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Depression in
Let’s talk
Depression
#Depression #letstalkDepression
© World Health Organization 2017 All rights reserved. The World Health Organization Country Office for India welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Health Organization to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Health Organization be liable for damages arising from its use. The views expressed by authors, editors or expert groups do not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the World Health Organization. #Depression #letstalk
Acknowledgements i
Abbreviations ii
Why is it important to address depression? iii
Depression 1
Depression has varied presentations 3
Burden of depression is high in low- and middle-income countries 4
The burden of depression in India is high 5
Depression in primary health care settings 5
Mortality associated with depression 5
Depression can affect anyone 7
Postpartum depression 7
Depression among children and adolescents 7
Depression in adults 7
Depression among the elderly 8
Age, gender and urban-rural differentials 9
Depression has multiple risk factors 10
Biological factors 10
Psychological factors 10
Social factors 10
Cultural factors 11
Economic factors 11
Poverty and mental health 12
Depression is a cause and consequence of many health conditions 13
Chronic communicable diseases 13
Mental health comorbidity 13
Chronic noncommunicable diseases 13
Depression impacts all walks of life 15
Disability 15
Social impact 15
Economic impact 15
#Depression #letstalkMost persons with depression remain without care 17
Depression is a highly stigmatizing condition 18
Early recognition of depression is beneficial 19
Box 1: Criteria and symptoms of depression 20
Box 2: A 2-item screener for early detection of depression in
primary care settings 20
Barriers and challenges 22
Depression can be effectively managed 23
Combinations of care work best 23
Developing strategies for care are vital 24
Need for task-shifting and sharing 24
Integration of mental health care into primary care systems is the key 24
Skilled health and para professionals are crucial in care 24
Referral pathways are highly required 25
Ensuring continuity of care and support 25
Depression management in institutional settings 25
Integrating depression with national health programmes is vital 25
Intervention for depression in health related sectors 26
Integration in health and related policies 28
Strengthening NMHP and DMHP 29
Depression–Let’s talk and act 30
Annexures 31
Annex 1: Burden of depression in India – findings from
National Mental Health Survey 2015–16 31
Annex 2: Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2020 32
Annex 3: Sustainable Development Goals and mental health 32
References 33
#Depression #letstalkWe acknowledge the contributions of the team from National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, comprising of Dr G. Gururaj, Dr Senthil Amudhan R., Dr Santosh Loganathan and Dr Arvind B.A., under the leadership of Dr B.N. Gangadhar for their commitment and efforts for compiling this document. We would also like to acknowledge Dr Abdul Wahid Khan, Dr Abhijit Nadkarni, Dr Ajay Chauhan, Dr Aman Sood, Dr Amita Kashyap, Dr Balwant Singh, Dr B.S. Chavan, Dr B.S. Sidhu, Dr C Ramasubramanian, Dr Eesha Sharma, Dr G.A. Wani, Dr Kangkan Pathak, Dr Lokesh Kumar Singh, Dr Manoj Kumar, Dr Naresh T Chauhan, Dr Puja Garg, Dr R.K. Lenin Singh, Dr Rachana, Dr Rachana Mittal, Dr Rajarshi Neogi, Dr Rajesh Mittal, Dr Rajni Chatterji, Dr Rana Ranbir Singh, Dr Ritambhara Mehta, Dr Sandeep Bhola, Dr Santosh Prabhu, Dr Satish Chandra Girimaji, Dr Shibukumar, Dr Soneya Mishra, Dr Sujit Kumar Kar, Dr Sunil Kumar, Dr Sunil Pandey, Dr Sushil Kherada, Dr Vivek Agarwal, Dr Vivek Goyal and all experts for their valuable inputs. #Depression i #letstalk
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome ASHA accredited social health activist CBT cognitive behaviour therapy CMD common mental disorder DALY disability-adjusted life year DMHP District Mental Health Programme GBD Global Burden of Disease GP general practitioner HIV human immunodeficiency virus IPV intimate partner violence LMICs low-and middle-income countries NCD noncommunicable disease NGO nongovernmental organization NIMHANS National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences NMHP National Mental Health Programme NMHS National Mental Health Survey SDG Sustainable Development Goal WHO World Health Organization YLDs Years Lived with Disability #Depression ii #letstalk
• Depression is a major public health problem in India, contributing to significant
morbidity, disability as well as mortality, along with significant socioeconomic
losses.
• Depressive disorders affect large numbers of children, adolescents, middle-
aged groups and the elderly, both men and women, residing in urban and rural
areas and slums of India.
• Causes of depression are several, including biological, social, economic and
cultural factors, which are triggered by environmental factors.
• Depression is both a cause and consequence of several noncommunicable
diseases, substance use disorders and nutritional disorders. It is also adversely
associated with chronic communicable diseases like TB, HIV and others.
• Depression and suicide are closely interlinked. At its worst, depression can lead
to suicide. Recognizing depression at an early stage is critical for reducing
suicidal deaths and deliberate self- harm across the spectrum.
• People with depression are often stigmatized and excluded by family and
society. They also tend to under-perform in education and work, thereby remain
increasingly deprived of economic and social opportunities, with a decreased
quality of life.
• The economic impact of depression is huge and unmeasured and vitiates the
cycle of poverty and poor health. Low- and middle-income households are
affected the most.
• People with depression do not get adequate care due to various reasons,
ranging from non-availability of services to prevailing stigma and
discrimination.
• Several evidence-based and cost-effective pharmacological and non-
pharmacological interventions are available for managing depression. These
can be delivered in different settings by different groups of health and non-
health professionals and related service providers.
• Strengthening of the health system through appropriate staff training,
uninterrupted supply of drugs, availability of psychotheraphy, counselling
services, good referral systems and continuity of care is essential. Stigma
reduction programmes are critical to overcome barriers of recognition and care.
#Depression iii #letstalk“Depression–Let’s talk” is the slogan for World Health Day 2017. Depression is an
extremely common illness affecting people of all ages, genders, different
socioeconomic groups and religions in India and all over the world. Globally, an
1
estimated 322 million people were affected by depression in 2015. Depression
contributes to significant disease burden at national and global levels. At the
individual and family level, depression leads to poor quality of life, causing huge
social and economic impact.
Depression is one of the two diagnostic categories that constitute common mental
disorders (CMDs), the other being anxiety disorder. Both are highly prevalent across
the population (hence they are considered “common”) and impact on the mood or
feelings of affected persons.1 Depression includes a spectrum of conditions with
episodes, illnesses and disorders that are often disabling in nature, vary in their
severity (from mild to severe) and duration (from months to years) and often exhibit a
chronic course that has a relapsing and recurring trajectory over time.
It is well acknowledged that depression influences the occurrence and outcomes of
several diseases and conditions. Depression and suicide are closely interlinked; at
its worst, depression can lead to suicide. Globally, depression is the top cause of
illness and disability among young and middle-aged populations, while suicide
ranks second among causes of death for the same age groups.2 Depression is both
a cause and consequence of several noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as
cancer, ischemic heart disease and diabetes, substance use disorders (alcohol and
drugs) and nutritional disorders (under-nutrition, over-nutrition and obesity). It is
also adversely associated with chronic communicable diseases like TB, HIV
and others.
Depression is associated with poverty in a vicious cycle. Depression often results in
impaired functioning, which has an impact on all aspects of an individual’s life and
family affecting multiple areas of education, marriage, work and social life. These in
turn lead to loss of productivity, increased health care costs and significant
emotional suffering. People with depression are also unable to access quality health
care due to increasing costs.
India is home to an estimated 57 million people (18% of the global estimate) affected
1
by depression. With India witnessing significant changes (including globalization,
urbanization, migration, and modernization) that is coupled with rapid socio-
demographic transition, depression is likely to increase in the coming years.
#Depression 1 #letstalkDepression is largely preventable and treatable. Several cost-effective interventions have shown favourable recovery and positive outcomes in the care and management of depression. However, the stigma and treatment gap associated with depression in India is huge. Opportunities exist for prevention, care and management of those with depression in the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP), as well as in other health programmes and developmental efforts. The main challenge is translating scientific knowledge and understanding into action. Against this background, this report examines the burden, characteristics and impact of depression in the Indian context. The present review on burden, risk factors, impact and public health interventions for depression is based on data drawn from different sources and used a review matrix for data compilation. Data from the Global Burden of Disease 2015 and the latest set of Global Health Estimates from WHO for 2015 were used for global and regional estimates of prevalence, incidence and health loss.3,4 The most recent data from the National Mental Health Survey (NMHS) 2015-16 by the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), India was analysed for prevalence, differentials, treatment gap, disability and impact.5 #Depression 2 #letstalk
Depression can be mild, moderate or severe, based on symptomatology. Diagnosis
is most often based on the art of listening or observation by others, as objective
assessments are still unavailable. While severe forms are easy to detect, mild and
moderate forms, especially as comorbid conditions, can often go undetected.
Depending on the severity of illness, sociocultural context and age, depression
often manifests in different ways, with varied presentations:
• Children with depression often present with symptoms of sadness,
irritability, tantrums, physical complaints (headache, stomach ache),
tearfulness, feeling bored, separation anxiety as well as poor academic
performance and disturbed family relations.
• Among adults, it is usually accompanied by a marked difficulty or change
in the functioning level or even with suicidal thoughts and behaviour.
• Depression in late life often presents with prominent psychomotor
agitation or irritability rather than depressed mood as seen in in younger
adults. Individuals may frequently report with somatic complaints, poor
appetite and at times with psychotic features.
Thus, due to varied presentation, the recognition of depression by family members
or close associates at an early stage, especially mild to moderate depression, is
often challenging.
#Depression 3 #letstalkDepression is one of the leading causes of disease burden globally and in low- and
middle-income countries (LMICs). Globally, depression is ranked as the single
largest contributor to non-fatal health loss, accounting for 7.5% of global years lived
with disability (YLDs) and 2.0% of global disability adjusted life years (DALYs) in
2015.1 According to Global Health Estimates 2015, depressive disorders accounted
for nearly one third of the total DALYs caused by mental and substance use disorder
4
(Fig. 1). It is projected to be the second leading cause of disease burden globally
and third leading cause of disease burden in LMICs by 2030.6
Globally, the proportion of the population with depression is estimated to be 4.4%. It
is more common among females (5.1% vs 3.6%) with a peak in the 55–74 year age-
group in both sexes. Among the WHO Regions, the prevalence varies from as low as
2.6% among males in the Western Pacific Region to 5.9% among females in the
African Region.1
Fig. 1: DALYs due to mental and substance abuse
Source: Global Health Estimates 2015 (http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/en/)
In LMICs, more than 80% of YLDs (non-fatal disease burden) were attributed to
4
depression. Between 2005 and 2015, the number of people living with depression
worldwide increased by an estimated 18.4%.7 The health loss due to depression
also reflected the same with an increase in YLDs by 18.2% during 2005 and 2015.3
Several factors like high lifetime prevalence (6.5%–21%), increasing disability
8,9
associated with depression, population growth and ageing, growing recognition
across life span, association with chronic diseases, suicides as well as sociocultural
10
and economic changes contributed to this rising burden.
#Depression 4 #letstalkIndia accounts for nearly 18% of the world population. It accounted for 15% of global
DALYs attributable to mental, neurological and substance use disorders (31 million
11
DALYs) with depression, accounting for 37% (11·5 million DALYs) in 2013. The
burden of depression, in terms of DALYs, increased by 67% between 1990 and
2013. By 2025, DALYs attributable to depression are projected to rise by roughly 2.6
11
million (22.5%) due to population growth and ageing.
The problem is estimated to be much higher as per several population-based
studies, with the prevalence of depression ranging from 1.8% to 39.6%. Lack of
uniformity across studies, with differences in nature of population, sample size,
study instruments, assessment procedures and interpretation of findings, contribute
12–17
to most of the variations.
As per NMHS (2015-16) in India, one in 20 (5.25%) people over 18 years of age
have ever suffered (at least once in their lifetime) from depression amounting to a
total of over 45 million persons with depression in 2015 (Annex 1).
Depression in primary health care settings
CMDs are widely prevalent in primary care settings in LMICs. Several studies
conducted in India have documented that 17–46% of patients attending primary
health centres suffer from CMDs.18-24 Among the patients of primary care facilities
22
who suffer from CMDs, depression was the commonest disorder (63.6%). A recent
study reported a prevalence of 30.3% for depression among outpatient attendees in
a secondary hospital in Delhi.25
For both women and men, physical symptoms reported in primary care have strong
cultural, social and psychological components that are missed and remain
unaddressed in traditional biomedical care. For example, women in urban slums
express poor mental health more often, including depression, as gynaecological
concerns in primary care settings.26 Thus, a culturally sensitive inquiry becomes
essential for the detection and management of persons with depression who attend
primary care settings.
Mortality associated with depression
People with depression are 1.52 times more likely to die than the general population,
probably due to their untreated mental or physical health problems. 27 Further, with
depression being associated with many terminal illnesses, the contribution to
#Depression 5 #letstalkmortality could be much higher. In addition, the association of depression and
suicides are well established and studies have shown the probability of deaths from
28
suicide among depressed hospitalized patients to be 15%. Certain vulnerable
situations and particular risk groups are also at an increased risk, as in the case of
farmer suicides. Psychological autopsy studies reported a depression prevalence
29–32
ranging from 2% to 37.7% among suicide decedents.
#Depression 6 #letstalkDepression can affect people from all backgrounds across the life-course, from
early childhood to the end stages of life, with an increased toll at certain time points.
Much of the understanding in this area is centred around depression among adults,
but it is essential to recognize the fact that children, adolescents and the elderly
population are susceptible and affected as well.
Postpartum depression
Depression during pregnancy and after childbirth is known to affect adversely the
growth and development of the offspring, especially in developing countries.33
Emerging evidence also indicates that failure to thrive is more common in infants
34
whose mothers have postnatal depression. The reported prevalence of
postpartum depression in India ranges between 15.3% and 23.0% with an incidence
of 11.0%.35-37 Around 14% of mothers continue to have symptoms of depression till
36
up to 6 months after delivery. Economic and interpersonal relationship issues,
partner violence, alcohol use by spouse and gender of the newborn child are among
the major determinants of postpartum depression.35-36
Depression among children and adolescents
Depression among children and adolescents, if left unattended, can lead to
protracted health and mental health problems in later life. The overall prevalence
rates of childhood depression in India vary anywhere between 0.3% to about
38-39
1.2%. The NMHS (2015-16) reported a prevalence rate of 0.8% (CI 0.3–1.4) for
depression among 13–17-year-old children.5 Traumatic experiences in early
childhood, frequent migration, negative life events, educational setbacks, early
relationship problems, family history of mental illness as well as stress at school and
in the family are linked in varying degrees to depression among children and
adolescents.40
Depression in adults
Clinical depression among adults is more than extremes of normal mood, with early
onset during young adulthood. The prevalence of depression in India as observed in
10–12,15–17,19
previous studies varies from 1.8% (severe) to 39.6% (mild to moderately
severe), depending on study methods. A wide range of social, economic, cultural
and psychosocial factors, especially changing life styles with lack of support
systems in an environment of globalization, urbanization and migration are often
linked with depression in young and middle-aged groups.
#Depression 7 #letstalkDepression among the elderly
With an ageing population, depression among the elderly is likely to increase in the
coming years, with higher prevalence among the elderly than that in the general
adult population. A systematic review reported a median prevalence of 21.9% (IQR,
41
11.6–31.1%) for depression among the elderly in India. Among the community
based studies in the elderly, the prevalence of depression ranged from 3.9% to
47.0% with higher rates among female and urban residents. Living alone, stressful
life events, lack of social support systems, recent loss of a loved one, lower
socioeconomic status and presence of comorbid medical illnesses are some of the
risk factors for depression in the elderly.
#Depression 8 #letstalkA higher prevalence of depression among women and working age adults (aged
20–69 years) has been consistently reported by Indian studies.11,16,17,42 Depression is
also common among the elderly. Several reasons are attributed to higher rates
among women – biological and hormonal factors are found to be playing a greater
role amidst a wide array of social and economic factors. Findings from NMHS have
shown consistently higher rates for females across all age groups and among those
residing in urban metros as compared to their counterparts. Prevalence reached its
peak in the adult age group, with above 3.5% in females and above 3% in males
5
aged 40 and above (Fig. 2). NMHS also reported a glaring differential in household
income for depression with the prevalence of current depression in the lowest
income quintile group (3.4%) being almost twice the prevalence in the highest
5
income quintile population (1.9%).
Fig. 2: Prevalence of depressive disorders in India by age
and sex – NMHS 2015-16 findings
#Depression 9 #letstalkDepression is due to multiple factors resulting from complex mechanisms; there can
be no single identifiable cause. However, there is conclusive evidence to reveal that
several biological, social, economic, cultural and environmental factors operate in a
maladaptive individual, leading to depression (Fig. 3).
One may develop depression due to the loss of a loved one, or it may unfold in the
backdrop of multiple social or financial stresses, or on an account of a family history
of depression, or it may begin in the background of a chronic medical condition.
Some individuals can experience loneliness and feeling low for no apparent reason
at all. It is crucial to note that recognition of these factors is important to provide
appropriate intervention for the affected individual and to support the family.
Biological factors
About a third of depression cases are linked to genetic factors and the rest to non-
genetic or environmental factors.43 However, evidence of the role of specific genes
or specific gene environment associations is not yet established. A substantial
association between genetic vulnerability to depression and early childhood
traumatic experiences is known to exist. Even though early life trauma increases the
chances of developing depression, not all individuals develop depression; and
those who develop it, may do so due to the presence of genetic factors. Deficiency of
monoamines, particularly noradrenaline and serotonin, are also known to play a role
in the pathogenesis of depression.
Psychological factors
Exposure to negative parental influences such as a critical and condemning
parental style during early childhood may give rise to negative feelings about
oneself. The long-term consequences of separation or early loss of the maternal
attachment bond are many, and include depression.
Social factors
Distressing social relationships such as familial, marital and parental relationships
44
have been associated with the onset of depression. Domestic and intimate partner
violence (IPV) among women, which is prevalent in India and other LMICs,45,46 along
with partner's alcohol use are closely associated with depression. Of recent
importance is the impact of modernization, urbanization, migration and globalization
and consequent loss of family and social support systems, leading to social
isolation. Cities with dense population, high migration, poor planning or organization
#Depression 10 #letstalkof services lead to health hazards and residents may be at risk for mental health
47
problems, including depression.
Cultural factors
Culture plays a significant role, such as religion, caste, beliefs, attitudes,
interpretations and symptom thresholds, which vary across different parts of India.
People with depression often have features related to various sociocultural contexts
and may not fit into the classical definition of depression as per established
diagnostic categories.48 People in distress often experience different symptoms;
general physicians, primary care doctors and health care workers need to have
proper insight requiring appropriate skills for understanding and interpretation of
these presentations. This cultural understanding is critical to develop integrated
models of care delivery in different settings.
Economic factors
People who experienced acute (sudden economic crisis) or chronic (poor income
households) economic adversities are more vulnerable to developing depression.
Individuals living in conflict zones or at times of natural disasters are also likely to
experience depression to a greater extent.
Fig. 3: Risk factors of depression
• Negative parental
• Genetic factor influences
• Altered • Separation or early
Hypothalamo- loss of maternal
pituitary-adrenal attachment/bond
axis • Personality style
• Altered circardian
rhythm
• Poverty,
• Low literacy
• Modernization,
urbanization,
migration and
globalization
• Distressing social • Religion, caste,
relationships beliefs, attitudes
• Domestic and and interpretations
Intimate Partner influence
Violence depression onset
• Natural disasters and its symptom
and conflicts thresholds
#Depression 11 #letstalkPoverty and mental health interact in a “vicious cycle”. People with CMDs are more
likely to drift into poverty due to increased health expenditure, reduced productivity,
lost employment, school dropout, reduced social support, and stigma associated
49
with these conditions. Poverty also increases the risk of developing CMDs through
social exclusion, high stressors, reduced social capital, malnutrition, obstetric risks
and increased risk of violence and trauma, all of which increase the risk for higher
prevalence of mental disorders. Furthermore, lack of access to quality and
continued care disposes individuals to have a long and protracted illness. With one
in five Indians being poor (Reserve Bank of India, September 2013
[https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=15283]), it is imperative to
consider mental disorder alongside other diseases associated with poverty and
within the overall developmental agenda of the country.
In conclusion, it is essential to note that depression has multifactorial origin with a
complex interplay of factors which, spread over different domains of an individual's
life, operate in togetherness, over short or long periods, can be cumulative and un-
resolving in nature, leading to protracted illness.
#Depression 12 #letstalkChronic communicable diseases
Burden due to depression has particular relevance in LMICs because of its
association with poverty and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).50 By hindering treatment adherence in
6
HIV/AIDS, depression adds to the burden to HIV/AIDS.
Mental health comorbidity
Findings from NMHS 2015-16 showed that nearly 30% of those with depression
have substance use disorder as a comorbid condition. Conversely, those with long-
term use of alcohol and drugs are known to suffer from depression to a greater
extent.
Chronic noncommunicable diseases
Chronic diseases (cardiovascular diseases, mental health disorders, diabetes, and
cancer) and injuries are the leading public health problems of India.6,51 Mental
disorders, especially depression share common determinants with NCDs and
frequently co-occur. Poor mental health can be a precursor to or a consequence of
NCDs and it can exacerbate NCD risk factors such as unhealthy diet, physical
inactivity, tobacco use and harmful alcohol use.52 Prevalence of major depression
53
among individuals with NCDs ranges from 22% to 33% (Fig. 4).
There is a significant association between depression and incidence of type 2
diabetes. Depression is associated with a 60% increased risk of type 2 diabetes and
diabetes doubles the odds of depression.54,55 Emerging evidence from South Asia
has shown that psychosocial factors like depression and stress at work or home
56
have a significant association with acute myocardial infarction (odds ratio 2.62).
Risk of ischemic stroke is increased among individuals suffering from depression
and 31% of stroke survivors are likely to have depression at any time-point up to 5
57,58
years after stroke (systematic review). Prevalence of depression among cancer
patients in palliative and non-palliative care settings is 24.6% and 20.7%,
respectively.59 Depressive symptoms were 7.85 times more likely among cancer
patients when compared to those without cancer and 6.03 times more likely in those
60
suffering from other disease conditions.
#Depression 13 #letstalkFig 4: Prevalence of major depression in patients with physical illness Source: Investing in mental health, WHO 2003 #Depression 14 #letstalk
Depression of moderate to severe nature is a disabling condition posing substantial
health and socioeconomic impact on individuals, families, the community and
society at large. Along with suffering from distressing symptoms of depression,
affected individuals are unable to participate in work and social activities, resulting in
significant socioeconomic burden on the family and community.
Disability
In India, nearly two thirds of the individuals with depressive disorder reported
disability of varying severity across domains of work life (67.3%), social life ( 68.6%)
5
and family life (70.2%). One fifth of individuals affected with depression were facing
severe restrictions in performing their daily activities. Such inability to perform daily
activities was present on an average for 20 days in the month prior to the study.
Over 50.0% of individuals with depressive disorder in India reported that their
5
condition interfered with their daily activities.
Social impact
Depression disrupts routine daily activities of the affected individual. Caring for a
person with depression entails restriction of social activities of other family
members. Seventy-seven per cent of relatives, including family members of the
persons suffering from affective disorder experienced some burden with respect to
61
financial issues, disruption of family routine, family leisure and family interactions.
Family members of individuals with depression missed work and leisure activities on
an average by 8.5 and 10 days, respectively, in the past 3 months.5
Economic impact
Depression is associated with significant functional impairment, ranging from
reduced work functioning, absenteeism, impaired productivity, decreased job
retention and early retirement across a wide variety of occupations. This drives
individuals into economic poverty, depriving them of social networks and status
within the community.
The economic burden due to depression is attributed significantly to high treatment
gap, lost productivity and comorbid conditions. Depression as a comorbid condition
contributes to the growing economic burden, with 38% of the total costs due to
depression itself.
#Depression 15 #letstalkRecent evidence shows that on average, an Indian family spends around Rs.1500
per month towards care of affected persons, which includes consultation, drugs and
5
transport related costs. With the significant treatment gap and the high indirect
costs associated with morbidity, depression will have diverse and far-reaching
social and economic consequences in India.
#Depression 16 #letstalkUsually, people with depression are unaware that they are suffering from depression
and that it is a treatable condition. With disturbed emotions, people often deny their
illness and develop a reluctance to seek help. In some instances, despite individuals
knowing they are ill, they are unaware of where to proceed for treatment or are
ashamed to visit a mental health professional due to the stigma of being labelled as
a psychiatric patient. This contributes to a huge treatment gap for depression.
Further, those who begin treatment are likely to drop out without completing the
course of treatment due to various reasons, leading to frequent relapses and further
widening of the treatment gap.
Treatment gap is a useful indicator for accessibility, utilization and quality of health
62
care. A treatment gap of more than 90% has been documented for depression in
63,64
LMICs. In India, a treatment gap of 87.2–95.7% was reported for depression from
community based studies.16,65 Data from the World Health Survey reported a
treatment gap of 88%, while the recent NMHS showed a treatment gap of 86% for
5,66
depression and 80% for any suicidal risk behaviour.
The high treatment gap for depression in India is contributed by several demand and
supply side barriers. The key demand-side barriers that contribute to the treatment
gap include lack of awareness and low perceived need, while the supply side
barriers include insufficient, inequitably distributed and inefficiently used resources.
The treatment gap is also influenced by high out-of-pocket costs and poor quality of
care associated with mental health services. Studies from India reported that
primary health care professionals are often inadequately trained, and reluctant or
67,69
unable to detect, diagnose, or manage common mental disorders. Many people
with mental health problems even experienced stigma within the health care
services by health care providers.
#Depression 17 #letstalkStigma associated with depression has devastating consequences for the
individuals and their families. False beliefs and negative attitudes about depression
were reported, with a substantial proportion of the general public agreeing that
people with these types of problems are a danger to others, can be erratic in their
behaviour and should be avoided.70 It was observed that perceptions of public
stigma influenced the experience of self-stigma, help-seeking attitudes, health care
utilisation, social participation and vocational integration. In a multisite international
study, 20–37% of persons with depression in India were reported to have stopped
themselves from doing something important because of anticipated discrimination
(“why try” effect). The study also reported a higher rate of experienced
discrimination (enacted stigma) for depression (79%) with substantial impact in
some key life domains (e.g. family, workplace, or social relations). The study
reported family members as the main source of discrimination, who were also the
71
source of most reported support.
The findings highlights the need for anti-stigma interventions in reducing the burden
of depression and effective utilization of scaled-up services for depression in India.
Such anti-stigma interventions should be integrated with specific focus on educating
the general public to improve their mental health; empowering patients to enhance
their pursuit of social participation; educating, empowering and supporting the
caregivers; improving workplace interventions; providing social contact and care
programme for health care providers and creating responsible media.
#Depression 18 #letstalkThough depressive symptoms are common in social and economic adversities,
continued presence, increasing intensity and interference in daily activities should
warrant people to seek appropriate care. Failure to recognize depression at an early
stage is often associated with poor outcomes among affected persons. Data from
NMHS revealed that the interval between onset of symptoms and seeking help
ranged between 1 month to 10 years, and that traditional and spiritual remedies
5
along with household remedies was often the first step.
The symptoms of depression, though varied, can often be recognized in several
ways. The symptoms as per the simplified version of ICD-10 diagnostic criteria, as
shown in Box 1, would help in early recognition of depression. Commonly referred to
as “screening”, recognizing depressive symptoms at an early stage is probably the
first step in the pathway to manage depression and this needs to happen in a variety
of settings like homes, workplaces, educational institutions and health care and
community settings through informed and trained persons in all such settings.
The reliability of screening instruments like the General Health Questionnaire
(GHQ), Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) and the Self-reporting
Questionnaire (SRQ) have been well established in India, though a higher cut-off
was recommended in resource-poor primary settings. Even asking two questions
routinely to all persons in primary care settings can help in early detection of
individuals (Box 2). Several training modules (NIMHANS modules, IRIS Model
Framework Manual for accredited social health activists [ASHAs], etc.) are available
in India for training ASHAs, health workers, Anganwadi workers, school teachers,
counsellors and others in early recognition and provision of care for depression.
Increasing awareness of family members, gatekeepers (individuals in a community
who have face-to-face contact with large numbers of community members as part of
their usual routine) and traditional spiritual healers can help in early recognition and
timely remedial measures. Few examples exist about integration of traditional
systems with modern systems for better management of depression.
#Depression 19 #letstalkBox 1: A simplified version of the ICD-10 diagnostic criteria for
diagnosing depression
Criteria and symptoms of depression
The symptoms need to be present for a minimum period of at least 2 weeks.
Major symptoms
• Feeling sad or depressed most of the day, nearly every day
• Markedly reduced interest or pleasure in almost all activities, most of the
day nearly every day
• Loss of energy or fatigue nearly every day.
Minor symptoms
• Loss of self-confidence or self-esteem; unreasonable feelings of guilt
nearly every day; recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, or suicidal
behaviour
• Diminished ability to think or concentrate, bodily agitation or slowness,
disturbed sleep (reduced or increased sleepiness) nearly every day
• Gloomy and unhappy views of the future, increased or decreased
appetite and/or weight.
Box 2: A 2-item screener for early detection of depression in
primary care settings
The following two questions may be used for patients who might be at risk for
depression. Those who score 'YES' on both questions can be further assessed
for depression.72
(1) During the past 4 weeks, have you often been bothered by feeling down,
depressed or hopeless?
(2) During the past 4 weeks, have you often been bothered by having little
interest or pleasure in doing things?
#Depression 20 #letstalkIn health care settings, whenever depressive symptoms are part of comorbidity, they are often overlooked, with primary importance being given to the leading condition. Given the fact that nearly one in four individuals seeking care in primary care settings may have depression with varied presentations, opportunities and challenges exist for early recognition in these places. Engagement of primary care physicians in screening of individuals is often found to be helpful. General practitioners (GPs) can generally identify about half of true cases and can accurately exclude majority of non-depressed individuals. Severe depression is diagnosed more reliably than less severe forms.73 These scenarios highlight the need for integrating mental health into primary health care through trained professionals or co-workers to ensure universal access of care for individuals with depression. #Depression 21 #letstalk
With limited availability of mental health manpower (0.07 psychiatrists per 100 000
population and 0.12 per 100 000 population of psychiatric nurses),74 India is facing
an acute shortage of professionals with either zero or insufficient training,
supervision and support to recognize, refer and follow-up those with depression.
Furthermore, supportive systems of uninterrupted supply of even the essential
psychotropic drugs, referral systems, counselling services and continued care are
often missing and need to be overcome. According to the NMHS 2015–16, the
performance of the mental health system varied widely between states. With the
exception of few states – Gujarat, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, performance in most of
the states was far from satisfactory. The mental health system was fragmented and
isolated with respect to mental health service delivery and was largely confined to
diagnosis and provision of drugs. Critical aspects of the mental health system like
policy, budget, action plan, programme implementation, human resource
development/capacity building, public awareness, engagement of civil society
organizations, coordination within and between different sectors and monitoring
75
and evaluation need to be strengthened across states.
#Depression 22 #letstalkOver the years, a large body of evidence has demonstrated the feasibility of
interventions in different resource settings. Effective management of depression
includes: (i) early recognition of the condition across the life span; (ii) provision of
appropriate and effective treatment, including pharmacological and non-
pharmaclogical interventions; and (iii) ensuring continuity of care and adequate
follow up for reducing relapse and chronic course of the illness. Secondly, services
for depression should be integrated within the existing health system with ongoing
national programmes and into the health related sectors with adequate sensitization
and training of all concerned, supported by specialist supervision. Thirdly,
awareness and demand for service in the community should be increased through
health education.
Combinations of care work best
Evidence demonstrates that depression is a treatable condition. Several guidelines
exist for management of depression and are widely practiced all over the world.
Depression can be effectively managed with pharmacological means (anti-
depressant medications) and psychotherapeutic means (counselling or therapy) or
a combination of both, depending on the severity of the condition along with
interventions that promote healthy lifestyles. In the management of mild depression,
psychotherapy and counselling is the treatment of first choice rather than
76
pharmacologic means.
#Depression 23 #letstalkThe primary health care system in India consists of the primary health centre,
community health care centre, taluka hospitals, some exclusive institutions
(maternity homes, care centres, etc.) and district hospitals in the public sector.
Private health care providers of varied types are present in rural and urban areas as
well. The identification and management of depression can occur at different levels
of health care settings (primary care centres, general hospitals, specialised
institutions) or other settings such as schools and work places.
Need for task shifting and sharing
Given the major barrier in mental health care delivery of the lack of trained personnel
to provide psychosocial care to individuals suffering from depression and other
mental health conditions (supply side barrier), “task shifting” to health workers with
limited education and training in health care has been effective and proven in other
medical conditions, such as noncommunicable diseases, antiretroviral therapy,
infectious disease control and child and maternal health. However, task shifting
needs to be augmented with restructuring of the health system and monitoring by
health specialists.
Integration of mental health care into primary care systems is
the key
Treating mental health conditions in the primary care system would involve treating
the person in totality for the existing health problems near to their door step. Further,
persons with mental health problems feel less stigmatized visiting their primary care
physician for their mental health care. Such integration strengthens the overall
health care system while enhancing comprehensive care.
It is further beneficial and cost effective that the care of common mental health
conditions are integrated into conventional care being provided for the care of
people with NCDs (cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular disorders), HIV/AIDS,
77,81
maternal health care and child and adolescent health programmes. A successful
model of integration based on the above principles is seen in the district of
Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala with integrated care since 1999.82
Skilled health and paraprofessionals are crucial in care
With the need for recognition of mental health with many ongoing national health
programmes, ample opportunities exist to sensitize, inform and train medical
professionals and paraprofessionals. Beginning with the early 1980s under the
Bellary model of care,83 several models of training primary health doctors, GPs and
health workers have demonstrated that it is possible, feasible and cost effective in
#Depression 24 #letstalknature. Training programmes for health workers include recognition, referral and follow-up care, while the medical officers' training includes assessment and management aspects as well. Community mobilization and continued care are emphasized in all training programmes. Referral pathways are highly required The primary care physician does have limitations in some areas for the management of some forms of depression. The primary care physician can prescribe medications for moderate to severely depressed individuals and needs to refer those individuals who are suicidal, have comorbid alcohol dependence problems, those who do not respond to the treatment, or have diagnostic problems, to the specialist psychiatrist. After providing appropriate treatment, the specialist could refer back to the primary health centre doctor or provide maintenance treatment at the specialized care setting. Such a referral system is crucial to the overall success of the system. Ensuring continuity of care and support Many individuals with depression need continued care with or without medication for varying periods of time. The duration of care varies from individual to individual and the setting he/she lives in. Follow up by health care workers, ASHAs, counsellors and other support workers will help in continuity of medication, change in life styles, stress reduction and other rehabilitation components. Engaging family members will be of immense benefit at this stage and requires building motivation efforts. Depression management in institutional settings The management of depression at the institutional settings could occur in general hospital psychiatry units, medical college hospitals or at speciality psychiatric institutes and nursing homes for those who come directly or those referred. These advanced care settings can provide advanced management of depression that may not be available at the primary care level, such as counselling and therapy, electro- convulsive therapy, provisions for in-depth analysis and diagnostics and management with multiple drugs for complicated cases of depression as well as presence of advanced inpatient facilities (ICU care for suicidal patients). Primary care doctors could refer patients with depression who (a) are not responding to two different classes of standard antidepressant drugs; (b) have suicidal thoughts, display suicidal behaviour and attempts; and (c) have severe depressive symptoms such as refusal to eat, presence of catatonic and psychotic symptoms. Once treated, the specialist psychiatrist may refer back these patients for maintenance treatment and management to the primary care system, thus completing the loop. Integrating depression with national health programmes is vital Besides strengthening the health system response by increasing the engagement of the available mental health workforce through capacity building and task-sharing, #Depression 25 #letstalk
integrating depression care into the ongoing programmes such as Reproductive,
Maternal, Newborn, Child and Adolescent Health (RMNCH+A) Programme;
National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes,
Cardiovascular Diseases & Stroke (NPCDCS); National Programme for Health
Care of the Elderly (NPHCE); Rashtriya Kishore Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK), and
others will widen the opportunities for health promotion, early recognition and
continuity of care for depression.
With the emergence of integrative medicine as a frontier and depression being
associated strongly with cultural phenomenon and positive effects of yoga, there is a
need to strengthen the ayurveda, yoga and naturopathy, unani, siddha and
homoeopathy (AYUSH) network in the public sector for community-based
preventive and promotive interventions for depression.
Intervention for depression in health related sectors
Determinants of depression are multidimensional and, therefore, interventions for
depression should extend beyond the health sector. There is great need for
intersectoral collaboration and actions to address the burden and impact of
depression. Sectors like education, employment, social welfare, law and
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have a significant role in prevention of
depression and promotion of mental health.
Interventions in educational settings: Some children and adolescents are at risk
of developing depression. Interventions that aim to improve their emotional
resilience can reduce depression as well as prevent suicides. Educational settings
like schools and colleges offer unique opportunities for effective implementation of
interventions aimed at early recognition, mental health promotion and prevention
and care of depression. Teachers and motivated youth can act as effective
gatekeepers and some of them have been found to be effective. Similarly, life skills
training for students help in building greater resilience and improve mental health.
Interventions in the workplace: Workplace mental health interventions are
beneficial both for employee and the employer. Following early identification, there
is strong evidence regarding the beneficial effect of cognitive behaviour therapy
(CBT) and antidepressant drugs in significantly improving the clinical (reduced
depression scores) and workplace outcomes (more job retention and more worked
84,85
hours). Activities that enhance employees' control (educational workshops,
problem/stress management committees) and those which promote physical
activity in the workplace have also demonstrated moderate evidence in reducing the
symptoms of depression.85 Emerging evidence indicates that screening and
treatment (both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy) for depression in workplaces
is cost effective.86
#Depression 26 #letstalkCivil society organizations: Civil society organizations working in the areas of
health (and mental health in particular) can help in strengthening curative and
rehabilitative services to specific vulnerable populations and also in developing
community care models through research. They can be active agents for community
engagement, empowerment, building enabling environment and for political
advocacy purposes. Collaboration with and support to NGOs would bridge the gap
in service provision and advance care for depression in India. Several examples
have demonstrated successful engagement of civil society organizations during
disaster situations in strengthening psychosocial services, as well as with integrated
75
services for care of mentally ill in religious institutions.
For the first time in India, a mobile tele-psychiatry unit was commissioned by SCARF
with support from TATA Educational Trust. The bus has teleconferencing facilities, a
computer for data storage and a large television fixed at its rear (used for awareness
programmes in the villages). The bus moves from village to village, accessing
persons with mental illness. After the psychiatric consultation through linking with
Chennai SCARF office, medicines will be given from the pharmacy located within
87
the bus.
Media engagement: Print, visual and digital platforms are effective agents of
change for a wide range of activities like awareness, advocacy, mental health
promotion as well as for strengthening services for the affected. Several activities
can be undertaken by media –disseminating information, publishing strategies and
places of care in neighbouring communities, stories of those who have recovered,
breaking myths of depression and stigma reduction activities. Campaigns
addressing depression can be effective when combined with targeted, focussed
and sustained interventions.
As depression is closely interlinked with suicide, communication campaigns that
address risk factors, help seeking strategies, dispelling myths, care availability,
survivor stories and others that work towards helping those contemplating suicide
will greatly benefit depression as well.
In recent times, the emergence of social media has provided ample opportunities for
all to engage in discussions and dialogues, including in the field of mental health.
Targeted information that works towards mobilizing individuals in a strategic
direction is often found beneficial. Stigma reduction programmes, self-help groups,
local community programmes, resilience building in disadvantaged situations,
community mental health programmes and engagement of local leaders and
influencers will all help in preventing depression as well as suicides.
#Depression 27 #letstalkThe National Mental Health Policy 2014 (http://www.mohfw.nic.in/), recognizes the various factors and circumstances that lead to depression and emphasizes the role of different sectors like education and the workplace in mental health promotion and prevention of depression. Highlighting the relationship between poverty and depression, the policy has stressed the need for reducing poverty and income disparity in the country to improve mental health outcomes. Under the ambit of mental illness, depression is considered a disabling condition in the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 benefitting the persons affected with depression (http://www.disabilityaffairs.gov.in/). The Mental Health Action Plan 365 provides a framework of actions for realizing the objectives of mental health policy, which also includes provision of counselling services for children with mental distress in schools and colleges (Annex 2). However, in view of the significant burden of depression and with relatively greater proportional morbidity among those with mental disorders, there is need for a policy level focus on depression. #Depression 28 #letstalk
With the NMHP and its implementation arm, the District Mental Health Programme (DMHP), there is greater scope for strengthening and scaling up of services for depression through focussed and dedicated interventions. Screening and treatment for depression using simple tools and standard protocols can be implemented at various levels of health care, workplace and educational settings. Accessibility to treatment for depression can be enhanced through provision of services and ensuring continuous supply of basic drugs at primary health care settings (both urban and rural). Specialized and continued care for depression should be strengthened through an organized referral network at the district level, with active engagement of health professionals from the private sector. To reduce the resource gap for scaling up of services for depression, capacity strengthening of professionals and non-professionals (both within and outside the health sector) should be carried out by adopting innovative training programmes. The number of mental health professionals within the district mental health team can be increased to provide better coverage of services. Further, the coverage of service can be expanded by including depression in several ongoing community outreach programmes, e.g. immunization outreach services can be tied up with screening for maternal depression. The role of different systems like yoga under AYUSH can be explored for possible integration. Demand for service should be augmented through activities aimed at improving mental health literacy and reducing stigma. NGOs and civil society organizations that can play an active role in mental health advocacy should be involved in planning, implementation and monitoring of DMHP. To improve programme implementation, operational research related to depression should be strengthened, and depression integrated into the existing Health Management Information System for periodic monitoring and evaluation and by undertaking implementation research. #Depression 29 #letstalk
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