, when
minutes acts as daily fertility boosters. necessary.
WEBSITES
Brief description of claim Source/Platform Motivation for Potential Harm
circulated on dissemination
It is claimed that the following leaves can The claim was written To provide traditional It might encourage people
cure diabetes: by Fadaka Louis and alternatives for the to ignore more appropriate
• Bitter Leaf (Vernonia amyygdalina published on Gbetu TV treatment of diabetics medical attention and focus
known as Ewuro in Yoruba) at this link. and to promote the instead on the plant-based
• Scent Leaf or Ocimum gratissimum Nigerian traditional remedy.
(Efirin in Yoruba, Nchanwu in Igbo) health sector, as well as
• Mango Leaf drive traffic to the
• Aak Plant or Calotropis gigantean) website.
It is claimed that Cove leaf assists in the This claim was posted To drive traffic to the This claim might drive
fight against diabetes, lowers high blood on Opera news at this blog and perhaps people to depend solely on
pressure, aids weight loss. link. provide readers with the local remedy to treat
13See image below: the traditional health the ailments listed instead
benefits of cove leaf. of seeking prompt medical
attention when necessary.
This might lead to health
complications.
It is claimed that avocado pear prevents This claim was To perhaps sensitize Individuals with any of the
and combats cancer, aids great vision, published on Pulse.ng. the public on the health listed ailments may depend
prevents osteoporosis and other chronic benefits of avocado solely on the traditional
diseases, and helps to reduce bad breath. pear and to drive traffic remedy instead of seeking
to the website. medical attention. This may
lead to serious health
complications.
It is claimed that Pawpaw seeds aid This claim was posted To possibly drive traffic This claim might drive
treatment of cancer, ulcers, infections, on to the website and people to depend solely on
etc. It is also claimed that scented oil the website called perhaps educate the pawpaw seeds as
extract, rich in amino acids from pawpaw Opera News App. readers on the health treatment for the ailments
seeds is potent in the treatment of sickle benefits of pawpaw listed instead of seeking
cell disease and related disorders. seeds. prompt medical attention
when necessary. This might
lead to health
complications.
Pawpaw Seeds
14It is claimed that Aloe vera, Honey, Garlic, This claim was To possibly drive traffic This claim might drive
Flavonoids and Bananas, can be used as published on Pulse.ng. to the website and people to depend solely on
remedies for stress and Ulcers. provide natural the remedy to treat the
remedies for treating ailments listed instead of
stress and ulcers. seeking prompt medical
attention which might lead
to health complications.
It is claimed that Okra or Abelmoschus This claim was To provide traditional This claim may mislead
esculentus (Ila in Yoruba, Okwulu in Igbo) published on Opera alternatives for the people into having
can treat Asthma, Diabetes and Kidney news’s website. treatment of the listed misguided trust in Okra and
diseases. diseases and to lead to them to refuse
promote traffic to the seeking the attention of
site. medical experts for serious
conditions such as diabetes
or kidney diseases.
It is claimed that the following benefits This claim was To drive traffic to the This claim may mislead
can be derived from taking a blend of published on Opera blog, and provide people into having
Soursop (Annona muricata a specie of News’s website organic remedies for misguided trust in the fruits
the genus Annona of the custard apple the listed illnesses. and prevent them from
tree family) and Guava (Psidium guajava) seeking proper medical
• Prevents kidney problems attention.
• Cures insomnia
• Cures catarrh and coughs
• Aids digestion
• Prevents diabetes
15It is claimed that the following is a This claim circulated on To promote the Believing the claim might
COVID-19 medical kit required at home: WhatsApp. services of the Tata lead people to ignore the
health site, using preventive measures
COVID-19 as the pull. prescribed by medical
experts and the Nigeria
Centre for Disease Control
(NCDC). Some of the
medications in the “kit” may
be harmful when taken in
excess. For example, a
paracetamol overdose could
lead to liver failure, thus,
without any dosage
directions, this could be the
It also claims that COVID-19 occurs in
case.
three stages:
Infected persons may also
resort to home care instead
of expert medical care.
Furthermore, the link at the
end of the claim, takes the
reader to the TATA home
page and not the article
referred to in the claim.
Consumers may rely solely
on the WhatsApp version
and may not be tech savvy
enough to click and verify
the claim on the TATA
website.
It is reported that Rev. Fr. Raymond This claim was To possibly promote a It may lead individuals to
Arazu claimed that the Anambra published on this “local” cure for COVID- trust the supposed remedy
Traditional Medical Board has developed website. It also 19, especially as there and ignore NCDC’s
is still no vaccine or recommended safety
16a cure for the Covid-19 virus using circulated on highly efficacious measures. This might place
indigenous ingredients. WhatsApp. therapeutic drug or as their lives in grave danger.
clickbait driving traffic
to the site.
It is claimed that Okra or Abelmoschus This claim was The belief that Okra is It might encourage people
esculentus (Okwulu in Igbo, Ila in Yoruba) published on The medicinal might have not to seek prompt medical
stabilizes blood sugar and prevents and Montserrat Reporter’s motivated this claim, as attention and instead focus
improves constipation amongst others. website. It also well as the desire to on Okra as a treatment for
See image below: circulated on increase traffic to the the listed ailments.
WhatsApp. website.
It is claimed that the oil from mint leaves This claim was To perhaps sensitize It might lead people to rely
(Mentha a genus of plants in the family published on the readers about the solely on Mint leaf rather
of Lamiaceae (Ewe Minti in Yoruba) Nigerian Finder website. health benefits of Mint than getting appropriate
contains antioxidant and anti- leaf, and drive traffic to medical care when
inflammatory components which can the website. necessary.
help in relieving seasonal allergies.
It is claimed that unripe pawpaw soaked This claim was The motivation might This claim does not include
in water for four days can be used to published on a be traffic to the chat any medical evidence and
cure ulcers and haemorrhoids. Nairaland chat forum. forum, or it’s simply an lacks scientific merit. Hence,
ill-informed remedy it is capable of misleading
that some people do and placing users as risk by
believe in. preventing them from
seeking actual treatment for
haemorrhoids. The further
17discussions on the forum
highlights more unscientific
examples of how pawpaw
cures serious conditions.
It is claimed that the mixture of banana, This claim was This may have been This is not evidence based
raw honey and tomatoes increases published on the motivated by the desire and therefore cannot be
sexual well-being and moisturizes the Nairaland forum. to promote natural authenticated.
skin, among others. fruits and extracts, as
well as drive traffic to
the website. An excerpt
from the claim reads:
“We have Raw Original
Honey straight from
the Bee farm”. This
suggests that the claim
is also motivated by the
desire to create
awareness and
promote the sale of
their honey.
It is claimed that cloves or Syzygium This claim was To inform readers on Although the writer
aromaticum, (Kanafuru in Yoruba, published on Punch the health benefits of supported some of the
Osasagbogbo in Igbo, Kanumfari in Online. cloves and perhaps claims with some studies,
Hausa) strengthens the immune system, increase traffic on the s/he failed to provide the
reduces inflammation, aids digestion, website. sources. Thus, the
boosts testosterone levels, has anti-viral, authenticity of the claim is
anti-microbial, and antibacterial unclear. The claim may drive
properties amongst other health individuals to depend solely
benefits. on cloves instead of seeking
medical attention and this
might put their health at
risk.
18REFERENCES
Amobi, T., Obia, V., Udodi, L. & Akinuliola, O. (2019) Media and the Menace of Information: Disorder in
Nigeria’s Public Sphere. (In Press) Centre for Democracy and Development (2020). Health
misinformation: False stories from Ebola to Coronavirus. Retrieved from
https://www.thecable.ng/health-misinformation-false-stories-from-ebola-to-coronavirus
Kaltwassar, J. (2019) Health threat without easy cures. Retrieved from
https://www.contagionlive.com/news /misinformation-is-a-public-health-threat-without-easy-cures
Kim, S. (2019) Health misinformation on social media. Retrieved from https://www.asc.upenn
.edu/news-events/news/kim-studies-health-misinformation-social-media
Moshood, Y. (2020) Physicians say Dr Stella Emmanuel’s claim about hydroxychloroquine unproven.
Retrieved from https://healthwise.punchng.com/physicians-say-dr-stella-emmanuels-claim-about-
hydroxychloroquine-unproven/
Wardle, C. & Derakhshan, H. (2017) Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for
research and policy making. Council of Europe Report. Retrieved from
https://www.theewc.org/content/download/ 2105/18430/file/INFORMATION%20DISORDER.pdf
World Health Organization (2014) WHO declares end of Ebola outbreak in Nigeria. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2014/nigeria-ends-ebola/en/
Zielinski, C. (2020) Coronavirus (247) Fake news in Nigeria Retrieved from http://www.hifa.org/dgroups-
rss/coronavirus-247-fake-news-nigeria
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