LEGITIMACY AND JUSTICE ON THE VERGE OF DETERIORATION - DIVA PORTAL
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Legitimacy and justice on the verge
of deterioration
A case study of Swedish local efforts to reduce
eutrophication
By: Amir Vafa
Supervisor: Björn Hassler
Södertörn University | School of Science, Environment and Technology
Master’s dissertation 30 credits
Environmental Science | Spring semester 2021
Master’s Programme with specialization Ecosystem Management
1
Abstract
Eutrophication is one of the major threats to the marine environment in the Baltic Sea. The human pressure on
the sea by nutrient input from agriculture, industry, public sewage facility and small sewage treatment plants
causes excessive algal blooms leading to oxygen depleted seabed and an ecosystem out of balance. The objective
of this study is to investigate how local legitimacy and fairness is addressed in the multilevel and complex issue
of reducing Baltic Sea eutrophication. The main results show that there is a great challenge and uncertainty in
dealing with the problem of eutrophication. Furthermore, there is an unfair distribution of costs and
responsibilities related to wastewater treatment in the municipal planning documents and nearly total exclusion
of the individual property owners from participating in the decision-making processes related to the expansion
plans for public sewage facility. This in turn risks the legitimacy and the democratic aspects of the plans.
Previous studies related to public and simple sewage plants have investigated different issues related to the
legislation and practical planning as possible reasons for a sluggish progress in the measures to reduce nutrient
discharges to the sea. However, the fairness aspects and the participatory processes of the plans have not been
studied. The implications of this study are to invite to a more inclusive and fair planning process with the use of
alternative solutions to the compulsory expansion of public sewage facility. Modifications in the legislation to
include economic instruments creating incentives for the property owners can be a way of increasing
participation and thus the legitimacy of the system.
Keywords: eutrophication, sewage treatment plant, Baltic Sea, local management
2
Sammanfattning
Övergödningen av Östersjön är ett av de största hoten mot växter och djur samt mot de tjänster
kopplade till havet som vi människor utnyttjar. Den mänskliga tillförseln av näring från jordbruk,
industri, kommunala reningsverk och enskilda avlopp leder till onormala mängder av algblomning
som i sin tur leder till syrebrist på havsbotten när dessa alger bryts ned i syrekrävande processer.
Genom EU:s Vattendirektiv, Helsingforskonventionen där Östersjöns strandstater ingår samt egna
nationella miljökvalitetsmål, har Sverige åtagit sig att bekämpa övergödningen av Östersjön och att
minska sitt näringsutsläpp till havet.
Kommunerna i Sverige har till följd av sitt självstyre ett stort ansvar för att driva igenom åtgärder för
att målen på detta område ska uppnås. Den kommunala strategin och åtgärderna reflekteras i bland
annat den kommunala översiktsplanen, som har en övergripande karaktär, och den kommunala vatten-
och avloppsplanen, som är mer detaljerad.
Syftet med denna studie är att försöka utreda hur aspekter som rättvisa, demokrati och deltagande
kan hanteras på kommunal nivå. I detta avseende utgör Karlshamns kommun, som valts ut för denna
studie, ett exempel på hur en kustkommun kan arbeta med sådana frågor.
Resultaten visar att det finns en stor utmaning och en osäkerhet i fråga om övergödning på ett
generellt plan. När det kommer till kommunens praktiska åtgärder, har man i Karlshamn fokuserat på
den enskilt största utsläppskällan som är de enskilda avloppen. Genom den kommunala
utbyggnadsplanen vill kommunen under en 10-årsperiod se till att fler fastigheter med enskilt avlopp
ansluter sig till det kommunala nätverket.
De kommunala utbyggnadsplanerna för vatten och avlopp är i stor utsträckning styrda och reglerade
av nationell lagstiftning. När det gäller delaktighet i processen kan noteras att fastighetsägare i princip
är uteslutna från att delta i de beslut som rör utbyggnaden av de kommunala reningsverken. Dessutom
är det så att när en fastighet hamnat inom ett område som ska ingå i utbyggnadsplanen kan
fastighetsägaren visserligen välja att avstå från att fysiskt ansluta fastigheten till det kommunala
nätverket, men oavsett vilket måste fastighetsägaren betala de relativt dyra anslutningskostnaderna och
periodiska avgifterna. I realiteten rör det sig alltså om en typ av tvångsanslutning.
Lagstiftningen på området medför också att kommunernas utrymme för att skapa självständiga
planer och strategier i denna fråga är begränsat. Den nuvarande lagstiftningen innebär att kommunen
inte kan ta individuella hänsyn till vilka utsläpp och vilken skada en viss fastighet orsakar, utan urvalet
av fastigheter som ska anslutas till det kommunala nätverket sker genom generella kriterier som gäller
för ett större område av fastigheter. Detta leder till en orättvis fördelning av ansvar och kostnader för
förorening, vilket orsakar konflikter mellan fastighetsägare och lokala myndigheter.
3
Studien belyser de rättviseproblem som den nuvarande nationella lagstiftningen, och följaktligen den
kommunala utbyggnadsplanen, leder till genom tvångsanslutning och tvångsbetalning. Vidare belyser
den de begränsade möjligheterna för enskilda personer att delta i kommunala planer som gäller vatten
och avlopp. Detta är särskilt anmärkningsvärt med tanke på att det vid flera andra kommunala planer,
t.ex. detaljplaner, är obligatoriskt med samråd mellan enskilda och de beslutande myndigheterna.
Resultatet från denna studie kan öppna för en diskussion kring vilka medel man skulle kunna
använda sig av för att minska övergödningen som är kopplad till enskilda avlopp, utöver den
konventionella utbyggnaden av det kommunala nätverket. Alternativa lösningar i form av t.ex.
ekonomiska medel skulle kunna leda till mer individanpassade och rättvisa lösningar, vilket skulle
kunna minska risken för framtida konflikter.
Kunskapen om hur den nuvarande lagstiftningen skapar exkludering av fastighetsägare kan också
skapa en plattform för diskussion för framtida ändringar av regelverket som styr avlopp och vatten till,
så att detta blir mer inkluderande.
Att anlägga ett rättviseperspektiv på frågor som gäller vatten och avlopp samt belysa bristen på
utrymme för samråd och samsyn mellan fastighetsägare och kommun är av stor vikt för att värna om
demokratin på detta område.
4
Content
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Sammanfattning ................................................................................................................................... 3
Preface .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ 8
Glossary................................................................................................................................................ 9
Important terms in the Act on Public Water Services (2 §) ............................................................... 10
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 The objective of the research.................................................................................................... 12
2. Research questions ......................................................................................................................... 12
3. The scope of the study .................................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Sweden and Blekinge county ................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Case study Karlshamn .............................................................................................................. 16
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 17
4. Background ................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1 Eutrophication and its effects on the marine environment ....................................................... 17
4.1.1 Hypoxia and anoxia in the Baltic Sea................................................................................ 19
4.1.2 A sensitive ecosystem due to salinity levels...................................................................... 19
4.1.3 Eutrophication’s impact on ecosystem services ................................................................ 20
4.2 BSAP and Sweden’s municipal independence ........................................................................ 20
4.3 Swedish national policies and commitment to BSAP .............................................................. 21
4.4 The Environmental Quality Goal “No Eutrophication” ........................................................... 23
4.5 Environmental Monitoring Program in Blekinge ..................................................................... 24
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 26
4.6 Public Sewage Facilities and Small Sewage Treatment Plants in Sweden .............................. 26
4.6.1 Public Sewage Facilities in Sweden .................................................................................. 26
4.6.2 Legal Framework .............................................................................................................. 28
4.6.3 Small Sewage Treatment Plants in Sweden ...................................................................... 32
4.6.3.1 Factors contributing to the high number of deficient SSTPs in Sweden ........................ 34
4.6.3.2 “Shit-tax”: a proposal of cost-effective measures for SSTPs ......................................... 35
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 37
4.7 Karlshamn municipality and the influencers of its WS plan on the vertical scale ................... 38
4.7.1 Karlshamn municipality and its energy and WS company.................................................... 38
4.7.2 Nutrient input in Karlshamn ............................................................................................. 40
4.7.3 National Legislative acts, government agencies and the CABs ........................................ 42
5
4.7.4 Miljöförbundet Blekinge Väst (MBV) .............................................................................. 43
4.7.5 Municipal influence of the WS planning........................................................................... 44
4.7.6 Municipal residents .......................................................................................................... 46
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 46
5. Previous research ........................................................................................................................... 47
6. Methods and Methodology............................................................................................................. 50
6.1 The snowball process of data collection................................................................................... 50
6.2 Analyzing the data .................................................................................................................... 53
6.3 Designing the interviews .......................................................................................................... 54
6.4 Data Sources............................................................................................................................. 55
Karlshamn’s comprehensive plan 2030 – environmental impact assessment, 2015 (KCP 2030)
....................................................................................................................................................... 55
Platform for the work with green infrastructure in Blekinge County, 2019 (PGIB) .................. 55
Sea plan for Blekinge county’s municipalities 2018 (SPBM) .................................................... 56
Guidelines for Stormwater Management in Karlshamn Municipality, 2020 (GSWM) ............. 56
Karlshamn Municipality WS Action Plan 2013–2021, (WSAP) ............................................... 57
Karlshamn Municipality WS Expansion Plan 2014–2024 (WSEP)........................................... 57
Waste plan for Karlshamn, Olofström and Sölvesborg Municipalities 2018 (WP-2018) .......... 58
No eutrophication 2019 (NE2019) ............................................................................................. 58
6.5 Criticism of the sources ........................................................................................................... 58
6.6 Validity, reliability and generalization ..................................................................................... 59
7. Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................... 60
7.1 Governance Theory .................................................................................................................. 60
7.1.1 Policy instruments in governance...................................................................................... 61
7.2 Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) ................................................................................................... 62
8. Result & Analysis........................................................................................................................... 65
8.1 Initial coding results from the documents related to Karlshamn .............................................. 66
8.2 Theme 1: Challenges and uncertainties .................................................................................... 66
8.3 Theme 2: Confident .................................................................................................................. 70
8.4 Theme 3: Ambiguous and diluted ........................................................................................... 73
Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 74
9. Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 74
9.1 Challenge and uncertainty – anticipated common thread in the documents ............................ 75
9.2 Absence of PPP hindering improvement................................................................................. 76
9.3 Lack of influence from the property owners and deficient governance model – a democratic
failure? ............................................................................................................................................... 80
610. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................. 82
11. References .................................................................................................................................... 83
7Preface
My personal interest in the Baltic sea and the problem of eutrophication began in the end of my
bachelors’ program during the spring semester of 2018 when I was in the Askö Laboratory. Askö is a
small island in the Trosa archipelago, south of Stockholm. I was then conducting experiments on
Fucus vesiculosus and Cladophora glomerate in water with different amount of nutrients in order to
measure how this can affect their oxygen production. From that time, I have visited other places
connected to the Baltic sea in the county of Blekinge. Among other places, I have visited the island of
Tärnö which is situated in the archipelago of Blekinge and several beaches the area. My different
experiences of the Baltic Sea evoked my interest and made me reflect on how the same body of water
can differ so distinctively, depending on which time of year it is for example. Several beaches
alongside the coast in Blekinge had very clear and visible water at the times that I visited them. This
could make one forget about the problem of eutrophication and algal bloom in the Baltic sea.
However, algal bloom does occur repeatedly in this area, at times creating a thick layer of algal bloom
on the surface of the water. The contrast between the beautiful beaches with clear water on the one
hand and the sudden emergence of algal bloom on the other hand gave rise to the idea of writing about
the importance of local effort to limit the nutrient input.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Björn Hassler who has
tirelessly answered my questions and my E-mails throughout the writing process. His quick
answers and comprehensive explanations have constituted a great support for me in this long
project.
8Glossary
APWS Act on Public Water Services (2006: 412)
BSAP Baltic Sea Action Plan
CAB County Administrative Board
EC Environmental Code (1998:808)
EMP Environmental Monitoring Program
EQG Environmental Quality Goals
EQS Environmental Quality Standards
GSWM Guidelines for Stormwater Management in Karlshamn Municipality, 2020
HELCOM Helsinki Commission
KCP 2030 Karlshamn´s Municipality’s comprehensive plan 2030
NE2019 No Eutrophication 2019
PGIB Platform for the work with green infrastructure in Blekinge County, 2019
PNAP Proposal for a National Action Plan
PPP Polluter Pays Principle
PSF Public Sewage Facility
SEPA Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
SPBM Sea plan- for Blekinge county’s municipalities 2018
SSTP Small Sewage Treatment Plants
SwAM Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
WFD Water Framework Directive
WISS Water Information System Sweden
WP-2018 Waste Plan for Karlshamn, Olofström and Sölvesborg Municipalities
WS Water and Sewage
WSAP Karlshamn Municipality’s Water and Sewage Action Plan 2013-2021,
WSEP Karlshamn Municipality Water and Sewage Expansion Plan 2014-2024
9Important terms in the Act on Public Water Services (2 §)
Public Sewage Facility: a water supply system which a municipality has a legal controlling
influence over, and which has been arranged and is used to fulfill the municipality's obligations under
this Act
Small Sewage Treatment Plant: a water supply system or another device for water supply or
sewage that does not constitute a public sewage facility (PSF) and is not part of a PSF
Connection fee: a one-time fee for the coverage of the cost of arranging a public water supply
system
Usage fee: a periodic fee for the coverage of operating and maintenance costs, capital costs of
investments or other costs connected to a public water supply and sewage system that are not covered
by a connection fee
Operation area: the geographical area within which one or several water services have been
arranged or are to be arranged through a PSF and sewage system
WS principal: the company who owns a public water supply and sewage system
1. Introduction
As a result of growing human population, competition of space and food, extensive farming, use of
chemical fertilizers and lack of proper sewage systems, the Baltic Sea and its coastal areas are under a
lot of human pressure. This pressure has altered the ecological balance, species distribution and
ecosystems functioning in coastal areas. It has resulted in eutrophication, the presence of dangerous
substances and reduction of biodiversity (Bergström et al. 2013). One of the most serious threats to the
marine environment of the Baltic Sea is eutrophication. Eutrophication of the Baltic Sea has been
present since the 1950s. It constitutes a long-lasting, severely negative pressure on the Baltic
environment. According to an integrated status assessment regarding 2011–2016, more than 97
percent of the Baltic Sea region was eutrophied (HELCOM, 2018).
Eutrophication is caused by excessive levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus loads in
the water. These nutrients can enter the water through atmospheric emissions, run-off from agriculture
and discharges from sewage. This can lead to excessive algal bloom which can results in oxygen
depletion in the seabed, killing animals and plants. Blue-green algae is a strain of toxic algae that is
10favored by excessive nutrient input (especially phosphorus) and they threaten both human and animal
health (www.swedishepa.se, 2020a).
Intergovernmental organizations such as the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) have together with
the coastal countries of the Baltic Sea signed the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) which aims to work
towards the goal “Baltic Sea unaffected by eutrophication” as its main objective (www.helcom.fi,
2007) as well as “Good Environmental and Ecological Status” (www.helcom.fi, 2007).
As a coastal nation bordering the Baltic Sea, Sweden is one of the contracting parties that has signed
the BSAP and has therefore been committed to reduce its inputs by 2021. Since the issue of
eutrophication is a transboundary issue, international agreements such as the BSAP are of great
significance. Along the Swedish coast there is a wide range of activities which promotes economic
growth such as rural tourism and fishing (Kropinova, 2012). Therefore, using different tools to limit
eutrophication in order to maintain the high level of rural tourism and fishery is of high importance
and priority for Sweden (www.swedishepa.se, 2020a). Swedish municipalities are important when it
comes to the actual execution of this goal since they have a significant independence according to the
Swedish constitution. Here, coastal municipalities bordering the Baltic Sea have a great responsibility
to reduce their nutrient input, which constitutes a direct effect on the coastal marine environment.
According to the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management (SwAM), the sea areas in the
southern parts of Sweden are most affected by eutrophication (www.havochvatten.se, 2019a).
However, there is a lack of studies on fairness and the legitimacy of the efforts made by the Swedish
coastal municipalities to reduce nutrient input as a way of limiting eutrophication and fulfilling their
commitment to the BSAP. In this study I have chosen to study the municipality of Karlshamn since it
is a coastal municipality located in the area with the highest levels of nutrient input in the Baltic Sea
among the Baltic Sea states.
111.1 The objective of the research
The main objective of this study is to investigate how local legitimacy and fairness is addressed in
the multilevel and complex issue of reducing Baltic Sea eutrophication.
As a coastal municipality bordering the Baltic Sea, the municipality of Karlshamn was chosen as the
“case study” to be investigated in order to find the answers for the main objective (figure 1).The
reason for choosing a specific municipality as a case is that it is impossible to study the main objective
in an exhaustive way. Therefore, a specific case/cases must be selected as samples in order to
understand the “bigger picture”.
Karlshamn´s
Municipality
Figure 1. the relationship between the main objective “local
management of eutrophication” and the Municipality of Karlshamn as
a case study.
2. Research questions
1. In what ways do relevant documents related to Karlshamn deal with the issue of
eutrophication?
2. How is governance applied in Karlshamn’s water and sewage planning?
3. To what extent, and in which ways, are issues regarding the role of distribution
of costs and responsibilities related to wastewater treatment referred to in
municipal planning documents?
123. The scope of the study
In this part the scope of the study is presented as well as the reason for choosing Sweden as a
country and why the municipality of Karlshamn was chosen as a case study.
3.1 Sweden and Blekinge county
This study is focused on one of Sweden’s coastal municipalities and its work towards decreasing the
nutrient loads to water, in order to achieve “good ecological status” by 2021 according to the BSAP
goal as well as achieving “no eutrophication” according to the Environmental Quality Goal (EQG).
The study zooms in on Karlshamn’s plan for limiting eutrophication as well as past and present
challenges.
There are some important reasons why Sweden was chosen for this case study. Sweden has the longest
coastline among the Baltic sea countries and it has the second highest number of HELCOM Marine
Protected Areas in number and square kilometers (Borg, Kääriä, & Zweife, 2016). Furthermore,
Sweden is among the countries that have reported the highest number of management plans together
with Finland, as well as leading the financing and development of HELCOM (Tynkkynen, 2014).
Participatory processes such as stakeholder participation do not constitute a new approach in Sweden
and there is a vast number of institutions already using this approach in different policy areas, not least
in environmental areas (Moltin & Hedlund, 2009). To study these participatory processes at the
municipal level in Sweden can be valuable as a model of inclusive environmental planning where
municipal residents and municipal officials cooperate. Sweden has also reported high public
willingness to pay for the reduction of nutrient leakage in the Baltic sea compared to Russia and
Poland (Hassler, 2017).
The reason why the eutrophication segment has been chosen for this study is that according to the
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), the issue of eutrophication is one of the major
threats to the Baltic Sea environment and accordingly one of the main challenges in the BSAP
(Naturvårdsverket, 2009, s. 6).
13Blekinge is a Swedish coastal county with four municipalities that are to a large extent socio-
economically connected to and dependent on the Baltic coast. The sea has always been a part of
Blekinge county’s identity and it has shaped its people and landscape, provided food and other
ecosystem services, transportation routes and served for the security and the protection of the country
(Janérus et al., 2019). The integrated eutrophication status assessment made by HELCOM in 2018
displays that Blekinge county is located within the area where the nutrient inputs to the Baltic Sea are
at the highest levels. According to the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) the water there is
regarded to have bad water status (figure 2).
Considering the particularly high level of eutrophication manifested in this geographical area, it
Figure 2. Map of the Baltic Sea and the coastal countries
showing HELCOM’s integrated assessment of
eutrophication. The green areas indicate good status and
the red indicates bad status. Karlshamn’s coast falls into
the dark red area (HELCOM, 2018).
seemed appropriate to choose a municipality within Blekinge county when examining the objective of
this research. Furthermore, there are many important ecosystem services in the sea around the coast of
Blekinge county (figure 3). This fact increases the value of studying Blekinge's coastal areas
The total area of Natura 2000 areas in Blekinge is just over 28,000 hectares, of which large parts are
marine environments. This means that about 4 percent of the county's area consists of Natura 2000
areas (Andersson et al., 2019).
14Figure 3. Mapping and valuation of ecosystem services in the sea off the coast of Blekinge.
(Andersson et.al , 2019)
Moreover, there are about 140 bird sanctuaries in Blekinge and most of them are along the coast.
There is also a seal protection area on the county's east coast. Blekinge Archipelago, which includes
archipelago and the coastal landscape within Karlshamn, Ronneby and Karlskrona municipalities, is
one of Sweden’s five biospheres and it has an area of over 200,000 ha due to the area's high natural
and cultural values. In addition, Torhamn's archipelago is also designated as a BSPA area by
HELCOM (Janérus et al. 2019), (www.unesco.org, 2015). These natural properties and the need for
protection of the natural environment in Blekinge increase the need to study nutrient pollution to water
and the efforts to limit eutrophication in this region.
153.2 Case study Karlshamn
Among Blekinge county’s four coastal municipalities, Karlshamn was selected. This was primarily
due to the availability of relevant documents in the municipalities, where I found that Karlshamn had a
larger amount of comprehensive reports and official documents regarding the municipality’s efforts of
limiting eutrophication. Moreover, a large part of Karlshamn’s coastal areas including islands such as
Tärnö are located within Natura 2000 areas (figure 4), (Janérus et al. 2019). The purpose of Natura
2000 sites is to protect the species and habitats of common interest to EU countries. Karlshamn and its
coast are also located within the area with the highest nutrient levels (HELCOM, 2018).
Figure 4. Natura 2000 areas: species and habitat
directive areas (blue-green hatching (Janérus et al. 2017)
16Summary
As the country with the longest coastline among the Baltic Sea states and the accompanying
ecosystem services, Sweden has a strong commitment to reduce eutrophication trough international
agreements as well as national environmental goals.
Furthermore, Karlshamn has a unique geographical position with a large Natura 2000 area within
Blekinge county and a high degree of coastal eutrophication, as well as a high number of nature
reserves and sanctuaries. These circumstances make Karlshamn municipality interesting and relevant
for a case study on local attempts to reduce Baltic Sea eutrophication.
4. Background
In this chapter background information related to the study and the analysis is presented. I will start
with a wide scope and describe the issue of eutrophication and its effect on the Baltic Sea. This will be
followed by different national action plans and goals and regional plans in Blekinge to address this
issue. Furthermore, I will narrow down the scope to include general information about the PSFs and
the small sewage treatment plants (SSTPs) in Sweden and the legislation related to them. At the end of
this chapter I will provide some information about Karlshamn municipality and the influencers of its
Water and Sewage (WS) plan.
4.1 Eutrophication and its effects on the marine environment
One of the major threats to the Baltic sea ecosystem and its species is eutrophication. Eutrophication
is characterized by the excessive amount of algal (phytoplankton) bloom due to increased availability
and input of limiting nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus mainly from atmospheric emissions,
point sources such as PSFs and anthropogenic diffuse sources such as agriculture and forestry
(Svendsen et al. 2015). This phenomenon is partly natural. However, excessive nutrient input such as
nitrogen and phosphorus to the sea can alter the natural balance and lead to abnormal amount of algal
bloom and studies have shown that the amount summertime near-surface phytoplankton blooms have
risen significantly (Ho et al. 2019).
Phytoplankton is the primary producers of the sea and they fixate about half of the global
atmospheric CO2 which is vital for controlling the earth’s climate (Bristow et al. 2017). However, the
17extensive amount of algal bloom limits the light penetration which makes it difficult for the plants in
the littoral zone to absorb sunlight and photosynthesize, limits the success of predators that need
sunlight to pursue their catch. Phytoplankton is limited by two main nutrients: nitrogen and
phosphorus.
During summertime the amount of nitrogen is low due to the high nutrient consumption of
phytoplankton at spring, but due to the extraordinary ability of a specific phytoplankton called
cyanobacteria or blue-green algae to fixate nitrogen from the air, this strain of phytoplankton can
survive only with the available phosphorus in the water and therefore the bloom at this period consists
mainly of toxic cyanobacteria. Furthermore, the cyanobacteria strains produce toxins such as
cylindrospermopsin (CYN) which is a common cyanotoxin that affects multiple organs and functions
in animal and plants including humans (Barón-Sola et al. 2015).
Moreover, high rates of photosynthesis because of eutrophication can deplete inorganic carbon and
raise the pH to very high levels. This can impair organisms that are dependent on dissolved inorganic
carbon for the functioning of their chemosensory abilities (Chislock et al. 2013).
The most harmful effect of eutrophication is the oxygen deficiency/depletion that occurs because of
high amount of algal blooms. This deficiency occurs when there is an imbalance between the
processes that supply the water with oxygen and the biological processes that consume oxygen. When
organic material such as algae dies off and sinks to the seabed it is decomposed by bacteria and other
microorganisms. These decomposers consume oxygen through their respiration leading to depletion of
dissolved oxygen (www.education.txstate.edu). The depletion of oxygen can lead to hypoxia and
anoxia.
Hypoxic conditions are generally defined as < 2mg/l dissolved oxygen which is harmful for the living
organisms. The next level of this process is anoxia where the water is completely depleted of oxygen
and therefore unable to support any living organisms (Lehmann et al. 2014). Anoxic conditions
contribute to the release of accumulated phosphorus in the sediment, also known as “self-fertilization”
(Tammeorg et al. 2017). This can lead to a self-sustaining negative loop since phosphorus is the
limiting nutrient for some cyanobacteria such as Anabaena spp., Aphanizomenon sp. and Nodularia
spumigena for the reason that they can fixate their own nitrogen from the air. In other words, the
anoxic sea beds are in favor of the cyanobacteria relative to other phytoplankton (Svedén & Plou,
2012). Furthermore, during anoxic conditions where all oxygen is depleted, hydrogen sulphide is
produced which is highly toxic for living organisms and it can lead to the elimination of entire fauna
communities (Bonaglia et al. 2019).
18Moreover, eutrophication negatively impacts other important ecosystem services such as supporting
services. Anoxic seafloors reduce the microorganisms that are important in the biochemical cycle of
nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon. Also regulating services such as breaking down
environmentally hazardous substances or storing the overflow of e.g. phosphorus in the sediment can
be negatively impacted by eutrophication (Correll, 1998).
4.1.1 Hypoxia and anoxia in the Baltic Sea
Eutrophication and anoxia in the deep waters of the Baltic sea is not a recent problem. Historical
evidence shows that during the Littorina sea epoch which dates back to 6,500 years ago, vast areas of
laminated sediments existed which is an indication of anoxic environment during a relatively long
period of time. There have also been discoveries of cyanobacteria in the Littorina sea sediments, which
give us a clue about the cause of the anoxic environment (www.havet.nu, 2019) However, during the
21st century the area of anoxic sea bottoms has tripled and 10 percent of the water volume in the
Baltic Sea is now completely anoxic (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten, 2013). In addition, during the last
decade the severe oxygen depletion in the Baltic Sea has increased four times and as a result of the
extended areas of hypoxia and anoxia the Baltic Sea is described as a “patient who is suffocating”
from lack of oxygen (Zillén, et al. 2008). Finally, the results from an assessment carried out by
HELCOM in 2007–2011 revealed that the entire Baltic sea was evaluated as being eutrophicated
except the Bothnian Bay (www.stateofthebalticsea.helcom.fi, 2017-2018.
4.1.2 A sensitive ecosystem due to salinity levels
Apart from the decomposition of the organic material, there are other causes of hypoxia and anoxia
in the Baltic sea such as the flow of saline water from Kattegat and Skagerrak. The saline water has a
higher density and sinks down to fill the deeper basins in the sea leading to stratification between the
heavier saline water in the deeper parts and the brackish water close to the surface. The stratification
prevents vertical mixing leading to two separated layers thus preventing the oxygenation of the denser
saline water at the bottom.
As one of the largest bodies of brackish water in the world the Baltic sea also has a highly sensitive
ecosystem with species that have adapted to its varying content of salinity with 25ppm in Kattegat to
2ppm in the northern Gulf of Bothnia (Mårtensson, 2017). This salinity variation also affects the
marine life and the relatively few species that live in the Baltic sea. Although several marine species
have adapted to the unique conditions in the Baltic sea, many of the species such as the Mytilus edulis
are stressed because of the unique conditions in the Baltic Sea such as the low salinity that can lead to
19less favorable energy balance, permanently increased metabolism, continuous energy loss caused by a
higher filtration rate due to the osmotic effects and reduced bio calcification for shell growth
(Riisgård, et al. 2014), (Tedengren & Kautsky, 2012) and therefore these species are highly sensitive
to additional stressors such as eutrophication that can cause negative synergy (Olsson et al. 2004).
4.1.3 Eutrophication’s impact on ecosystem services
Eutrophication has a direct negative effect on different ecosystem services. The ecosystem services
negatively affected by eutrophication is:
• recreation: tourism, swimming, fishing, boating and bird watching
• esthetic values: experiencing the beauty of the sea, clear water
• Food production: Hypoxia (reduced oxygen levels) and anoxia (dead zones) means that the
water lacks sufficient oxygen to support most living organisms. This can reduce the
abundance and diversity and harvest of different organisms such as fish (ozcoasts.org.au).
4.2 BSAP and Sweden’s municipal independence
In 2007, a new regional action plan launched by HELCOM called the BSAP was agreed upon by the
Baltic sea states. This agreement was decided by the environmental ministers of the Baltic sea states
together with the European commission in order to reach “good ecological status for the Baltic Sea,
Öresund and Kattegat by the year 2021 (Naturvårdsverket, 2009, s. 3).
It encompasses four different segments: eutrophication, hazardous substances, biodiversity and nature
conservation and maritime activities, together with sections on Assessment and Tools. Over time,
eutrophication became a central issue of concern for HELCOM.
Since HELCOM did not provide any precise guidelines on how to implement and follow up the BSAP
goals, they can be very diverse among the signatory countries. However, each country had to submit a
national implementation program no later than 2010 where the country described its national plan
adapted to its own conditions and ambition.
BSAP is non-binding and leaves a lot of space for member states to decide on who to invite, how
many consultations to undertake and how to structure them and how much the stakeholders and the
public can influence the plan including its implementation (Hassler et al. 2019). The BSAP has had a
significant influence on EU initiatives such as the EU’s Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the
EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (Jouanneau & Raakjær, 2014).
20As we have reached the year 2021, HELCOM and the responsible ministers of the Baltic Sea countries
(ministers of environment) has recognized the failure to reach the goal of 2021 but they announced
that “the plan has delivered unprecedented results” (www. helcom.fi, 2007). HELCOM announced
that although the goal was not reached, various trends are pointing towards improvements and that the
BSAP has been instrumental in these enhancements. HELCOM is now updating and reviewing the
plan and in general the commission will maintain the essence of the original BSAP with the focus on
the main four segments with eutrophication at its peak (www.helcom.fi, 2021).
Since the Nordic countries including Sweden have highly local characters in the way of their
governance and because of the unique autonomy that the locally elected bodies are enjoying
(Blomqvist & Bergman, 2010), a fairly diverse ambition regarding the eutrophication goal in different
municipalities can be expected. The differences depend on the geographical position e.g. coastal/non-
coastal municipalities, local opinion and interest, degree of local impact, budget etc.
The individual municipalities are the most important influencers and decisionmakers in the
municipal WS planning. This is due to the municipal independence, which is regulated in chapter 14 in
the Swedish Constitution (www.riksdagen.se, 1974).
1 § The decision-making power in the municipalities is exercised by elected assemblies.
2 § The municipalities handle local and regional matters of general interest on the basis of
municipal self-government. More detailed provisions on this are laid down in law. On the same basis,
the municipalities also handle the other matters that are determined by law.
The Swedish Municipal Act (2017:725) contains further provisions regarding the municipal
autonomy, for example 2 kap. 1 §:
Municipalities and regions may themselves take care of matters of general interest that are related
to the municipality's or region's area or to their members.
4.3 Swedish national policies and commitment to BSAP
The Swedish national commitments for reducing eutrophication in the Baltic sea have been numerous
and diverse. The most important commitment of Sweden is its infrastructural upgrading of PSFs.
Sweden is in the lead in this field as is already fulfilling the requirements for nitrogen and phosphorus
purification in the PSFs according to EU Wastewater Directive. However, Sweden emitted about 13
percent of the total annual nitrogen to the Baltic Sea, which is the second highest amount among the
nine Baltic Sea Countries. Sweden’s long coast to the sea and its many watercourses is the main
reason for this high discharge (www. jordbruksverket.se , 2020).
21The SEPA is suggesting further technical improvements in wastewater plants to reduce the loads of
phosphorus and nitrogen in the Baltic Sea (Naturvårdsverket, 2009, pp. 75-85). There are also other
sources of nutrient pollution that need to be addressed. According to the preliminary burden sharing
arrangement between the countries, Sweden must reduce its nitrogen load by 21,000 tones/year and
phosphorus load by 290 tones/year until 2021. This must mainly be carried out in the Baltic Proper,
the Danish Straits and Kattegat (Naturvårdsverket, 2009, s. 11). This requirement was later revised in
2013, when the nitrogen load was reduced to 9,240 tones/year and the phosphorus load was increased
to 530 tones/year (HELCOM, 2013).The SEPA has together with the SwAM designed an action plan
to implement the goals of BSAP on a national level. Different national authorities have agreed to
develop necessary action plans relevant to their respective field of responsibility (Naturvårdsverket,
2009). The action plan is called Sweden's commitment in the BSAP, Proposal for a National Action
Plan (PNAP), (Naturvårdsverket, 2009).
The plan for the eutrophication segment in PNAP has been developed by three governmental agencies:
The SEPA, the Swedish Forest Agency and the Water Authorities. The SEPA has had the overall
responsibility of coordinating and evaluating the process (Naturvårdsverket, 2009, s. 3). Apart from
the wastewater plants the government agencies have identified 12 fields with respective subcategories
(E1-12) of proposed measures to limit eutrophication. Some of the titles are:
• municipal planning for surface water, creating wetlands
• prohibiting phosphates in detergents
• remedy nitrogen and phosphorus losses from agriculture
• structural changes in food production
• avoiding the spreading of manure next to lakes and streams
• plant dams for phosphorus separation
• regional redistribution of animal production
• reduce the nutrient load by growing mussels
Most of these plans for action are followed by titles such as “why” and “when” as well as cost and
financial calculations for each plan. A large part of these measures is already being funded by the
government or will receive funding in the future (Naturvårdsverket, 2009). There are application forms
for requesting grants from government agencies such as SwAM for different water projects. e.g.
22through the County Administrative Boards (CAB)s. Municipalities and associations can apply for
Local water management projects (LOVA) grant in order to improve the aquatic environment in lakes,
watercourses and coastal waters in the county. In 2020, 237 million SEK was distributed to the CABs,
which led to 362 new LOVA projects with promising results (www.havochvatten.se, 2021). There are
also grants for projects aimed at developing technologies for the treatment of wastewater from drug
residues and environmentally hazardous substances (www.havochvatten.se, 2018).
4.4 The Environmental Quality Goal “No Eutrophication”
Limiting eutrophication is a highly prioritized goal in Swedish environmental policy. On the 28th of
April in 1999, the Swedish parliament decided upon fifteen national EQGs for Sweden. The EQGs
constitute the basis for Sweden’s national environmental policy and they serve as a guide for the entire
society including authorities, CABs, municipalities as well as business community and other actors
(www.naturvardsverket.se, 2020). One of the environmental quality goals is defined as “no
eutrophication” where the parliament’s definition of the goal is "The levels of fertilizers in soil and
water should not have a negative impact on human health, conditions for biodiversity or the
possibilities for comprehensive use of soil and water" (www.naturvardsverket.se, 2021).
Nearly thirty Swedish authorities work in their respective field to reach the EQGs and every year
there is an annual follow up of the environmental goals, where the measures taken during the year are
presented in a report. Also, every fourth year there is an in-depth evaluation that presents the
possibilities of reaching the environmental quality goals. The latest one was presented in 2019
(www.naturvardsverket.se, 2020).
Unfortunately, the in-depth evaluation in 2012 concluded that it is not possible to achieve the EQG
“no eutrophication” with currently decided and planned instruments until 2020. This conclusion was
confirmed by 19 of the 21 CABs which made the same assessment (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten,
2013).
The SEPA has also confirmed this conclusion and stated that even though the measures to reduce
eutrophication has given results, the issue of eutrophication is still very extensive, particularly in the
central part of the Baltic Sea. Furthermore, SEPA points to the necessity of nitrogen and phosphorus
reduction and international cooperation (www.naturvardsverket.se, 2021).
SwAM has suggested five concrete measures for municipalities in their work to reach the EQG “no
eutrophication”:
• Conduct testing and supervision of activities that have emissions of nutrients, including small
sewers and agricultural activities, and
23• work to reduce emissions of nutrients from municipal treatment plants, connect more small
sewers to the municipal water supply network, and improve stormwater management. WS
planning in the municipalities is an issue that is necessary to work with in the long term
(www.sverigesmiljomal.se, 2017).
4.5 Environmental Monitoring Program in Blekinge
Since environmental problems do not recognize municipal, regional or national borders collaboration
across national, regional and municipal boarders is crucial. Environmental protection agreements and
environmental issues such as eutrophication of the Baltic sea is a multi-level governance issue which
is closely interconnected with neighboring municipalities, regions and countries and therefore it has a
transboundary nature. Thus, decision-making should also be of a transboundary character.
Consequently, the Swedish counties have regional environmental monitoring programs (EMP) which
monitor different environmental aspects . The aim of the EMPs is to follow up the EQGs that are
decided by the Swedish parliament and this is done by analyzing and following up the state of the
environment over time (www.lansstyrelsen.se). The monitoring includes fields such as air, forests,
agricultural land, wetlands, coast and sea etc. The main responsible authorities for the environmental
monitoring program are SEPA and SwAM. These authorities set up the main guidelines for the
monitoring program and the counties adjust their respective programs accordingly. Blekinge’s EMP is
therefore vital since the results form an important basis for the future municipal protective action plans
(www.lansstyrelsen.se/blekinge).
The monitoring program consequently consists of three vertical levels: national government agencies
(the SEPA and the SwAM), the CABs and the municipalities (fig. 5).
24Since the major environmental issue in Blekinge county is eutrophication of the coastal areas and the
sea, monitoring of the groundwater, surface water and the marine environment are prioritized in the
monitoring program (Länsstyrelsen i Blekinge län, 2014).
There are about 1,250 monitoring stations in Blekinge county (figure 6), and the SEPA is funding
Blekinge county with a budget of 750,000 SEK per year for regional environmental monitoring. This
is only 10 percent of the total budget for the county monitoring and the financiers are among others
water management associations, air management associations, municipalities, Natura 2000 and Action
programs for endangered species (Länsstyrelsen i Blekinge län, 2014). Regional environmental
Figure 5. The vertical levels of the EMP monitoring focuses on a large-scale regional environmental
conditions and the monitoring is then used as a base for both regional and municipal planning and
follow-up of environmental goals (Länsstyrelsen i Blekinge län, 2014, s. 11).
Figure 6. Around 1,250 environmental monitoring stations in Blekinge County
(Länsstyrelsen i Blekinge län, 2014).
Holiday and permanent residences south of Dalälven constitute 70 percent of the total SSTPs in
Sweden and municipalities have a major responsibility to make sure that the sewers meet the required
conditions in reducing nutrients with focus on phosphorus reduction (Naturvårdsverket, 2009, s. 22).
Similarly, the major problems and challenges related to eutrophication in Blekinge county is the need
25for SSTPs to connect to the PSF, and if this is not possible, make sure that the SSTPs meet the
appropriate conditions.
Municipal efforts have led to a reduction of nutrients from one thousand properties every year
(Länsstyrelsen Blekinge , 2018). Municipal action plans and their efficient implementation are crucial
in order to reach environmental goals (Rabe, 2017, s. 29).Therefore individual municipalities bear the
main responsibility when it comes to the concrete actions for reducing eutrophication.
Summary
Eutrophication is one of the most serious threats to the Baltic Sea marine environment. As the
country with the longest coastline as well as being member state of HELCOM, Sweden has a high
commitment in reducing the nutrient input and limiting the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. This is
done by international commitments e.g. the BSAP and national commitments e.g. EQGs. Sweden has
also various government agencies such as the SEPA, the SwAM that are continuously working
towards this goal through investigation, monitoring programs, proposals, action plans etc. These
efforts are also integrated at different scales considering the cooperation between national
environmental authorities, CABs and local authorities.
4.6 Public Sewage Facilities and Small Sewage Treatment Plants in Sweden
In this part information about PSFs and SSTPs in Sweden, the legislative framework related to both
of these facilities as well as the legislation that has led to both difficulties in replacing deficient SSTPs
in the country and to conflicts are provided.
4.6.1 Public Sewage Facilities in Sweden
In Sweden there are about 2,000 PSFs (www.naturvardsverket.se) and a total of 101,000 km of
drainage pipes that is equal to 2,5 times the circumference of the equator. The PSFs in Sweden are
treating a total of 1,5 billion cubic meters of wastewater every year (www.svensktvatten.se, 2016).
PSFs mainly take care of the wastewater from urban areas while properties in the rural areas as well
as permanent or leisure households in sparsely populated areas often have their own SSTP. The main
cause of eutrophication in lakes and watercourses is the emission of phosphorus from PSFs and the
industry. SSTP’s emissions of phosphorus come at second place (Naturvårdsverket, 2012). However,
26due to the upgrading of the Swedish PSFs and the higher purification in these facilities, the Swedish
emission of nutrients to water has decreased during the past 20 years (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten,
2013).
PSFs have been considered to be a better solution than the individual solutions (SSTPs) according to
case-law (www.svensktvatten.se, 2019). The Land and Environment Court of Appeal in Sweden has
concluded that a connection to a PSF is as a rule the most environmentally suitable solution
(www.havochvatten.se, 2017). According to statistics provided by the Central Bureau of Statistics
(CBS) and the SEPA in 2020, the total amount of emitted phosphorus from PSFs in 2018 was 270
tons. The amount of nitrogen was 15,000 tons, the biochemical oxygen-consuming material (BOC)
was 6,500 tons and the chemical oxygen consuming material (COCM) was 40,500 tons (www.scb.se,
2020). Even though the total amount of nutrients from PSFs has decreased during the past 10 years,
the amount of phosphorus and COCM have increased from 2016 to 2018 (figure 7).
Figure 7. The total emissions of nutrients and oxygen-consuming substances from PSFs in Sweden (SCB, 2020).
According to SEPA, PSFs constitute the largest emitter of nitrogen among point sources in Sweden
(figure 8). Emissions from point sources (sewage treatment plants, industries and fish farms) account
for about 14% of the total load of nitrogen on water. However, the total amount of phosphorus
emission from SSTPs is almost equal to the total amount of phosphorus emissions from PSFs (figure
9), (www.utslappisiffror.naturvardsverket.se 2020).
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