Implementing and sustaining problem-oriented policing - A guide
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Implementing and sustaining problem-oriented policing A guide
Contents
Foreword ……………………………………………………… 3
About this guide……………………………………………… 4
A primer on problem-oriented policing……………………… 5
The business case for problem-oriented policing ………… 6
Three conditions conducive to the successful
implementation of problem-oriented policing ……………… 7
Preparedness for problem-oriented policing:
a self-assessment tool……………………………………… 22
Relevant resources………………………………………… 25
How this guide was produced……………………………… 26
How to cite this guide ……………………………………… 26
Acknowledgements………………………………………… 26
Boxes
1. Opposition to POP... and how to respond……………… 11
2. When POP fades………………………………………… 12
3. Embedding POP: a case study………………………… 20
2Foreword
The police are often perceived as society’s safety net: constantly
accessible, largely free at the point of delivery, and able to tackle all
manner of crises. In recent years, spiralling demand coupled with
reducing resources has put the police under considerable strain.
To manage this challenge, whilst remaining true to a public service
ethos, we must work differently. To this end, the case for prevention
is compelling, both morally and economically as a means to reduce
harm and police demand. However, whilst practitioners and academics
worldwide find that a problem-solving methodology is an effective
way to deliver preventive policing, they also point out that systematic
implementation is difficult to achieve. What you will find in this
document is a summary of all that is known about establishing and
maintaining problem-solving within a police organisation. It provides
relevant and practical information to assist you to apply evidenced
based practice in pursuance of tangible gain in the public interest.
Stephen Watson QPM
Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police
and National Police Chiefs’ Council lead for Crime Prevention
3About this guide
The police have always solved problems. The range of problems the There is currently a resurgence of interest in POP in England and
police are expected to handle is immense, and increasingly so - from Wales. It is prominent across Home Office and National Police
exploitation and cybercrime to missing persons and metal theft. This Chiefs’ Council thinking. It features in the curricula for new entrants
guide is about police problem-solving. More specifically, it is about into policing. POP is core to the Policing Vision 2025, the College
implementing an organisational framework that puts problem-solving of Policing’s neighbourhood policing guidelines, Her Majesty’s
front and centre. The approach is called problem-oriented policing Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services inspection
(POP), proposed by Herman Goldstein in 1979. POP provides a process, and Her Majesty’s Government strategy on tackling
structured process for police problem-solving. It calls on the police serious and organised crime. ‘Reducing demand through effective,
to work with partners to devise permanent solutions to recurrent sustainable problem-solving’ is also a key deliverable in the 2015
sources of demand – or ‘problems’ – that affect the community. This National Policing Crime Prevention Strategy.
is what Goldstein viewed as the ‘substance of policing’.
This guide is about embedding POP in your organisation. It is
Readers of this guide will have likely heard of POP and problem- written primarily for senior officers and managers and is intended to
solving. It has a long history in England and Wales dating back to complement a sister guide on problem-solving in practice. This guide
the 1980s and Sir Kenneth Newman’s efforts to introduce POP is not a step-by-step manual - there is no single road to or recipe
into the Metropolitan Police. Many forces have since experimented for implementing POP. Instead, what follows is a review of what is
with POP; some have excelled, winning national and international known about implementing and sustaining POP, with recommended
recognition. Over the same period, research into POP has identified resources provided at the end. The guide has three parts. The first
two consistent findings. The first is that POP has been shown to be part outlines the core features of POP. The second part makes the
an effective means of reducing crime and police-related incidents, business case for POP as an operating model for contemporary
more so than many other police strategies. The second is that POP policing. The third part discusses three conditions conducive to the
can be challenging to implement and sustain. Thus, despite extensive successful implementation of POP – leadership, understanding and
evidence for and endorsement of POP, it has not become the modus infrastructure – and provides examples of good and poor practice.
operandi of British policing. The guide ends with a self-assessment tool to help you determine
your organisation’s readiness for and progress in implementing POP.
4A primer on POP and problem-solving
Herman Goldstein proposed POP in 1979. Through extensive Being problem-oriented required a systematic approach, later
fieldwork with police agencies in the United States, Goldstein came operationalised in the now-common SARA problem-solving model
to recognise the complex range of demands the police are expected (scanning, analysis, response and assessment). The SARA process
to handle, in an effective and equitable manner, often against a appears simple, but it is a marked departure from the standard police
backdrop of limited resources, intense scrutiny, and public and way of working. First, the police identify clusters of similar events
political interference. Reforms designed to improve policing were, affecting the community and ascertain the harm they cause. Second,
at the time, suffering what Goldstein termed the ‘means-over-ends’ they engage in structured efforts to better understand the underlying
syndrome. They were preoccupied with structure over substance, causes that generate these problems, using a wide range of relevant
focussing on issues such as the amalgamation of departments or the data, information sources and analytical techniques. Third, tailored
use of technology and training, rather than on how to deal effectively responses are put in place to reduce the presenting problems.
with police-relevant issues affecting the community. What was being These, according to Goldstein, should concentrate on prevention,
delivered was incident-driven policing, where calls for service were avoid dependency on the criminal justice system (i.e. arrest and
dealt with on a case-by-case basis using routine police tactics, prosecution), and involve partners who are affected by or responsible
typically rapid response and police patrols. These tactics generally for the problem, including the local community. Fourth, the impact of
produced only short-term effects, necessitating the police to return to implemented responses is assessed.
the same locations time and time again.
Goldstein envisaged that individual problem-solving efforts would
POP emerged as a reaction to reactive, one-size-fits all policing. help alleviate localised community problems. And, by systematically
It called on the police to focus their efforts not on responding to adhering to a problem-oriented approach, police agencies would
isolated events but on dealing with clusters of related incidents, develop a catalogue of evidence-based initiatives, which would both
what Goldstein defined as ‘problems’. POP put prevention first, demonstrate the value of and foster new ways of working. Forty
emphasising effectiveness over efficiency with success determined years on from Goldstein’s initial ideas, extensive research evidence
by the resolution of persistent problems. More broadly, POP shows POP to be effective, portable and widely applicable. Despite
represented a framework for improving police effectiveness. It this, the enduring obstacle to mainstreaming POP continues to be its
centred on the major purpose of policing – to deal effectively with implementation, the topic to which we turn after first laying out the
problems that arise in the community and fall within the broad police business case for POP.
remit.
5The business case for POP
Why should you consider adopting POP? POP reduces demand. POP was originally POP is good for morale. Those who
Here are six good reasons. conceived as a vehicle to reduce recurrent do problem-solving tend to enjoy it. It
sources of police demand. By focussing provides meaning to their work and accords
POP is effective. The College of Policing
attention on problems that generate repeat with why many enter policing. Evidence
cite problem-solving as ‘one of the best-
calls for service, sustainable resource suggests that problem solvers report higher
evidenced policing strategies’. An evidence
savings can be expected. levels of job satisfaction compared with
review by the Campbell Collaboration
response officers. Job satisfaction is in turn
found POP produced significant reductions POP fosters innovation. POP is a creative
associated with a positive police officer
in crime and disorder. There are also endeavour. It encourages practitioners
demeanour, well-being and commitment to
thousands of localised case studies to consider alternative ways in which
fairness and equality.
demonstrating POP to be effective in patterned problems might best be resolved,
tackling a diverse array of problems. Put emphasising non-enforcement options that
simply, in an era of evidence-based policing, engage and involve the public and affected
few approaches can boast as rigorous and partners. POP is thus sensitive to the ways
extensive an evidence base as POP. in which standardised, enforcement-only
responses can result in little long-term
POP is efficient. It provides a structured,
impact whilst also negatively affecting the
tried-and-tested process to determine
community.
the causes of persistent problems, with
analysis being undertaken only in so far as POP promotes public satisfaction.
it guides action, thereby minimising excess POP often involves working with partners.
time and money. Moreover, POP does not This can generate better community and
presuppose any one kind of intervention partner understanding of what the police
or tactic, but instead seeks to identify are realistically able to do when addressing
responses that are effective, sustainable and problems. It also explores what others may
suitable to the local context. If a number of need to do. Effective solutions are often co-
suitable solutions are suggested, POP would produced and delivered, leading to greater
favour the most cost-effective intervention. public satisfaction and confidence in the
police.
6Three conditions conducive to the successful implementation of problem-oriented policing
‘I have grown accustomed to viewing successful efforts to implement POP – when carried out in all of its full dimensions – as episodic rather than
systematic; as the results of relatively isolated cells of initiative, energy and competence. I view these pockets of achievement as exciting and
pointing the way but sprinkled among a vast sea of police operations that remain traditional and familiar.’
Herman Goldstein, 2018
Condition 1: Leadership Understand POP. Police leaders must Have a POP plan. Most efforts at police
understand POP. This amounts to more reform encounter challenges. Implementing
Create an enabling environment with a than knowing about or being aware of POP. POP is no different. Resistance rooted in
clear long-term vision and strategy for It is important that leaders appreciate that the prevailing police culture is common,
delivering POP in your organisation POP: (1) can accommodate the complexities and to be expected (see Box 1). A plan
and challenges of contemporary policing, for how you intend to implement POP is
Leadership and senior endorsement are
from serious crimes such as terrorism and therefore vital. Without a plan POP often
consistently identified as critical factors in
homicide to relatively minor nuisances flounders, confined to the enthusiastic
implementing POP. As police leaders, you
such as noise complaints and neighbour few in your organisation. In devising your
play a key role in embedding POP. This can
disputes, (2) is a long-term evidence- POP implementation plan, you should view
take two broad forms: (1) overseeing the
based organisational strategy able to implementation as a process rather than an
practical task of introducing, resourcing and
reduce persistent crime and disorder, and isolated event. Conducting an organisational
managing the shift to a problem-oriented
(3) provides the means more effectively audit when devising your implementation
way of working, and (2) cultivating an
to both control potential offenders and to plan is recommended. The self-assessment
environment in which staff are empowered
protect victims and crime-prone places. A tool on page 22 can help you do this,
and equipped to do effective problem-
thorough understanding of POP is needed and will allow you to better judge your
solving. Neither will happen overnight.
to recognise how the approach can be organisation’s readiness for POP and
Nor will they happen without senior officer
aligned with other police strategies (such as identify any obstacles that might influence
support. There are however several ways
intelligence-led or evidence-based policing) how it is implemented.
in which you as a police leader can set the
and, thus, helps guard against the risk of
stage for POP better to take root in your
wasting organisational effort by abandoning
organisation, as we describe in this section.
POP in favour of other approaches that
either: (1) cannot boast the same evidence-
base as POP or, (2) are already compatible
with POP.
7Decide on the penetration of POP. Is Choose a label and problem-solving Allocate resources in ways that support
POP to be embedded force-wide or in model. As senior officers you will be asked POP. Lack of time is cited as a major
specific departments? Problem-solving to name the approach you are advocating barrier to problem-solving. One reason
is most often observed in neighbourhood and endorse a specific model to make your why problem-solving is more commonly
(or community) policing teams. But its vision a reality. POP goes by numerous practiced by neighbourhood policing
application can be much broader; it is labels, including problem-solving policing teams is because their time tends to be
relevant in tackling serious and organised and problem-oriented partnerships. Whilst protected from requests to respond to
crime, public order incidents, road policing it is a matter for police services to decide calls for service. Allowing officers time to
and so on. When considering the planned on their chosen label, the original and most do problem-solving is crucial but clearly
penetration of POP within your organisation, common name is problem-oriented policing, challenging, especially in periods of
two general principles are important: (1) the as used in this guide. Whilst this label clearly austerity. To be able to effectively allocate
ability to assign ownership of (and therefore doesn’t indicate partner involvement, it resources to problem-solving, it is important
accountability for) identified problems, and should be highlighted that partnerships are that you can quantify the levels and sources
(2) empowering individuals to take ownership a common feature of effective problem- of demand in your organisation. A review
of problems, without having to always pass solving – resolving problems is not the of repeat calls and repeat victimisation is
decision making upwards. Often policing job of the police alone. Once decided on critical and, based on this information, you
problems are best addressed at the beat your label, you will then need to decide can then consider: (1) the method, timing
or district level, in an environment where on a problem-solving model to deliver and effectiveness of police responses to
decision-making authority and resources POP in practice. Based on the available calls for service across different types of
are delegated as close as possible to the evidence, we recommend SARA. Although incident, (2) whether specialised units are
presenting problem. However, for some not flawless, it is widely recognised in needed to tackle major sources of demand
more wide-scale problems, centralised skills policing, is easily understandable, readily across areas of police business, and (3)
and resources will need to be available in remembered, encompasses the main whether time-consuming processes and
centralised units. For those units the same factors necessary for effective problem- activities which add little value to problem-
principles of ownership and empowerment solving, and is the format that submissions solving could be streamlined. This latter
apply. to the Tilley and Goldstein awards must point relates to a concept known as ‘failure
adhere to. Although different problem- demand’ which is particularly problematic
solving models exist, there is merit in using for service organisations such as the
a common language, not least because it police. This occurs when an organisation
facilitates the spread of good practice. generates waste through ineffective and
inefficient internal practices. To combat this,
8you should routinely ask whether a priority, Get involved. Promoting your problem-solving ‘failures’ should be viewed
system or process is making a significant implementation plan is but one form of as a way of learning lessons – not something
contribution to reducing persistent commitment. Another is by playing an active to bury under the carpet. This perspective
problems. If not, can it be adapted or role in the problem-solving process. As has parallels with the way engineers view
abandoned? a senior leader you can do this in several ‘failure’: as a chance to figure out what
ways: by identifying strategic problems, happened with a view to preventing it
Recognise the organisational culture:
forging alliances with researchers to from happening again. An unwillingness to
commit and be faithful to POP. POP
assist in problem-solving efforts, working acknowledge ineffective problem-solving is
flourishes when those who are expected
with partner agencies to share data and counterproductive; it acts as a deterrent to
to do problem-solving understand and buy
intelligence, and being the figurehead for doing problem-solving, stifles innovation and
into a shared vision. Thus, once your POP
problem-solving when engaging with the gets in the way of learning lessons.
plan has been agreed, the senior executives
public. A particularly important role for
in your organisation should commit to and Think about your legacy from the start
senior officers relates to leveraging relevant
live by that plan, relentlessly communicating and avoid complacency. Commitment to
partners to take part in, contribute resources
it throughout the organisation. Achieving POP is sometimes fleeting (see Box 2). A
to and help resolve problems. Involvement
mass buy-in will not be easy, as research decline is often precipitated by the departure
in problem-solving will likely enhance your
shows the organisational culture of the of those who once promoted and practiced
understanding of POP, and your credibility
police is resistant to change, typically problem-solving. Identifying future leaders
as an advocate for it.
valuing enforcement over prevention. To who are proficient in problem-solving and
overcome this your chosen vision should Support your problem-solvers. POP is capable of driving forward a problem-
focus squarely on the outcomes of policing not conventional police work. It calls for a solving agenda can help ensure continuity in
not its internal workings. It should provide different way of working, requires innovation your organisation. Likewise, new employees
an unwavering focus on the impact of police and challenges taken-for-granted police as well as partners and the public should be
(and partner) efforts in tackling recurrent tactics. Moreover, not all efforts at problem- made aware that your organisation values
sources of demand and associated harms. solving will be successful. The problems problem-solving – it is part and parcel of
Never lose sight of this; it will prevent POP with which the police have to contend are what you do. This commitment to problem-
from being reduced to superficial rhetoric. too dynamic and multifaceted for everything solving should be emphasised in your
to work every time. As leaders, you must infrastructure and organisational materials –
support problem-solvers in being creative, and repeatedly so. Alignment with the Police
recognising that even well-intentioned and and Crime Plan of the Police and Crime
well-executed projects can sometimes fail Commissioner is also desirable. It is often
to produce the desired results. Crucially, the case that as the infrastructure for POP
9develops the process for doing problem-
solving becomes more proficient. However,
history shows that structures to support
POP often wither where sustained senior
support is lacking. Maintain your interest
– there are always new problems and new
ways of solving them.
Demand high standards of problem-
solving. Despite strong evidence on the
effectiveness of POP, research also shows
serial weaknesses in the problem-solving
process. A tendency to jump to a response
and limited analysis and assessment are
common. When trying to embed POP,
routine reality testing is vital. Indeed, police
forces with a successful track record of
doing POP often monitor whether what
was being done in an operational situation
matched expectation. Pay close attention
to whether what is being promised is being
delivered on the ground. Where it isn’t,
and where standard ways of working are
being passed off as problem-solving, call
it out; rehearse the principles, process and
purpose of POP; and take corrective action
in the interests of continual improvement.
10Box 1: Opposition to POP …. and ways of responding
Opposition Response POP is too POP is a departure from traditional ways of police working.
demanding It sometimes requires a different set of skills than are usually
POP won’t POP has been implemented in diverse settings both in the
taught in police training. That said, POP is designed to equip
work here UK and internationally. It has been shown to be effective in
the police to be better able to reduce repeat demands.
city and rural locations.
Studies show officers prefer this type of work when they are
POP is a fad Although the name might vary – ‘problem-oriented policing’, supported in its approach.
- “been there ‘problem-oriented partnerships’, ‘problem-solving’ – the core
POP is ‘old The opposite is true. In an increasingly virtual world where
done that” ideas that underpin POP have been advocated and applied
hat’ and crimes are committed online by offenders who live in
for forty years, to a greater degree and for a longer period
incompatible different countries it is important to prevent such crimes.
than most other approaches to policing.
with modern POP offers a methodology to do that. Problem-solving is a
Embracing Responding to calls for service is a primary function of the police priorities way of thinking. In this sense it is perpetually relevant.
POP means we police. POP acknowledges this – responsive policing and
POP is EBP by POP and EBP are highly compatible. Both are concerned
won’t be able to POP usually work in tandem. However, POP assumes that
another name with how the police respond to demand. Both recognise
respond to calls there is a more effective way to deal with persistent problems
the importance of drawing on research evidence (as well
for service than to keep responding to the same incident time and time
as experience and professional judgement) to inform police
again. In POP, responding to a call for service is the first step
decision making. But EBP is the newer kid on the block,
in working out and delivering permanent solutions.
and in our view should be incorporated into the overall POP
POP is “soft” This criticism speaks to the stereotypical view of community process particularly to provide direction in the assessment of
- it gets in the policing which is commonly associated with problem- chosen responses. This marriage would therefore maintain
way of real solving. However, POP has successfully been applied to a the problem-centric, partnership and innovation-focus that is
police work wide range of crime types including youth homicide, armed characteristic of POP.
robbery and child sexual exploitation. Moreover, there is
POP takes too Shifting to a force-wide problem-oriented way of working
no single POP response – responses are selected on the
long to produce can take time. However, practicing problem-solving can
basis of a thorough analysis of the presenting problem and
results start today, and the benefits of adopting a problem-solving
understanding the local context.
approach to deal with specific problems can be immediate.
POP is too A problem-orientation costs nothing. It is a mindset for Success in the latter builds momentum for and facilitates the
expensive how the police operate. Whilst it is true that mainstreaming former.
– “it’s a POP requires investments in infrastructure and training, on
POP isn’t Some of the best problem-solving projects have been
luxury not a this point the evidence on the effectiveness of POP is clear
relevant to me – delivered by detectives. Their knowledge of how crimes
necessity” - savings made in crimes averted should make POP self-
I’m a detective are committed, even when not detected, is invaluable in
sustaining.
understanding crime patterns and devising preventive
strategies.
11Box 2: When POP fades
POP has proven precarious. Here are some of the main threats to the longer-term
wellbeing of POP, with suggestions for what you might do to mitigate them.
Threats Suggestions for mitigation Threats Suggestions for mitigation
Change in leadership Choose leadership staff who are committed to Lack of POP training/ Make sure all new recruits are inducted into POP.
philosophy and and understand POP, make clear that POP is a CPD for new recruits/ Include POP in CPD training events. Provide regular
priorities requirement, and check they are delivering on their existing staff refreshers to all staff and relevant partners.
commitment.
Diversion of POP Tempting in periods of austerity but resist because
Failure to celebrate/ Use annual conferences, commendations, resources to incident ultimately it is counterproductive.
reward POP successes promotions, emails, news releases, appraisals, responses and
and formal and informal meetings to elicit, show an detection
interest in and reinforce POP efforts to staff, partners
Bureaucratisation of Minimise bureaucratic requirements and form-
and the community.
POP discouraging staff filling and make POP as user-friendly as possible.
Supersession by new Take what is of value in new policing innovations and from enthusiastic and Encourage creativity and allow for innovation.
policing innovations incorporate them into POP. innovative POP
Confinement of POP Ask all officers and staff about their contribution to Complacency over Always ask about improvement and about new
to a few specialist POP in meetings, performance reviews etc. performance and demands when discussing POP.
enthusiasts in a few problem-solving
specialist departments
Cynicism of POP Listen to their gripes but remain firm to your
Transfer of key POP Welcome their contributions to POP in their new and subversion by vision. Make sure they know that their approach is
staff to other parts of roles and ensure that replacements maintain the unsympathetic staff unacceptable.
the organisation established problem-oriented ways of working.
Political priorities Don’t take it lying down. Argue the case, present the
Loss of problem- Prioritise analytic services for POP and/or build inconsistent with POP evidence, pull levers.
solving analytic capacity for analysis across the service.
capacity
12Leadership and problem-oriented policing
Good practice Poor practice
3S
enior leaders hold workshops with all staff and relevant partners to 7S
taff and partners are unaware of, unclear about, and/or fail to buy into the
articulate the agreed-upon vision for POP and invite challenge. POP strategy.
3S
enior leaders understand POP and act as mentors to those doing 7S
enior leaders do not understand POP. Policing-as-usual continues albeit
problem-solving, including front line staff, openly enquiring about and under the guise of problem-solving. New policing fashions and innovations
congratulating staff on specific problem-solving initiatives. are allowed to displace evidence-based approaches such as POP.
3S
enior leaders actively support and continually promote problem-solving, 7S
enior leaders continue to support new initiatives without any assessment
showing how small wins on local problems (e.g. shoplifting at a particular as to their impact, potentially generating wasted organisational effort.
store or disorder at a licensed premise) can be scaled-up to address much
wider areas. 7 L eaders show no interest in engaging with or challenging the public
or partners. Partner relations exist but only at a superficial level for
3S
enior leaders fully engage with the public and partner agencies in the partnerships sake – they are neither linked to specific problems nor to
interests of resolving identified problems, applying leverage to encourage operational outcomes.
partner involvement where necessary.
7S
taff are not empowered and need constantly to refer interventions to
3S
taff are supported when problem-solving, even when sound projects do supervisors for approval. Staff fears about not being supported should the
not produce the sought-after outcomes. Creativity is fostered. intervention fail, deter them from adopting more creative solutions. Policing-
as-usual ensues.
3C
orporate literature, such as organisational strategy, plans, and policies
explain POP in simple terms and highlight its importance to day-to-day 7 There is no mention of POP in corporate strategy or plans.
business.
7 T here are no checks on whether planned and promised activities match
3B
aselines are established of the extent and quality of problem-solving in what happens in an operational situation. Much is done in the name of
practice. Good problem-solving is celebrated. Standard ways of working problem-solving that bears little resemblance to problem-solving as
being passed off as problem-solving are called out and challenged. originally conceived.
13Condition 2: develop staff to understand and implement the concept
Invest in and support staff to do effective in training?), (2) Will training be general or standalone training sessions of any kind
problem-solving tailored, focussing on specific problems are unlikely to produce the sought-after
(such as robbery) or specific areas of shift to sustained problem-oriented ways
Promoting POP is only part of the
police business (such as safeguarding)?, of working. In an effort to embed POP,
implementation process. Successfully
and (3) who will deliver the training? Given initial training should be coupled with
embedding and sustaining POP requires
the common resistance to POP, trainers follow-up activities designed to cement,
staff who are sufficiently knowledgeable,
must have credibility in the subject. In refresh and advance skills and knowledge.
skilled and motivated to break away from
some forces in a bid to ensure officer These activities could include: (1) routine
traditional ways of working and engage in
buy-in, training has been delivered by a refresher sessions and masterclasses, and
problem-solving. Training and supervision
combination of police staff and operational (2) bespoke training sessions informed by
are hence crucial. Without them, there is a
personnel. The Learning and Development assessments of current problem-solving
tendency to revert to policing-as-usual.
interim practice advice on problem-solving, activities in your organisation. For example,
How and who to train? Training in POP published by the College of Policing in if a review of recent problem-solving
usually takes one of four forms: (1) online support of the Problem Solving and Demand projects identified weaknesses in, say,
courses using a force intranet system, (2) Reduction Programme provides further assessment or partnership working, then
residential training delivered by an in-force information on training. tailored training sessions can be devised to
problem-solving expert, (3) residential remedy observed deficiencies.
One-off training sessions are unlikely
training delivered by outside experts, and
to produce lasting change. Decades Involve experts and invite critique. There
(4) stretched courses, typically facilitated
of psychological research indicates that is a large research literature on POP. The
by outside experts, which intersperse
bursts of training can have positive effects evidence base comprises several thousand
classroom input with gaps for operational
on attitudes but rarely give rise to lasting localised problem-solving projects and
practice. You will need to decide what
changes in behaviour. In relation to POP, is growing. To sharpen the problem-
type(s) of training works best for your
many existing police personnel will at some solving skills and knowledge within your
organisation. Considerations include: (1)
point have received training on problem- organisation, consider forging strategic
Who to train? This should be consistent with
solving. All new recruits will, since problem- relationships with relevant universities
your POP implementation plan, in terms of
solving is now included in the curriculum and inviting outside experts to report on
who in your organisation receives training
for different entry routes into policing. the latest developments in POP. Local
and when (for example are all staff to be
While some degree of up-front training is academics can usefully act as ‘critical
trained or just some? Will relevant partners
necessary to introduce the core principles friends’ appraising and contributing to
contribute to and/or participate
and practices of problem-solving, one-off the problem-solving going on in your
14organisation – many academics will be Align continuing professional award system can help showcase problem-
flattered by the invitation. development with POP. All staff have a solving efforts and ensure problem solvers
responsibility for continuing professional receive formal recognition. Many police
Establish a network of POP champions
development. Your organisation should forces in England and Wales now hold such
and cultivate peer support. Research
consider how easy it is for your staff to conferences. In addition, award systems
shows that people are responsive to advice
improve their problem-solving knowledge (e.g. Chief Constable commendations)
provided by peers whom they respect.
and skills. This can include access to good should incorporate problem-solving.
Within your organisation, there will be
practice databases, publications, POP Finally, individuals should be aware that
individuals with an aptitude for or skills
champions, POP conferences and wider problem-solving is a key competency for
in problem-solving. Consider formally
Higher Education programmes. A list of your organisation. Unless they understand
recognising them as ‘POP champions’;
relevant resources is presented at the end of and engage in this process, they will not be
they can help your vision spread and stick.
this guide. selected into specialist roles or be asked to
Assign them responsibility for assisting and
lead others.
mentoring other problem-solvers, identifying Sustain POP through recognition and
and collating good practice, engaging with rewards. All police forces contain natural
partners and the public, and delivering problem solvers. These individuals exhibit
training. Beyond your organisation, there the habits of thinking set out formally in
are regional problem-solving networks to problem-solving models such as SARA.
exchange ideas and insights. The various Yet not all problem solvers are visible in all
problem-solving groups present on the police forces, nor are they supported. POP
online Knowledge Hub serve a similar withers when effective problem-solving is
purpose. hidden from view and not celebrated. Staff
are much more capable of committing and
adding value to POP when they know the
organisation both values and rewards the
approach. Sustaining POP thus requires that
measures be put in place to recognise and
reward effective problem-solving, thereby
elevating its status across the organisation
and promoting organisational learning.
Annual POP conferences where staff (and
non-police partners) engage in a competitive
15Developing staff to understand problem-oriented policing
Good practice Poor practice
3P
OP training is provided for all staff (and relevant partners). Generic training 7 T raining on POP is limited, disconnected from the force vision and makes
is buttressed by bespoke training for specialist areas of police business. no reference to wider skills. It focusses only on the delivery of knowledge
Refreshers and masterclasses are delivered by senior leaders and and there is no acknowledgment of the skills/ challenges associated with
outside experts. Creative ways are sought to fund training, such as from implementing POP. Those who deliver training are inexperienced, uninspiring
investments by partner agencies or by using funds secured through the and uncommitted.
Proceeds of Crime Act.
7S
taff receive training in POP but then are returned to roles where there is
3S
taff receive training in POP and provisions are put in place for them to no scope for or expectation of doing problem-solving. Enthusiasm for and
apply what they have learnt in their daily activities. willingness to carry out problem-solving thus fades.
3A
network of POP champions is created. These champions are tasked 7 T here are no POP champions. Those experimenting with the approach are
with and expected to promote problem-solving and coach those doing it, unsure who to turn to for support and guidance.
engaging with their counterparts in other forces through regional problem-
solving networks, the Knowledge Hub and related events. 7E
ngagement with external researchers and practitioners in the interests of
improving POP is minimal and actively discouraged. Critique is automatically
3E
xternal researchers and practitioners regularly visit to report on POP- challenged. Defensiveness prevails. Academics are viewed with scepticism
relevant developments and experiences. Critical comments are welcomed. and deemed to be of little value to police improvement.
Strategic relationships with universities are established. Processes and
protocols are in place both to discuss promising avenues for research but 7 T here are no formal mechanisms to recognise and reward good problem-
also to share data. solving. Problem-solving that is happening is largely hidden from view.
3A
n annual award ceremony is held which invites staff to present and listen 7W
hilst POP may be mentioned, an audit of awards and promotions shows
to other problem-solving practitioners. no change in practice in relation to rewarding problem-solving initiatives. It is
not mentioned in any promotion processes.
3 In promotion interviews applicants are asked for evidence of their
involvement in problem-solving initiatives to show their understanding of
and commitment to the approach.
16Condition 3: Infrastructure
Put structures in place to support, in your organisation can do the following problem-oriented organisation. Ask whether
manage and sustain effective problem- elements of the problem-solving process. data are collected and accessible in ways
solving that are amenable to analysis? For example,
Scanning (the identification and
are important data missing and do partners
Senior endorsement, training and prioritisation of problems): Is information
hold relevant data that can improve your
supervision are all critical steps in the readily available and accessible so that
understanding of identified problems? Are
implementation of POP, but a supportive staff can identify the frequency and nature
analysts available to do effective analysis?
infrastructure also needs to be in place of persistent problems, as well as the
Do staff know how to examine a problem
for POP to stick, spread and survive. A harms they generate, be the problem
and understand its underlying causes, rather
supportive infrastructure can take various related to victims, offenders or places? Can
than just describe its symptoms?
forms depending on the scale of planned officers assess information to help define
implementation and the resources that are problems precisely so that analyses and Response (choosing the most effective,
already in place. Here, we consider two responses can be suitably targeted? Are efficient and sustainable solutions): Are
broad categories of infrastructure. The first communication channels open so frontline staff able to find information on previous
category relates to resources and processes officers can inform their seniors (as well as efforts in your organisation to tackle
relevant to doing problem-solving. The neighbourhood groups and partners) about the problem of interest? Were lessons
second category relates to the management identified problems? learned, and documented, that can usefully
and assessment of problem-solving in inform future responses? Do staff know
Analysis (determining the underlying
your organisation. Both are important for where to find evidence from outside
causes of problems): A common weakness
ensuring high-quality sustainable POP. In your organisation on the effectiveness
of analysis is that it fails to identify the
this section we discuss each category in of interventions targeted at the problem
underlying causes of presenting problems.
turn. of interest? Evidence here is considered
Analysis is descriptive rather than
broadly, to include information on the effect
Resources and processes relevant to explanatory – indicating that there is a
of an intervention but also challenges
problem-solving. SARA provides a useful hotspot as opposed to identifying what it is
of implementation, legitimacy and cost-
framework to determine whether your that give rises to a hotspot. As leaders you
effectiveness. The resources listed at the
existing infrastructure is sufficient to support should ask how staff in your organisation are
end of the guide can help here.
effective problem-solving, and where developed to understand analysis, as well
improvements might be made. You should as the tools and processes that are in place
consider the ease with which individuals to support it. The development of specialist
analysts should be a key feature of a
17Response (Identify and involve partners): or persuade third parties to act in ways and quality of problem-solving taking place
Partnership working is a common feature of expected to reduce identified problems. in your organisation can provide insights
POP. As a police leader, you have a critical into necessary adaptations and refinements,
Assessment: Organisations should value
role to play in problem-oriented partnership or where increased energy might usefully
and develop their ability to conduct
working. First, you should look to cultivate be focussed in the interests of continual
assessments. Ask whether data are
an environment in which staff feel supported improvement. Third, a POP management
collected and accessible in ways that are
in forging relationships with those who can system creates organisational memory.
amenable to evaluating responses put in
control or change the conditions that give This helps avoid the need to start afresh
place. Question whether staff are available
rise to persistent problems. Part of this should commitment to POP decline over
and competent to perform assessments of
involves emphasising that partnerships be time. Police systems typically outstay police
efforts to reduce selected problems. More
tailored according to the analysis of the leaders, and so having an IT system that can
broadly, ask whether your organisation
presenting problem, rather than to sustain support POP can both promote a problem-
values and recognises the importance of
interpersonal relationships. It should be orientation and ensure continuity.
assessment as a means of learning lessons.
expected that supervisory and line staff
Managing projects. Change following
actively manage external partnerships as Management and assessment of
investments in POP is much easier to
core business. Second, agreements should problem-solving activity. Once your
identify if there is an effective POP project
be in place for what and how data and POP plan is in place and problem-solving
management system. Such a system
information can be shared across partners. is underway, it is important to be able to
would be designed to keep track of,
Third, it is important that partners (citizens, record, monitor and assess what is being
coordinate, and document POP work. It
businesses, public sector, voluntary sector, done and to what effect. There are three
would assign responsibility for addressing
criminal justice agencies, elected and main reasons for this. First, standard
problems on a project-by-project basis
appointed government officials, research performance measures such as the
to particular individuals and / or teams,
organisations, and the mass media) number of arrests or response times are
thereby avoiding duplication of efforts and
understand and value POP, hence the inadequate indicators of the quality and
providing continuity across problem solvers.
recommendation to include key partners in impact of problem-oriented work. Focus
As problem-solving projects accumulate,
relevant POP training sessions. Finally, not instead should remain firmly on whether the
it would provide a mechanism to cascade
all partners play ball all of the time. Whilst harm and demand associated with specific
learning, create networks of problem solvers
POP explicitly calls for the police to shift and problems has reduced because of your
with shared interests and experiences and
share responsibility with relevant parties, problem-solving activities. Monitoring levels
identify suitable POP champions. Such a
where appropriate, at times police leaders of repeat victimisation (people and places) is
project management system could also
may be required to encourage, cajole extremely important in this regard. Second,
provide evidence to persuade key decision-
routine assessments of the extent, nature
18makers to agree with a recommended Managing people. If problem-solving
response and reward officers for their is viewed as core to the organisation
efforts. As above, it also helps develop then, wherever possible, this problem-
organisational memory, which can provide solving orientation should be reinforced
a legacy for those going forward. Indeed, individually and examined (to assist in
documenting POP projects enables an reward or development). An obvious
agency to learn from past efforts when mechanism to achieve this is through the
addressing similar problems in the future. staff appraisal process. Problem-solving
related activities could feature as part of
A POP project-management system
an employee’s annual priorities against
should be in place that can, at a minimum,
which their performance is judged. To
record: (1) the nature of the problem, (2) the
facilitate this, you could consider setting
individuals and units responsible for dealing
problem-solving objectives to align with the
with the problem, (3) a unique project
SMART principles of Specific, Measurable,
identifier, (4) the dates the project was
Achievable, Relevant and Timely.
opened and closed, and (5) the summary
status of the project. Project management Managing teams. Team-based police
systems should focus on quality rather than performance management systems
quantity of information. It is important to generally take place at monthly or quarterly
keep bureaucracy to a minimum as this can intervals. Compstat is a well-known
hinder problem-solving or reward short-term example from the US of a team-based
activity that does not generate sustainable police performance management process.
responses. However, a traditional Compstat-like review
predominantly relies on police reports
and short-term enforcement activity. A
problem-solving team review needs to be
more probing, focussed on identifying the
underlying causes of recurring problems,
tailored evidence-based interventions,
and evaluating selected interventions for
impact and lessons to usefully inform future
problem-solving efforts.
19Box 3: Embedding POP: a case study
There is no single strategy for implementing problem-oriented policing. Indeed, what works in one setting might not work elsewhere. In this box, we list
some of the ways in which one police service, which uses POP as their central operating philosophy, tried to embed the approach.
Consistent and relentless senior endorsement Encouragement to collaborate with outside experts facilitated through
close links and data sharing agreements with universities and
The mantra, ‘You come to work to solve problems’, is applied to the academic researchers
entire organisation
Those dismissive of or seeking to derail the implementation of POP are
POP-related questions feature in all promotion processes listened to but challenged
Staff recruited and inducted into the organisation with POP in mind Time is ring-fenced for officers to problem solve
Internal POP awards and annual conference recognise and celebrate Staff are expected to work in an area for as long as possible in order to
success facilitate effective problem-solving; routine movement of people is
discouraged
ecords kept of all POP projects using purpose-built, accessible
R
management tools Problem-solving goes on simultaneously at regional/ force/ and local
levels using independent evaluations when necessary
Quality of existing and ongoing POP projects routinely checked to
identify weaknesses and take corrective action Bureaucracy is kept to a minimum: fewer meetings, less paperwork,
more action
Problem-solving that falls short of expected standards is challenged
Innovation specifically encouraged
All staff trained in problem-solving with annual refreshers and
masterclasses delivered by senior leaders Authority to take risks and act independently and creatively is
encouraged across the constabulary
Investment in people: staff are expected, equipped and empowered to
do effective problem-solving
20Infrastructure and problem-oriented policing
Good practice Poor practice
3D
emand is understood. Existing data infrastructure is assessed in terms of 7 L ittle is done to determine if current data infrastructure can and does play in
its contribution, realised or potential, to problem-solving. role in advancing problem-solving.
3S
enior Officers conduct performance reviews which are underpinned by in- 7N
o systematic process for performance review is followed, and a poor
depth analysis and challenge using the SARA process on a quarterly basis. level of information is available. Performance reviews focus on short-term
Action plans are revisited at the following quarterly performance review to problems and generate short-term activity (e.g. high visibility patrols).
establish if the approach was implemented and whether it had the desired
impact. 7 L imited and inadequate resources are in place to support POP. Problems
are identified subjectively by staff and more challenging problems are
3 IT systems are in place to store, track and make accessible problem- ignored. IT systems are difficult to engage with for the purposes of problem-
solving initiatives. Systems also provide information around repeat victims, solving. Problem solvers are provided little guidance on where relevant
offenders and locations. These are routinely passed to staff members who information can be located. Analysis and assessment is left to frontline
have responsibility for the location or theme and managers prioritise those officers to do in their spare time.
which require action.
21Preparedness for problem-oriented policing: a self-assessment tool
The checklist below is our attempt to distil the material covered in this guide into an easy-to-use self-assessment tool. Answering each question
will allow you to better determine your organisation’s readiness for and progress in implementing POP. Questions are organised according to the
three conditions which structure this guide: leadership, developing staff to understand and implement POP, and infrastructure. Each question
should be answered using a 5 point scale where 1 = not developed and 5 = fully developed, thereby generating a total score between 25 - 125.
Routine assessments using this tool can help you determine change over time as well as aspects of the implementation process that require
additional attention.
Leadership Scale 5 Have senior officers communicated to staff the
1 (not dev) – proposed changes in relation to POP and the
5 (fully dev). reasons for them? Has staff feedback/reaction been
1 Do senior officers in your organisation have a captured and considered?
comprehensive and agreed understanding of the 6 Have senior officers agreed on the level and
principles, practice and purpose of POP? allocation of resources needed to support the
2 Is there an organisational vision for POP? Do senior POP vision? Is this accounted for in your POP
officers know and buy into it? implementation plan?
3 Is there an implementation plan to make the POP 7 Do senior officers consistently and visibly show their
vision a reality? If so, is it aligned with other strategic commitment to POP?
documents in your organisation and those of the 8 Do senior officers engage in problem-solving at a
Police and Crime Commissioner, where relevant? strategic level?
And, does the implementation plan set attainable
goals and specify the sought-after speed and level 9 Are processes in place in your organisation to
of change (i.e. whether to implement POP force- identify future leaders of and advocates for POP?
wide or (initially) in specialist departments)? 10 Has a problem-solving model been chosen (e.g.
4 Has an organisational audit been conducted – SARA)?
using a tool such as this – to establish a baseline 11 Are staff empowered and supported to make
of problem-solving against which change can be decisions when working on problem-solving
assessed (including an assessment of the level of initiatives?
support for/opposition to change)?
22Develop staff to understand and implement the Scale Infrastructure Scale
concept 1 (not dev) – 1 (not dev) –
5 (fully dev). 5 (fully dev).
12 Do staff know their roles and responsibilities in a 18 Are systems and processes in place to readily
problem-oriented organisation (e.g. supervisors, identify and prioritise suitable recurring problems?
patrol officers, detectives, call-handling staff, and
19 Are appropriate resources and skills in place to
support staff)?
effectively analyse identified problems?
13 Have staff received appropriate training in POP in
20 Is there a focus on managing demand? Are
accordance with the speed and spread of your POP
processes being developed which resolve demand
implementation plan? Does this training emphasise
at the earliest opportunity? Is there an emphasis
the importance of identifying and engaging with
on facilitating time/resources/support for officers to
partners?
engage in problem-solving?
14 Do you have a system in place to mentor and
21 Is problem-oriented partnership working valued and
support problem solvers? Do you have a network of
routinely cultivated within your organisation?
POP champions?
22 Does your organisation routinely assess the quality
15 Do you have systems within your organisation to
and impact of problem-solving initiatives, and take
identify and reward good problem-solving/ers?
corrective action if necessary?
16 Are internal selection procedures in place to
23 Do you have a POP project-management system
highlight the importance of problem-solving for
accessible to all staff where problem-solving
specialist posts and for promotion candidates?
projects are stored and monitored?
17 Does your recruitment process advertise and
24 Do you have a suitable accountability structure
sustain a POP philosophy? Has the recruitment
to identify those who are dealing with identified
process been reviewed so new applicants know
problems and to review problem-solving
that they are applying to a problem-oriented
performance against your expectations?
organisation, what this means, and that they will be
assessed on this competency? 25 Would an audit of your organisation conclude that
you have made POP a part of your legacy? Can
you identify embedded POP-promoting systems or
processes that would continue should the current
senior leadership team move on?
23You can also read
